Antarctican: Difference between revisions

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(Polar Questions)
(Other interrogatives)
Line 3,180: Line 3,180:
===Negation===
===Negation===


Negation in Antarctican is achieved by using one of two particles, no /nɔ/ and nay /nai/.
Negation in Antarctican is achieved by using one of two particles, no /nɔ/ (known as general negation) and nay /nai/ (known as specific negation).


====The Particle no /nɔ/====
====The Particle no /nɔ/ (General Negation)====


The normal way to negate a sentence is to put this immediately before the verb e.g.
The normal way to negate a sentence is to put this immediately before the verb e.g.
Line 3,204: Line 3,204:
| sɔudɮaɴ || nɔ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| sɔudɮaɴ || nɔ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| soldier-ERG || NEG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| soldier-ERG || NEG.GEN || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
|}
Soldiers aren't hunting frogs.
Soldiers aren't hunting frogs.
Line 3,218: Line 3,218:
| sɔudɮaɴ || nɔ || ʔamelɛicu || wɨɦʁuɦ
| sɔudɮaɴ || nɔ || ʔamelɛicu || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| soldier-ERG || NEG || hunt.VFCS || frog.ABS
| soldier-ERG || NEG.GEN || hunt.VFCS || frog.ABS
|}
|}
Soldiers aren't hunting frogs.
Soldiers aren't hunting frogs.
Line 3,232: Line 3,232:
| nɔ || sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| nɔ || sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| NEG || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| NEG.GEN || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
|}
''Soldiers'' aren't hunting frogs (but someone else is).
''Soldiers'' aren't hunting frogs (but someone else is).
Line 3,243: Line 3,243:
| sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || nɔ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || nɔ || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || NEG || frog.ABS
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || NEG.GEN || frog.ABS
|}
|}
Soldiers aren't hunting ''frogs'' (but they are hunting something else).
Soldiers aren't hunting ''frogs'' (but they are hunting something else).
Line 3,256: Line 3,256:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| no || sowdla || amielaykùe || wùerù
| no.GEN || sowdla || amielaykùe || wùerù
|-
|-
| nɔ || sɔudɮa || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| nɔ || sɔudɮa || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| NEG || soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| NEG.GEN || soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
|}




====The Particle nay /nai/====
====The Particle nay /nai/ (Specific Negation)====


This is always placed after a verb, which must be in the verb-focus form. It is used for negation with emphasis on the verb e.g.
This is always placed after a verb, which must be in the verb-focus form. It is used for negation with emphasis on the verb e.g.
Line 3,275: Line 3,275:
| sɔudɮa || ʔamelɛicu || nai || wɨɦʁuɦ
| sɔudɮa || ʔamelɛicu || nai || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| soldier.ABS || hunt.VFCS || NEG || frog.ABS
| soldier.ABS || hunt.VFCS || NEG.SPFC|| frog.ABS
|}
|}
Soldiers aren't ''hunting'' frogs (but they are doing something else to them).
Soldiers aren't ''hunting'' frogs (but they are doing something else to them).
Line 3,300: Line 3,300:
| wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ || nai || ʁɘɦdɮa
| wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ || nai || ʁɘɦdɮa
|-
|-
| frog.ABS || die.VFCS || NEG || red.VFCS
| frog.ABS || die.VFCS || NEG.SPFC || red.VFCS
|}
|}
The frog, which didn't die, was red.
The frog, which didn't die, was red.
Line 3,325: Line 3,325:
| sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || ʁɘɦdɮa || nai
| sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || ʁɘɦdɮa || nai
|-
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS || NEG
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS || NEG.SPFC
|}
|}
Soldiers aren't hunting ''red'' frogs (maybe they're hunting another colour).
Soldiers aren't hunting ''red'' frogs (maybe they're hunting another colour).
Line 3,332: Line 3,332:
===Polar Questions===
===Polar Questions===


A Yes/No question is formed by using either the particle du /du/, or /ka/ /ka/. The usage of these very closely parallels the /no/ and /nai/ negative particles.
A Yes/No question is formed by using either the particle du /du/, or /ka/ /ka/. These are known as the general and specific interrogatives respectively, and the usage of them very closely parallels the /no/ and /nai/ negative particles.




====The Particle du====
====The Particle du (General Interrogative)====


The normal way to ask a polar question is to put this immediately before the verb e.g.
The normal way to ask a polar question is to put this immediately before the verb e.g.
Line 3,357: Line 3,357:
| sɔudɮaɴ || du || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| sɔudɮaɴ || du || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| soldier-ERG || INT || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| soldier-ERG || INT.GEN || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
|}
Are soldiers hunting frogs?
Are soldiers hunting frogs?
Line 3,371: Line 3,371:
| sɔudɮaɴ || du || ʔamelɛicu || wɨɦʁuɦ
| sɔudɮaɴ || du || ʔamelɛicu || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| soldier-ERG || INT || hunt.VFCS || frog.ABS
| soldier-ERG || INT.GEN || hunt.VFCS || frog.ABS
|}
|}
Are soldiers hunting frogs?
Are soldiers hunting frogs?
Line 3,385: Line 3,385:
| du || sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| du || sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| INT || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| INT.GEN || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
|}
Are ''soldiers'' hunting frogs (or is it someone else)?
Are ''soldiers'' hunting frogs (or is it someone else)?
Line 3,396: Line 3,396:
| sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || du || wɨɦʁuɦ
| sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || du || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || INT || frog.ABS
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || INT.GEN || frog.ABS
|}
|}
Are soldiers hunting ''frogs'' (or something else)?
Are soldiers hunting ''frogs'' (or something else)?
Line 3,413: Line 3,413:
| du || sɔudɮa || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
| du || sɔudɮa || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| INT || soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
| INT.GEN || soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
|}


Line 3,428: Line 3,428:
| sɔudɮa || ʔamelɛicu || ka || wɨɦʁuɦ
| sɔudɮa || ʔamelɛicu || ka || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
|-
| soldier.ABS || hunt.VFCS || INT || frog.ABS
| soldier.ABS || hunt.VFCS || INT.SPFC || frog.ABS
|}
|}
Are soldiers ''hunting'' frogs (or doing something else to them)?
Are soldiers ''hunting'' frogs (or doing something else to them)?
Line 3,453: Line 3,453:
| wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ || ka || ʁɘɦdɮa
| wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ || ka || ʁɘɦdɮa
|-
|-
| frog.ABS || die.VFCS || INT || red.VFCS
| frog.ABS || die.VFCS || INT.SPFC || red.VFCS
|}
|}
Was it the frog that died that was red?
Was it the frog that died that was red?
Line 3,478: Line 3,478:
| sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || ʁɘɦdɮa || ka
| sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || ʁɘɦdɮa || ka
|-
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS || INT
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS || INT.SPFC
|}
|}
Are soldiers hunting ''red'' frogs (or another colour)?
Are soldiers hunting ''red'' frogs (or another colour)?
===Other Questions===
There are a whole host of other question particles in Antarctican, all of which have general and specific forms which follow the same syntactic rules as above.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Interrogative !! General !! Specific
|-
| Where / Which || duku || tuovi
|-
| When || tùownká || taensi
|-
| How (asking for a description) || duonna || chuowan
|-
| How much / How many / To what extent || kùey || chetnay
|-
| Why || tówta || tanmay
|}
Below are some example questions using the words for "where":
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sowdlan || duku || amielaykùe || wùerù
|-
| sɔudɮaɴ || duku || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
| soldier-ERG || where.GEN || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
Where are soldiers are hunting frogs?
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| duku || sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù
|-
| duku || sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
| where.GEN || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
Soldiers from where are hunting frogs?
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sowdlan || amielaykùe || duku || wùerù
|-
| sɔudɮaɴ|| ʔamelaikɨɦ || duku || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || where.GEN || frog.ABS
|}
Soldiers are hunting frogs from where?
As a specific interrogative particle, tuovi puts emphasis on a particular part of the question e.g.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sowdla || amielaeychu || tuovi || wùerù
|-
| sɔudɮa || ʔamelɛicu || tuɥi || wɨɦʁuɦ
|-
| soldier.ABS || hunt.VFCS || where.SPFC || frog.ABS
|}
Where are the soldiers ''hunting'' frogs (not doing anything else to them)?
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wùerù || kivieli-iewn || tuovi || `rèdla
|-
| wɨɦʁuɦ || kiɥeliʔeuɴ || tuɥi || ʁɘɦdɮa
|-
| frog.ABS || die.VFCS || where.SPFC || red.VFCS
|}
The frog that died where was red?
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sowdlan || amielaykùe || wùerù || `rèdla || tuovi
|-
| sɔudɮaɴ || ʔamelaikɨɦ || wɨɦʁuɦ || ʁɘɦdɮa || tuɥi
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS || where.SPFC
|}
Where are soldiers hunting ''red'' frogs (as opposed to some other colour)?





Revision as of 06:56, 1 March 2013

Antarctican is the most widely spoken language on the continent of Antarctica in the far future, at a time when runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and rendered most of the rest of the word uninhabitable. It has been influenced by a variety of modern-day languages, among them English, Spanish, Japanese and many East Asian languages.

It has a complex phonology and morphophonology, especially in the vowel system. There are a lot of features not found in English e.g. a pitch-register system, phonemic vowel length, prestopped nasals, and ejective consonants. However in other ways the phonology is quite simple compared to English, with a very limited range of syllable shapes.

The morphosyntactic alignment is split ergative (as is the syntax), with noun suffixes following an ergative-absolutive system, but person marking on verbs following a nominative-accusative system. Nouns also inflect for alienable and inalienable possession, and they can undergo some quite complex stem changes. There is no real marking of plurality of nouns.

In the verbal morphology, focus and transitivity are clearly marked. Verbs also inflect for person and voice. Tense and aspect are much less important.

The syntax is head-initial, and adjectives are not distinguished from verbs.

Phonology

Vowels

The pronunciation of each phoneme is listed in the tables below, followed by its romanisation in brackets.

There are 11 monophthongs:

Antarctican monophthongs
Front Central Back
Close i /i/ ue /ɨ/ u /u/
Close-mid ie /e/ e /ɘ/ uo /o/
Open-mid ae /ɛ/ oe /ɜ/ o /ɔ/
Open a /a/ ao /ɒ/


And there are 17 diphthongs. 8 of these end in [j], and another 9 end in [w]:

Diphthongs ending in /j/
Front Central Back
Close uey /ɨj/ uy /uj/
Close-mid iey /ej/ ey /ɘj/ uoy /oj/
Open-mid aey /ɛj/ oey /ɜj/
Open ay /aj/
Diphthongs ending in /w/
Front Central Back
Close uew /ɨw/
Close-mid iew /ew/ ew /ɘw/ uow /ow/
Open-mid aew /&#ɛw/ oew /ɜw/ ow /ɔw/
Open aw /aw/


Vowel length

Vowel length is phonemic, on both monophthongs and diphthongs e.g.


  • kuow /kou/ - something absorbed in something else, absolutive
  • kuuow /koːu/ - a frozen object, absolutive


Vowel phonation

Vowels in Antarctican also have phonemic phonation. Modal, tense or breathy voice can occur on either short or long vowels. Vowels with tense voice (marked with a glottal stop after the syllable e.g. /aʔ/) are pronounced with a high or rising pitch, and vowels with breathy voice (marked with a voiced /h/ after the syllable e.g. /aɦ/) are pronounced with a low or falling pitch. This distinction is phonemic e.g.


  • kuow /kou/ - something absorbed in something else, absolutive
  • kúow /kouʔ/ - bigot, absolutive


Tense voice cannot occur on high vowels /i/, /ɨ/, /u/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. Breathy voice cannot occur on low vowels /a/, /ɒ/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels.


Floating Phonation

Similar to floating tones in Bantu languages (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_tone), the beginnings of words in Antarctican can have floating phonation (unmarked for modal phonation, written with ' before the word for tense phonation, and ` before the word for breathy phonation). As an example, the following words are pronounced identically when not inflected:


ká /kaʔ/ - coconut milk, absolutive

'ká /kaʔ/ - fence, absolutive


However, when they take the prefix wa- (3rd person topicalised possessive), they are different:


waká /wakaʔ/ - his / her coconut milk, absolutive

'wáká /waʔkaʔ/ - his / her fence, absolutive


Words beginning with a glottal stop only ever have modal floating phonation e.g.

ámáelái /ʔaʔmɛʔlaiʔ/ - prey, absolutive

wa-ámáelái /waʔaʔmɛʔlaiʔ/ - his / her prey, absolutive (never wá-ámáelái)


Vowel Mutation

When a process such as the above changes the phonation of a vowel, often its quality changes as well. E.g. the possessive prefix for inclusive "we" is yiew- /jeu/, however, when it acquires tense voice, it becomes 'yáew- /jɛuʔ/ e.g.


yiewká /jeukaʔ/ - our (including you) coconut milk, absolutive

'yáewká /jɛuʔkaʔ/ - our (including you) fence, absolutive


Also, the quality of a modally voiced vowel sometimes changes if the next vowel also has modal voice (this also depends on whether the intervening consonant is voice or voiceless). In the case of the prefix yiew- /jeu/, this changes to yew- /jɘu/ if the intervening consonant is voiceless (other than a glottal stop) e.g.


ton /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive

yewton /jɘutɔɴ/ - our (including you) change, absolutive


These changes are given in the table below:


Tense voice Breathy voice Modal, normal Modal, before a voiced consonant followed by another modal vowel Modal, before a voiceless consonant followed by another modal vowel
íey ùe i i ue
éy ùey ii ii uue
áe / áae è / èe ie / iie ie / iie e / ee
á / áa òe / òoe a / aa a / aa ae / aae
úow ù u uo u
éw ùew uu uow uu
óe ùo o ao o
áey / áaey èy / èey iey / iiey iey / iiey ey / eey
áy / áay òey / òoey ay / aay ay / aay aey / aaey
úoy / úuoy ùy / ùuy uy / uuy uoy / uuoy uy / uuy
áew / áaew èw / èew iew / iiew iew / iiew ew / eew
áw / áaw òew / òoew aw / aaw aw / aaw aew / aaew
ów / óow ùow / ùuow uow / uuow ow/ oow uow / uuow


Phonation restrictions

However, not every vowel can have every kind of phonation e.g. tense voice cannot occur on high vowels /i/, /ɨ/, /u/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. Similarly, breathy voice cannot occur on low vowels /a/, /ɒ/, nor on front vowels, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. The permissible combinations of vowel quality and phonation are listed below:

Monophthong phonation
Voice Front Central Back
Close Modal i /i/ ue /ɨ/ from /i/ u /u/
Breathy ùe /ɨɦ/ ù /uɦ/
Close-mid Modal ie /e/ e /ɘ/ from /e/ uo /o/ from /u/
Tense íe /eʔ/ é /ɘʔ/ úo /oʔ/
Breathy è /ɘɦ/ ùo /oɦ/
Open-mid Modal ae /ɛ/ from /a/ o /ɔ/
Tense áe /ɛʔ/ óe /ɜʔ/ ó /ɔʔ/
Breathy òe /ɜɦ/
Open Modal a /a/ ao /ɒ/ from /ɔ/
Tense á /aʔ/


  • Vowels in green are found everywhere.
  • Vowels in pink are phonemic at the end of words, where they mark ergative case, and are allophones elsewhere. They occur before another syllable beginning with a voiced consonant followed by a modally voiced vowel. The vowel that they are an allophone of is indicated afterwards.
  • Vowels in blue are phonemic at the end of words, where they mark comitative case, and are allophones elsewhere. They occur before another syllable beginning with a voiceless consonant followed by a modally voiced vowel. The vowel that they are an allophone of is indicated afterwards.
  • Vowels in orange are only found in reduplications.

Antarctican uses reduplication in its morphology, however it only partially reduplicates diphthongs, reducing them to monophthongs in the reduplicated syllable e.g.

  • 'kúowntátu /kouɴʔtaʔtu/ – acquaintance, absolutive
  • 'kúokúowntátu /koʔkouɴʔtaʔtu/ – acquaintances (of each other), absolutive

When such diphthongs are truncated, it is always only the first part of it that is preserved e.g. /eiʔ/ and /euʔ/ both shorten to /eiʔ/. /oiʔ/ and /ouʔ/ both shorten to /oʔ/ etc.

Vowels marked with an asterisk do not contrast for length.

There are similar restrictions on diphthongs:

Diphthong phonation /j/
Voice Front Central Back
Close Modal uy /ui/
Breathy ùey /ɨiɦ/ ùy /uiɦ/
Close-mid Modal iey /ei/ ey /ɘi/ uoy /oi/
Tense íey /eiʔ/ éy /ɘiʔ/ úoy /oiʔ/
Breathy èy /ɘiɦ/
Open-mid Modal aey /ɛi/
Tense áey /ɛiʔ/
Breathy òey /ɜiɦ/
Open Modal ay /ai/
Tense áy /aiʔ/


Same applies to the remaining diphthongs:

Diphthong phonation /w/
Voice Front Central Back
Close Modal
Breathy ùew /ɨuɦ/
Close-mid Modal iew /ew/ ew /ɘu/ uow /ou/
Tense úow /ouʔ/
Breathy èw /ɘuɦ/ ùow /ouɦ/
Open-mid Modal aew /ɛu/ ow /ɔu/
Tense áew /ɛuʔ/ ów /ɔuʔ/
Breathy òew /ɜuɦ/
Open Modal aw /au/
Tense áw /auʔ/

Consonants

The pronunciation of each phoneme is listed in the table below, followed by its romanisation in brackets.

Antarctican consonants
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar / Uvular Glottal / Placeless
plain palatalised central lateral
Nasals plain m /m/ my /mʲ/ n /n/ ny /ɲ/ ng /ŋ/ n /ɴ/
pre-stopped pm /pm/ pmy /pmʲ/ tn /tn/ cn /cɲ/ kn /kŋ/


Stops/Affricate ejective pq /p'/ pqy /p'ʲ/ tq /t'/ tql /tɬ'/ cqh /c' ~ tɕ'/ kq /k'/
voiceless p /p/ py /pʲ/ t /t/ tl /tɬ/ ch /c ~ tɕ/ k /k/ - /ʔ/
voiced b /b/ by /bʲ/ d /d/ dl /dɮ/ j /ɟ ~ dʑ/ g /g/
Fricatives/Affricates ejective tqs /ts' ~ s'/
voiceless f /f/ fy /fʲ/ s /s ~ ts/ hl /ɬ/ sh /ç ~ ɕ/ h /χ ~ x/
voiced z /z ~ dz/
Approximant w /w/ v /ɥ/ l /l ~ ɹ ~ ʎ/ y /j/ r /ʁ ~ ʀ/


  • Consonants separated with a tilde (~) are not separate phonemes but are either allophones or in free variation e.g. /s ~ ts/ indicates that there is a single phoneme that can either be pronounced [s] or [ts]. The most common pronunciation is always listed first.
  • The glottal stop is unmarked word initially (since all words must begin with consonants), and is marked by a hyphen elsewhere.
  • Prestopped nasals e.g. /tn/, /pm/ etc., pattern as voiceless and as nasals (and thus sonorants) in terms of the phonology. They are only found between syllables with modal vowel phonation (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).
  • The placeless nasal /ɴ/ is only found at the end of syllables. Before a glottal stop or at the end of a phrase, it nasalises the preceding vowel. Otherwise it assimilates to the same place of articulation as the following consonant e.g. it becomes [n] before /d/, [m] before /b/ etc.
  • Voiced obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) are only found in three cases.
  1. Separating two syllables with modal voice (or a modal voice floating phonation if at the start of a word).
  2. After a syllable containing breathy phonation (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word) and before a syllable containing modal phonation.
  3. Separating two syllables with breathy voice (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word). In this case they are pronounced with breathy voice, like the murmured/voiced aspirated consonants of many Indian languages.
  • Non-alveolar fricatives are only found separating two syllables with modal voice (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word), or separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).
  • Ejectives are only ever found separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).
  • The velar nasals /kŋ/ and /ŋ/ never occur at the beginning of words.
  • The alveolar stops /t/ and /d/, and the velar fricative /χ/ are never found before /i/ and /ɨ/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /eʔ/ and /ɘʔ/, nor before diphthongs starting with these.
  • The phoneme /l/ is pronounced as a palatal lateral [ʎ] before a high vowel, [ɹ] before a vowel with tense voice (high vowels cannot have tense voice), and [l] elsewhere.


Consonant Harmony

Consonants in Antarctican can be grouped into two sets, soft and hard. Many affixes have two alternate forms, one with a soft consonant and one with a hard. When they attach to a word that begins with a soft consonant, the form of the affix with the soft consonant is used. If the word begins with a hard consonant, the form of the affix with the hard consonant is used. The soft consonants are the palatal consonants, the palatalized labial consonants, and the lateral consonants. All the other consonants are hard.

For example, the antipassive voice is formed by an infix that comes after the first consonant of a word. For words that begin with a hard consonant, the infix is am /am/ (which contains a hard consonant) e.g.

  • ziitlòeji /ziːtɬɜɦɟi/ - to know (a person), verb-focus
  • zamiitlòeji /zamiːtɬɜɦɟi/ - to know (a person), verb-focus, antipassive

However, if the word begins with a soft consonant, the infix is iemy /emʲ/ e.g.

  • pyiquu /pʲiʔuː/ - to purify, verb-focus
  • pyiemyiquu /pʲemʲiʔuː/ - to purify, verb-focus, antipassive
  • hli-o /ɬiʔɔ/ - to perform, verb-focus
  • hliemyi-o /ɬemʲiʔɔ/ - to perform, verb-focus, antipassive (not *(hliemi-o) /ɬmiʔɔ/)

Phonotactics

Syllable structures are extremely limited, with only shapes being CV and CVɴ.


Distribution and Dialects

Antarctican is spoken across a large continent, by a diversity of cultures. As would be expected, there is significant dialectical variation within the language. The differences are most pronounced in the vocabulary, less in the morphology, and even less in the syntax and phonology.


Most speakers of Antarctican will also be bilingual in a second language that is only spoken in their local region. Typically, Antarctican will be used in more formal situations, and the local language used with family and friends. However, it is very common for regional varieties of Antarctican to borrow words from other local languages.


The Antarctican Sprachbund

As mentioned before, it is much less common for regional varieties of Antarctican to differ in their syntax and phonology. This is because the local languages of Antarctica form a very strong Sprachbund (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachbund), which have converged to have very similar phonologies and syntactic systems. Some examples of these areal features are:


Phonology

  • A pitch register system (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Register_(phonology)).
  • Consonant voicing only being phonemic under certain specific conditions. In particular, a total lack of phonemic voicing of non-coronal fricatives.
  • Some kind of fortis / lenis contrast in obstruents, which often interacts with the pitch register system in some way. This contrast may be glottalisation (ejective or implosive), gemination or aspiration.
  • Two sets of nasal consonants (this can be plain vs. prestopped, or involve a voicing contrast).
  • A very restricted range of syllable shapes.


Morphology

  • Ergative-absolutive cas marking on nouns (if any is present at all).
  • A complete lack of number agreement on verbs, and no comprehensive marking of plurality on nouns (only ever specific categories of nouns).
  • Tense and aspect are not consistently marked on verbs, if they are marked at all.
  • A lack of infinitive verb forms. Antarctican languages use a variety of ways to compensate for this.
  • Transitivity marked on verbs.


Syntax

  • Syntactic ergativity.
  • Topic-comment structure to sentences.
  • Inclusive and exclusive 'we', with no distinction made between exclusive 'we' and 'I'.
  • Head initial syntax.


Noun Morphology

Case

Nouns decline into three cases, Absolutive, Ergative and Comitative. Absolutive case is unmarked while the other two use vowel changes on the final vowel and/or suffixes. Nouns can also take demonstrative and possessive prefixes.

Ergative case

How this case is formed depends on the phonation and frontness of the final vowel in the word.

Modally voiced final vowel

Final vowel is a back vowel

In this case, lower the back vowel e.g.

  • ton /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
  • taon /tɒɴ/ - change, ergative
  • duoliiengun /doleːŋuɴ/ - dragon, absolutive
  • duoliienguon /doleːŋoɴ/ - dragon, ergative

If the final vowel is a diphthong that begins with a back vowel, then the start of the diphthong is lowered e.g.

  • paehuown /pɛχouɴ/ - dust, absolutive
  • paehown /pɛχɔuɴ/ - dust, ergative
  • yuenpiluoy - /jɨɴpiloi/ - employee, absolutive
  • yuenpiloy /jɨɴpilɔi/ - employee, ergative


Final vowel is not a back vowel

In this case the ergative suffix is –n /ɴ/, or –ga /ga/ if the noun already ended in –n e.g.*zivie /ziɥe/ - boat, absolutive

  • zivien /ziɥeɴ/ - boat, ergative
  • myaewntayn /mʲɛuɴtaiɴ/ - mountain, absolutive
  • myaewntayn-ga / mʲɛuɴtaiɴga/ - mountain, ergative
Final vowel has breathy or tense voice

For nouns where the vowel of the last syllable has breathy or tense voice, the situation is more complicated. They all take ergative suffixes of the form C V ɴ, where C is a consonant and V is a vowel. V is almost always /i/, except after /t/ or /d/, when it is /u/. However it is not possible to predict C, as shown by the examples below:

  • tieyláae /teilɛʔː/ - shirt, absolutive
  • tieyláaesin /teilɛʔːsiɴ / - shirt, ergative
  • píey /peiʔ/ - book, absolutive
  • píeykin /peiʔkiɴ/ - book, ergative
  • `kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive
  • `kùezin /kɨɦziɴ/ - goods, ergative
  • `rè /ʁɘɦ/ - red object, absolutive
  • `rèdun /ʁɘɦduɴ/ – red object, ergative
  • 'kúow /kouʔ/ - cup, absolutive
  • 'kúowpin */kouʔpiɴ/ - cup, ergative
  • píeylánkáe /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔ/ - blanket, absolutive
  • píeylánkáetun /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔtuɴ/ - blanket, ergative
  • wùerù /wɨɦʁuɦ/- frog, absolutive
  • wùerùgin /wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ/ - frog, ergative

While it may seem that the consonant inserted before the –in (or –un) suffix is random, there are some patterns. Firstly, the inserted consonant is always an obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative), and never a sonorant (nasal or approximant). Secondly, observe that, when the final vowel of the absolutive stem has tense voice, the inserted consonant is always voiceless, while if the final vowel of the absolutive stem has breathy voice, the inserted consonant is always voiced. These two rules hold across the language.

Also, for readers with knowledge of whatever language Antarctican borrowed the particular noun stem from, note that the “inserted” consonant almost perfectly corresponds with the consonant at the end of the word e.g. the word for “frog”, (wùerù /wɨɦʁuɦ/ in the absolutive case), is in fact descended from the English word “frog”. However, Antarctican does not like final consonants, so the final “g” was lost in the absolutive form. However in the ergative form, there is another vowel following the “g”, so it “reappears”, and the ergative form of the word is wùerùgin /wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ/. A similar story happens with the “t” in the word for “blanket”, which is also derived from English.

Stem changes

However, for some of the nouns with breathy or tense voice on the final vowel of the absolutive stem, there are changes in the stem when they take the ergative suffix. These involve a change in vowel phonation to modal voice, and often a change in vowel quality (as given by the table in the phonology section). e.g.

'tùen /tɨɴɦ/- wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), absolutive

'tin-gin /tiɴgiɴ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), ergative (not *tùen-gin)


As a rule, if the final vowel undergoes a change, and the second last vowel has the same voicing as the final vowel, then they both change e.g.

ùylèn /ʔuiɦlɘɴɦ/ - island, absolutive

uoyliendun /ʔoileɴduɴ/ - island, ergative (not *qùilèndun)


tùrèen /tuɦʁɘːɴɦ/ - fashionable items, absolutive

tuoriiendun /toʁeːɴduɴ/ - fashionable items, ergative

 

If there are even more consecutive syllables with the same voicing on the vowel, then this rule applies to every single one of them e.g.


ámáeláy /ʔaʔmɛʔlaiʔ/ - prey, absolutive

amielaeykin /ʔamelɛikiɴ/ - prey, ergative

 

There are many, many other nouns that decline according to this pattern. Almost all of the nouns that end in /ɴ/ or contain a long vowel in the final syllable undergo vowel changes in the stem e.g.

'táen /tɛɴʔ/ - weather, absolutive

'tenchin /tɘɴciɴ/ - weather, ergative


kòoe /kɜɦː/ - membership card, absolutive

kaadun /kaːduɴ/ - membership card, ergative


However, the converse is not true. For nouns with non-modally voiced final vowels, but that do not end in /ɴ/ or a long vowel, some undergo vowel changes e.g.

ùenòe /ʔɨɦnɜɦ/ - eel, absolutive

inajin /ʔinaɟiɴ/ - eel, ergative


While others do not e.g.


`kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive

`kùezin /kɨɦziɴ/ - goods, ergative

 

There are some nouns that have identical absolutive forms, but are distinguished in the ergative e.g.


'ká /kaʔ/ - fence, absolutive

kaechin /kɛciɴ/ - fence, ergative


ká /kaʔ/ - coconut milk, absolutive

kátlin /katɬiɴ/ coconut milk, ergative

 

Obstruent Voicing

If the absolutive form has a voiceless obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative), that separates two syllables with breathy voice (or a breathy voice floating phonation if word initial), when the breathy voiced vowels acquire modal voice in the ergative form, the voiceless obstruent does too, becoming modally voiced e.g.


`pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/ - bridge, absolutive

bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative


`pòey /pɜiɦ/ - baby, absolutive

baybyin /baibʲiɴ/ - baby, ergative


`nyùewsùeylèn /ɲɨuɦsɨɦiɦlɘɴɦ/ - New Zealand, absolutive

nyuuziiliendun /ɲuːziːleɴduɴ/ - New Zealand, ergative


 

If the absolutive form of a noun has a voiceless obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative), that is preceded by a syllable with a modally voiced vowel, and is followed by a vowel with tense voice, if this tense voiced vowel becomes modally voiced in the ergative form, then the voiceless obstruent before it acquires modal voice too e.g.


yíeysitlíeynyíey /jeiʔsitɬeiʔɲeiʔ/ - mutton, absolutive

yíeysidlinyuekin /jeiʔsidɮiɲɨkiɴ/ - mutton, ergative


Here we can see that the /tɬ/ in the absolutive form has changed to /dɮ/ in the ergative form.


For word initial voiceless obstruents followed by tense voiced vowels in the absolutive form, which change to modal voice vowels in the ergative form, sometimes this change also occurs e.g.


támá /taʔmaʔ/- victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive

damaesin /damɛsiɴ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative


 

Sonorant Devoicing

Another similar pattern occurs in sonorants. If, in the absolutive form, they are preceded by a syllable with a modally voiced vowel (or modal voice floating phonation if word initial), and followed by a breathy or tense voiced vowel that changes in the ergative (to have modal voice), then the sonorant becomes devoiced. /w/ becomes /f/, /l/ becomes /ɬ/, /j/ becomes /ç/, and /ʁ/ becomes /χ/, voiced nasals become prestopped e.g.


yuuwíey /juːweiʔ/ - clothes, absolutive

yuufekin /juːfɘkiɴ/ - clothes, ergative


aetienòelùn /ʔɛtenɜɦluɴɦ/ - heart, absolutive

aetetnaluonzin /ʔɛtɘtnaloɴziɴ/ - heart, ergative

 

De-Ejectivisation

There are some Antarctican nouns that have ejectives in the absolutive form. As required by the phonotactics, they have tense voiced vowels both before and after (possibly with /ɴ/ intervening). However, sometimes in the ergative form, the tense voiced vowel after the ejective becomes modally voiced. In this case, the airstream mechanism changes from glottalic egressive (ejective) to pulmonic egressive (normal) e.g.


'kqúow /kʼouʔ/ - a small amount, absolutive

'kuhli /\kuɬi/ - a small amount, ergative


ráetqúowlíeykuetu /ʁɛʔtʼoleiʔkɨtu/ - something self-limiting, absolutive

ráetuoluekuetu /ʁɛʔtolɨkɨtu/ something self-limiting, ergative


'kíeychqíey /keiʔcʼeiʔ/ - a female name, absolutive

'kíeychuekin /keiʔcɨkiɴ/ - a female name, ergative

 

Comitative Case

How this is formed also depends on the frontness and phonation of the final vowel:

 

Last Vowel of Abs. Form has Modal Voice
Last Vowel of Abs. Form is not a Back Vowel

In this case, take the absolutive form, raise /a/ to /ɛ/ and centralise any other front vowels e.g.


zivie /ziɥe/ - boat, absolutive

zive /ziɥɘ/ - boat, comitative


myaewntayn /mʲɛuɴtaiɴ/ - mountain, absolutive

myaewntaeyn /mʲɛuɴtɛiɴ/ - mountain, comitative


agiriey /ʔagiʁei/ - agreement, absolutive

agirey /ʔagiʁɘi/ - agreement, comitative

 

Last Vowel of Abs. Form is a Back Vowel

In this case, take the absolutive form, and suffix /pmu/ e.g.


ton /tɔɴ/- change (as in coins, money), absolutive

tonpmu /tɔɴpmu/ - change (as in coins, money), comitative


duoliiengun /doleːŋuɴ/ - dragon, absolutive

duoliiengunpmu /doleːŋuɴpmu/ - dragon, comitative


paehuown /pɛχouɴ/ - dust, absolutive

paehuownpmu /pɛχouɴpmu/ - dust, comitative


yuenpiluoy - /jɨɴpiloipmu/ - employee, absolutive

yuenpiluoypmu - /jɨɴpiloipmu/ - employee, comitative

 

Other Cases

If the last vowel of the absolutive form has tense or breathy voice, the comitative is formed differently. Here, it is formed by taking the ergative, deleting any final /ɴ/ or /ga/ that had been inserted as a suffix, and then suffixing /ʔu/ e.g.


'tùen /sitɨɴɦ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), absolutive

'tin-gin /sɨtiɴgiɴ/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), ergative

'tin-gi-u /sɨtiɴgiʔu/ - wound caused by a sting, comitative


tieyláae /teilɛʔː/ - shirt, absolutive

tieyláaesin /teilɛʔːsiɴ / - shirt, ergative

tieyláaesi-u /teilɛʔːsiʔu/ - shirt, comitative


píey /peiʔ/ - book, absolutive

píeykin /peiʔkiɴ/ - book, ergative

píeyki-u /peiʔkiʔu/ - book, comitative


`kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive

`kùezin /kɨɦziɴ/ - goods, ergative

`kùezi-u /kɨɦziʔu/ - goods, comitative


`rè /ʁɘɦ/ - red object, absolutive

`rèdun /ʁɘɦduɴ/ – red object, ergative

`rèdu-u /ʁɘɦduʔu/ – red object, comitative


'kúow /kouʔ/ - cup, absolutive

'kúowpin /kouʔpiɴ/ - cup, ergative

'kúowpi-u /kouʔpiʔu/ - cup, comitative


píeylánkáe /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔ/ - blanket, absolutive

píeylánkáetun /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔtuɴ/ - blanket, comitative

píeylánkáetu-u /peiʔlaɴʔkɛʔtuʔu/ - blanket, ergative


wùerù /wɨɦʁuɦ/ - frog, absolutive

wùerùgin /wɨɦʁuɦgiʔu/ - frog, ergative

wùerùgiqu /wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ/ - frog, comitative

 

Pronominal Possession

Where English would use possessive pronouns (“my”, “your”), Antarctican uses possessive prefixes. The base forms of each are listed in the table below:

Prefix Usage
myi- /mʲi/ 1st person singular, 1st person exclusive plural
yiew- /jeu/ 1st person inclusive plural
ti- /ti/ 2nd person
wa- /wa/ 3rd person, topicalised
si- /si/ 3rd person, non-topicalised


So, in the absolutive case, “my clothes” or “our clothes” (not including you) would be myiyuuwíey /mʲijuːweiʔ/, “your clothes” would be tiyuuwíey /tijuːweiʔ/ etc.

 

Phonation Spreading

However, if the noun has a floating phonation, this will spread onto the prefix, and often cause a vowel change in it as well (see the table in the phonology section for a list of changes) e.g.


'kánkúow /kaɴʔkouʔ/ - prisoner, absolutive

'myíeykán-kúow /mʲeiʔkaɴʔkouʔ/ - my prisoner, absolutive (not *myikán-kúow)

'tíeykán-kúow /teiʔkaɴʔkouʔ/ - your prisoner, absolutive (not *tikán-kúow)


`pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/ - bridge, absolutive

`myùepùelùe /mʲɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - my bridge, absolutive (not *myipùelùe)

tùepùelùe /tɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - your bridge, absolutive (not *tipùelùe)

Loss of Floating Phonation

However, if, in the ergative form, the first vowel changes to no longer have breathy or tense voice (i.e. it now has modal voice), then, if the floating phonation was the same as the what used to be on the vowel, then it is lost too e.g.


'kánkúow /kaɴʔkouʔ/ - prisoner, absolutive

kaen-gukin /kɛɴgukiɴ/ - prisoner, ergative

'myíeykán-kúow /mʲeiʔkaɴʔkouʔ/ - my prisoner, absolutive

myuekaen-gukin /mʲɨkɛɴgukiɴ/ - my prisoner, ergative


`pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/- bridge, absolutive

bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative

`myùepùelùe /mʲɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - my bridge, absolutive

myibilidlin /mʲibilidɮiɴ/ - my bridge, ergative

 

There are two exceptions to the above rule. The first is if the word begins with an ejective, in which case the ejectiveness is lost, but the floating phonation remains e.g.


'kqúow /kʼouʔ/ - a small amount, absolutive

'kuhli /kuɬi/ - a small amount, ergative

myíeykuhli /mʲeiʔkuɬi/ - my small amount, ergative


The second is for words that begin with consonant pronounced with breathy voice (voiced consonant before a breathy voiced vowel) e.g.


`byùe /bʲɨɦ/ - mouth, absolutive

`byijin /bʲiɟiɴ/ - mouth, ergative

myùebyùe /mʲɨɦbʲɨɦ/ - my mouth, absolutive

`myùebyijin /mʲɨɦbʲiɟiɴ/ - my mouth, ergative


Prediction of Floating Tone

As a rule, whether or not a noun has floating tone cannot be predicted. The only time when it is possible to do so is for absolutive nouns, if, in the ergative form, the first vowel loses its breathy or tense phonation and becomes modally voiced. In this case, the rules are given below:

 

Sonorant Initial Stem

If the absolutive stem begins with a sonorant (nasal or approximant), and that sonorant becomes devoiced when the vowel after it acquires modal voice in the ergative form, then there is only ever modal floating phonation before it in both cases e.g.


mòoe /mɜɦː/ - betel nut, absolutive

pmaagin /pmaːgiɴ/ - betel nut, ergative

myimòoe /mʲimɜɦː/ - my betel nut, absolutive


Otherwise, if a word begins with a sonorant, then it always has floating phonation that is the same as that on the first vowel e.g.


'máláeyáa /maʔlɛʔjaʔː/ - manners, absolutive

malieyaaetun /malejɛːtuɴ/ - manners, ergative


'myíeymáláeyáa /mʲeiʔmaʔlɛʔjaʔː/ - my manners, absolutive

 

Stem starts with /s/

If the absolutive stem begins with /s/, it can never have tense floating phonation e.g.

sásaechin /saʔsɛciɴ/ - stab wound, absolutive

myisásaechin /mʲisaʔsaɛciɴ/ - my stab wound, absolutive

 

In the case of absolutive nouns with breathy voice on the first vowel, if, in the ergative form, the initial /s/ becomes voiced /z/, then the word has breathy floating phonation e.g.


`sòemùe /sɜɦmɨɦ/ - (major) wife, absolutive

zamibyin /zamibʲiɴ/ - (major) wife, ergative

`myùesòemùe /mʲɨɦsɜɦmɨɦ/ - my (major) wife, absolutive (not *myisòemùe)


But if, in the ergative form, the first vowel acquires modal voice but the initial consonant stays as voiceless /s/, then in both the absolutive form and the ergative, there is floating modal phonation e.g.


sòepyùe /sɜɦpʲɨɦ/ - speech (as in words, not a formal speech), absolutive

sabyishin /sabʲiçiɴ/ - speech (as in words, not a formal speech), ergative

myisòepyùe /mʲisɜɦpʲɨɦ/ - my speech (as in words, not a formal speech), absolutive

 

Other stems

If the absolutive stem begins with another obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative) followed by a vowel with tense voice, and that obstruent stays voiceless even when followed by a modally voiced vowel (in the ergative form), then the absolutive form has tense floating phonation e.g.


'kánkúow /kaɴʔkouʔ/ - prisoner, absolutive

kan-gukin /kaɴgukiɴ/ - prisoner, ergative

'myíeykán-kúow /mʲeiʔkaɴʔkouʔ/ - my prisoner, absolutive


'táen /tɛɴʔ/ - weather, absolutive

tenchin /tɘɴciɴ/ - weather, ergative

'myíeytáen /mʲeiʔtɛɴʔ/ - my weather, absolutive


But if the obstruent becomes voiced, then there is only ever floating modal phonation e.g.


támá /taʔmaʔ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive

damaesin /damaɛsiɴ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative

myitámá /mʲitaʔmaʔ/ - my victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive

 

And vice versa, if the absolutive form of a noun begins with a voicless obstruent followed by a breathy voiced vowel, and that vowel becomes voiced in the ergative form, then the absolutive form has floating breathy phonation e.g.


`pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/ - bridge, absolutive

bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative

`myùepùelùe /mʲɨɦpɨɦlɨɦ/ - my bridge, absolutive


`pòey /pɜiɦ/- baby, absolutive

baybyin /baibʲiɴ/ - baby, ergative

`myùepòey /mʲɨɦpɜiɦ/ - my baby, absolutive

 

And if the obstruent stays voiceless in the ergative form, then there is only ever floating modal phonation e.g.


pòey /pɜiɦ/ - page, absolutive

paydlin /paidɮiɴ/ - page, ergative

myipòey /mʲipɜiɦ/ - my page, absolutive

 

Nasalisation of Velar Initials

For some nouns that begin with /k/ or /g/, often it changes to /ŋ/ when the noun takes a prefix. e.g.


gali /gali/ - hole, absolutive

myingali /mʲiŋali/ - my hole, absolutive

 

In such a case, if the first vowel has tense or breathy voice, then it also has a floating phonation that is the same e.g.


`kùe /kɨɦ/ - goods, absolutive

`myùengùe /mʲɨɦŋɨɦ/ - my goods, absolutive


'kíeyváy /keiʔɥaiʔ/ - tongue, absolutive

'myíeyngíeyváy /mʲeiʔŋeiʔɥaiʔ/ - my tongue, absolutive

 


Possession by a Noun

Antarctican distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. Both are marked with prefixes on the possessed noun. These are wiey- for alienable possession and nu- for inalienable possession (the possessor always takes the absolutive case). Note that floating phonation affects these prefixes in the same way as any other:


`kùeròetùu /kɨɦʁɜɦtuɦː/ - bone, absolutive

yini /jini/ - dog, absolutive

`weykùeròetùu yini /wɘiɦkɨɦʁɜɦtuɦː jini/ - the dog’s bone, absolutive, alienable (i.e. the one that it eats, buries etc.)

`nùkùeròetùu yini /nuɦkɨɦʁɜɦtuɦː jini/ - the dog’s bone, absolutive, inalienable (i.e. the one that is a part of it)

 

Where English would compound nouns together, or use one to modify another. Antarctican uses the alienable possessive construction e.g.


aaehaan /ʔɛːχaːɴ/ - food, absolutive

wiey-aaehaan yini /weiʔɛːχaːɴ jini/ - dog food, absolutive


Reciprocal Possession

In Antarctican, there is no singular vs. plural marking. However, some nouns that imply a relationship (e.g. friend, brother, enemy, coworker), have special forms to indicate a pair or group of people / things where that relationship is reciprocal e.g. where English would say “They are friends / brothers / enemies / coworkers (of each other)”.

These forms are generally constructed by reduplicating the first syllable of the noun, in the same “slot” where possession would be marked e.g.


biraza /biʁaza/ - brother, absolutive

bibiraza /bibiʁaza/ - brothers (of each other), absolutive


yieruoy /jeʁoi/ - ally, absolutive

yieyieruoy /jeʁoi/ - allies (of each other), absolutive

 

However, the inserted syllable cannot have a long vowel, a diphthong, or end in /ɴ/. If it would do so then it is truncated e.g.


duuolaa /doːlaː/ - coworker, absolutive

duoduuolaa /dodoːlaː/ - coworkers (of each other), absolutive


nayba /naiba/ - neighbour, absolutive

nanayba /nanaiba/ - neighbours (of each other), absolutive


'kúowntátu /kouɴʔtaʔtu/ – acquaintance, absolutive

'kúokúowntátu /koʔkouɴʔtaʔtu/– acquaintances (of each other), absolutive

 

The voicing of the vowel of the reduplication is determined by what floating phonation the noun has e.g.


sátuozii /saʔtoziː/ – enemy, absolutive

myisátuozii /mʲisaʔtoziː/ – my enemy, absolutive

sasátuozii /sasaʔtoziː/ - enemies (of each other), absolutive


`rùy /ʁuiɦ/- rival, absolutive

`myùerùy /mʲɨɦʁuiɦ/ - my rival, absolutive

`rùrùy /ʁuɦʁuiɦ/ - rivals (of each other), absolutive


firiendun /fiʁeɴduɴ/ – friend, ergative

myuefiriendun /mʲɨfiʁeɴduɴ/ – my friend, ergative

fuefiriendun /fɨfiʁeɴduɴ/ – friends (of each other), ergative

 

A few nouns have irregular reciprocal possessive forms e.g.


wùerèn /wɨɦʀɘɴɦ/ - friend, absolutive

fiwùerèn /fiwɨɦʀɘɴɦ/ - friends (of each other), absolutive

These arise from when the first vowel has breathy or tense voice, but the first consonant is underlyingly a voiced obstruent or a prestopped nasal. These can only occur before modally voiced vowels, and are thus modified before the vowel with breathy or tense voice. But if word has floating modal phonation, then the vowel there will have modal voice and the underlying consonant will surface there.

 

Verb / Adjective Morphology

There is no distinction between adjectives and verbs in Antarctican. Instead of adjectives like “good”, “bad”, “strong”, “weak”, there are verbs meaning “to be good”, “to be bad” etc.

Focus

Verbs have a root form, from which various other base forms are derived. The two most important of these base forms are the verb-focus base and the noun-focus base. Below is a list of verb roots with their corresponding verb-focus and noun-focus bases:

 

duolieegi /doleːgi/ - to drag, intransitive, root

duoliieju /doleːɟu/ - to drag, intransitive, verb-focus

`tùlèezi /tuɦlɘɦːzi/ – to drag, intransitive, noun-focus

 

`rèdu /ʁɘdu/ - red, root

`rèdla /ʁɘɦdɮa/ - red, verb-focus

`rèdù /ʁɘɦduɦ/ - red, noun-focus

 

'kiraeypyi /kiʁɛipʲi/ - to become scraped, root

'kiraeypyu /kiʁɛipʲu/ - to become scraped, verb-focus

'kiraypùe /kiʁa;ipɨɦ/ - to become scraped, noun-focus

 

Verb-Focus Base

This is used to put focus on the verb ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(linguistics) ) i.e. when the most important "new" information that is being communicated to the listener is the action being done in the verb, rather than the nouns that are doing it or it is being done to. How it is formed from the root is regular, but the rules are somewhat complex and depend on whether the last syllable of the base begins with a soft or hard consonant:

Final Consonant is Soft

If the final consonant (not including any placeless nasal /ɴ/) is soft, infix -iq-/iʔ/ immediately after it e.g.

 

hlo /ɬɔ/ - to perform, root

hli-o /ɬiʔɔ/ - to perform, verb-focus

 

However, many vowels shift when this happens e.g.

 

íeypyii /ʔeiʔpʲiː/ - to spit out, root

íeypyi-iiey /ʔeiʔpʲiʔeːi/ - to spit out, verb-focus

 

inyieliie /ʔiɲeleː/ - to pierce, root

inyieli-aa /ʔiɲeliʔaː/ - to pierce, verb-focus

 

kivieluun /kiɥeluːɴ/ - to die, root

kivieli-iewn /kiɥeliʔeuɴ/ - to die, verb-focus

 

These vowel shifts are all in a roughly anti-clockwise directions around the vowel space. The shifts are listed below:

i /i/ -> ie /e/

ii /iː/ -> iey /ei/

ie /e/ -> a /a/

iie /eː/ -> aa /aː/

a /a/ -> u /u/

aa /aː/ -> uu /uː/

u /u/ -> i /i/

uu /uː/ -> iew /eu/

iey /ei/ -> ay /ai/

iiey /eːi/ -> aay /aːi/

ay /ai/ -> uy /ui/

aay /aːi/ -> uuy /uːi/

uy /ui/ -> ii /iː/

iew /eu/ -> aw /au/

iiew /eːu/ -> aaw /aːu/

aw /au/ -> uow /ou/

aaw /aːu/ -> uuow /oːu/

 

Final Consonant is Hard

If the final consonant (not including any placeless nasal /ɴ/) is hard, change it to be soft e.g.

 

yuentuoro /jɨɴtoʁɔ/ - to introduce oneself, root

yuentuolo /jɨɴtolɔ/ - to introduce oneself, verb-focus

 

However, many vowels shift when this happens e.g.

 

nangariew /naŋaʁeu/ - to flow, root

nangaluu /naŋaluː/ - to flow, verb-focus

 

'kirami /kiʁami/ - to swell up, root

'kiramyu /kiʁamʲu/ - to swell up, verb-focus

 

imuepu /ʔimɨpu/ - to sit down, root

imuepya /ʔimɨpʲa/ - to sit down, verb-focus

 

These vowel changes are often the reverse of what happens if the final vowel of the stem is a soft consonant. The vowel shifts are all roughly clockwise around the vowel space, and are listed below:

i /i/ -> u /u/

u /u/ -> a /a/

uu /uː/ -> aa /aː/

a /a/ -> ie /e/

aa /aː/ -> iie /eː/

ie /e/ -> i /i/ * For some words only, see below.

iie /eː/ -> ii /iː/

ii /iː/ -> uy /ui/

uy /ui/ -> ay /ai/

uuy /uːi/ -> aay /aːi/

ay /ai/ -> iey /ei/

aay /aːi/ -> iiey /eːi/

iey /ei/ -> ii /iː/

iiey /eːi/ -> ii /iː/

uow /ou/ -> aw /au/

uuow /oːu/ -> aaw /aːu/

aw /au/ -> iew /eu/

aaw /aːu/ -> iiew /eːu/

iew /eu/ -> uu /uː/

iiew /eːu/ -> uu /uː/

 

Vowel Phonation Changes

A few verb stems that end in a hard consonant and ie /e/ behave differently. If the consonant is an obstruent and the vowel is short, has modal voice and not followed by -n /ɴ/, then the syllable is deleted and voice put onto the preceding syllable(s). This voice is breathy if the deleted obstruent was voiced, and tense if it was voiceless e.g.

 

nuetuozie /nɨtoze/ - to be fed on, root

nitù /nituɦ/ - to be fed on, verb-focus


sibetie /sibɘte/ - to all be present, root

sipáe /sipɛʔ/ - to all be present, verb-focus (remember that Antarctican does not like voiced obstruents before vowels with breathy voice).

 

The breathy voice “spreads” backwards through the word, changing vowel phonation with it, until it hits a voiceless obstruent or prestopped nasal e.g.

 

maduozie /madoze/ - to give birth, intransitive, root

`mòetù /mɜɦtuɦ/ - to give birth, intransitive, verb-focus

 

nyiibie /ɲiːbe/ - to snow, root

`nyùue /ɲɨːɦ/ - to snow, verb-focus

 

san-gizie /saɴgize/ - to bleed, root

sòen-gùe /sɜɦɴgɨɦ/ - to bleed, verb-focus

 

Tense voice "spreads" backwards in a similar way, except that it passes through voiceless stops and not through voiced stops, fricatives, or prestopped nasals e.g.


daraekie /daʁɛke/ - to cover, root

tárá /taʔʁaʔ/ - to cover, verb-focus

 


Noun-Focus Base

This is used to put focus on the (non-topicalised) noun(s) in the sentence.

 

Regular Formation

The default way of forming it is by putting breathy voice on the final vowel of the base, and changing the vowel quality in the same way as normal e.g.

 

íeypyii /ʔeiʔpʲiː/ - to spit out, root

íeypyùey /ʔeiʔpʲɨiɦ/ - to spit out, noun-focus

 

This breathy voice “spreads” to the left until it hits a voiceless obstruent or a prestopped nasal e.g.

 

guowpieyiie /goupejeː/ - to suffer a setback, root

guowpèyèe /goupɘɦjɘːɦ/ - to suffer a setback, noun-focus

 

inyieliie /ʔiɲeleː/ - to pierce, root

ùenyèlèe /ʔɨɦɲɘɦleː/ - to pierce, noun-focus

 

kivieluun /kiɥeluːɴ/ - to die, root

kùevèlùun /kɨɦɥɘɦluːɴɦ/ - to die, noun-focus

 

Remember that Antarctican only permits voiced obstruents, prestopped nasals, and fricatives other than /s/, before vowels with modal voice. So if this vowel phonation change would produce such a forbidden sequence, then the consonant changes e.g.

 

hlo /ɬɔ/ - to perform, root

lò /lɔɦ/ - to perform, noun-focus

 

These changes do not affect phonation spreading though, as we can see from:

 

maduozie /madoze/ - to give birth, intransitive, root

`mòetùsè /mɜɦtuɦsɘɦ/ - to give birth, intransitive, noun-focus

 

nyiibie /ɲiːbe/ - to snow, root

`nyùeypè /ɲɨipɘɦ/ - to snow, noun-focus

 

san-gizie /saɴgize/ - to bleed, root

sòenkùesè /sɜɴɦkɨɦsɜɦ/ - to bleed, noun-focus

 

When a consonant such as a voiceless obstruent or prestopped nasal blocks the phonation spreading, if the vowel preceding it is /ɨ/ or /ɘ/ with modal voice (or a diphthong beginning with one), then fronts to /i/ or /e/ respectively e.g.

 

yuentuoro /jɨɴtoʁɔ/ - to introduce oneself, root

yintùrò /jiɴtuɦʁɔɦ/ - to introduce oneself, noun-focus

 

imuepu /ʔimɨpu/ - to sit down, root

imipù /ʔimipuɦ/ - to sit down, noun-focus

 

nuetuozie /nitoze/ - to be fed on, root

nitùsè /nituɦsɘɦ/ - to be fed on, noun-focus

 

pensaa /pɘɴsaː/ - to be lost in deep thought, root

piensòoe /peɴsɜːɦ/ - to be lost in deep thought, noun-focus

 

If the vowel is /ɛ/, or a diphthong starting with /ɛ/, before the blocking consonant, then it lowers to /a/ e.g.

'kiraeypi /kiʁɛipi/ - to become scraped, root

'kiraypùe /kiʁaipɨɦ/ - to become scraped, noun-focus

 

Final Syllable Replacement

In addition to this, some verbs lose their final syllable, which is replaced with –zi e.g.

 

duolieegi /doleːgi/ - to drag, intransitive, root

tùlèezi /tuɦlɘːɦzi/ – to drag, intransitive, noun-focus (-gùe has been replaced with -zi).

 

bilidli /bilidɮi/ - to make it across, root

pùelùezi /pɨɦlɨɦzi/ - to make it across, noun-focus

 

This process happens under well defined conditions. Both of the last two syllables of the verb root must have modal voice. Also the final vowel must be a short /i/ and not followed by a nasal vowel. The consonant immediately before this must be a voiced obstruent. And, in the proto-language, the verb root must have had pitch-accent on any syllable other than the final one.

 

Restrictive / Non-Restrictive Modifiers

When verbs / adjectives are used as modifiers, the verb-focus form is used when the modifier is non restrictive ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness ), and the noun-focus form is used when the modifier is restrictive e.g. from the work tieyláae /teilɛʔː/ - shirt, we can say:

tieyláae `rèdla /teilɛːʔ ʁɘɦdɮa/ – a red shirt (non-restrictive)

tieyláae `rèdù /teilɛːʔ ʁɘɦduɦ/ – the red shirt (restrictive)


Verbalisation

Antarctican has a very productive process for to convert a noun N into an intransitive verb root meaning “to become N” / “to be N / to do what N does”. How this is done depends on the voicing of the last vowel of the absolutive form of the noun

 

Last Vowel of Abs. Form has Modal Voice

In this case, the verb root is identical to the absolutive form e.g.

 

zivie /ziɥe/ - boat, absolutive

zivie /ziɥe/ - to be a boat, verb root

 

buraza /buʁaza/ - brother, absolutive

buraza /buʁaza/ - to be a brother, verb root

 

yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ - employee, absolutive

yuenpiluy - /jɨɴpilui/ - employee, verb root

 

Other Cases

However, if the final vowel of the absolutive form has tense or breathy voice, the verb stem is formed from the ergative form of the noun, minus any final –n e.g.

 

ùylèn /ʔuiɦlɜɴɦ/ - island, absolutive

uoyliendun /ʔoileɴdun/ - island, ergative

uoyliendu /ʔoileɴdu/ - to be an island, verb root

 

píey /peiʔ/ - book, absolutive

píeykin /peiʔkiɴ/ - book, ergative

píeyki /peiʔki/ - to be a book, verb root

 

támá /taʔmaʔ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive

damaesin /damɛsiɴ/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative

damaesi /damɛsi/ - to be a victim of a scam / swindle, verb root

 

mòoe /mɜɦː/ - betel nut, absolutive

pmaagin /pmaːgiɴ/ - betel nut, ergative

pmaagi /pmaːgi/ - to be a betel nut, verb stem

 

`pùelùe /pɨɦlɨɦ/ - bridge, absolutive

bilidlin /bilidɮiɴ/ - bridge, ergative

bilidli /bilidɮi/ - to be bridge / to make it across, verb stem

 

`pòey /pɜiɦ/ - baby, absolutive

baybyin /baibʲiɴ/ - baby, ergative

baybyi /baibʲi/ - to be a baby, verb stem

 

pòey /pɜiɦ/ - page, absolutive

paydlin /paidɮiɴ/ - page, ergative

paydli /paidɮi/ - to be a page, verb stem

Transitivity

 

Whether a verb is transitive or intransitive (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitivity_(grammar)) is very important in Antarctican syntax. Unlike English, where a verb such as "drag" can either be used transitively (as in the sentence "He was dragging his pants along the ground"), or intransitively (as in the sentence "His pants were dragging along the ground"), Antarctican uses distinct verb roots for each case e.g.

 

duoliieju /doleːɟu/ - to drag, intransitive, verb-focus (as in "his pants were dragging along the ground")

dliieju /dɮeːɟu/ - to drag, transitive, verb-focus (as in "he was dragging his pants along the ground")

 

`tùlèezi /tuɦlɘɦːzi/ – to drag, intransitive, noun-focus

`tlèezi /tɬɘɦːzi/– to drag, transitive, noun-focus

 

Very commonly, transitive roots are formed from intransitive roots by deletion of the first vowel and the second consonant. And if, out of the first and second consonants, one was soft and the other hard, the first consonant is changed to agree in hardness / softness with the second (deleted) consonant e.g.

 

duolieegi /doleːgi/ - to drag, intransitive, root

dlieegi /dɮeːgi/ - to drag, intransitive, root

 

shinari /çinaʁi/ - to twist, intransitive, root

hari /χaʁi/ - to twist, transitive, root

 

The transitive roots are then inflected for focus e.g.

 

shinari /çinaʁi/ - to twist, intransitive, root

shinali /çinali/ - to twist, intransitive, verb-focus

yùenòerùe /jɨɦnɜɦʁɨɦ/ - to twist, intransitive, noun-focus

 

hari /χaʁi/ - to twist, transitive, root

hali /χali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus

ròerùe /ʁɜɦʁɨɦ/ - to twist, transitive, noun-focus


Voice and Object Marking

Grammatical voice is very important in Antarctican. It is conflated with pronominal object marking, both only affecting transitive verbs and usually using infixes that come immediately after the first consonant of the verb base. As with elsewhere in the language, these are not differentiated for number, although there is an inclusive and exclusive “us”.

Infixation

This is the default way of marking pronominal objects and grammatical voice. In each case there are two forms of the infix, one that contains a hard consonant that is used with verbs beginning with hard consonants, and another that contains a soft consonant that is used with verbs beginning with soft consonants. Note that there is no infix to mark 3rd person objects. Instead the antipassive voice is used. The infixes are listed below in pairs, with the hard version coming first and then the soft version.

Infixes for Voice and Object Pronouns
Hard Form Soft Form
1PS Exclusive iem imy
1PS Inclusive as iehl
2PS os ohl
who ar iel
what ab ieby
Reflexive ier il
Perfective Antipassive ut / úow(tq)s (see below) atl
Imperfective Antipassive am iemy
Superordinate át(q) áet(q)l


These come immediately after the first consonant of the verb base e.g.


damaehlu /damɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle, verb-focus

dosamaehlu /dɔsamɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle you, verb-focus


damaehlu /damɛɬu/ - to scam, verb-focus

diemamaehlu /demɛɬu/ - to scam me / us (not including you), verb-focus


All of the usual rules about phonation spreading apply e.g.


pyùu /pʲuːɦ/ - to purify, noun-focus

pyùemyùu /pʲɨɦmpʲuːɦ/ - to purify me / us (not including you, noun-focus

pyèlùu /pʲɘɦluːɦ/ - to purify who, noun-focus


The infixes with non-back vowels and voiceless consonants also undergo vowel mutation if the following vowel has modal voice. This is the exact same as has been described before for noun and verb prefixes e.g.


damaehlu /damɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle, verb-focus

daesamaehlu /dɛsamɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle us (including you), verb-focus

dieramaehlu /deʁamɛɬu/ - to scam / swindle oneself, verb-focus


If the first vowel of the verb base has breathy or tense voice, and the infix inserted would contain /ɬ/ (which can only occur before modal voice vowels), then it becomes /l/ and /tɬ/ respectively. However it still blocks the spread of the voicing e.g.


pyùu /pʲuːɦ/ - to purify, noun-focus

pyolùu /pʲɔluːɦ/ - to purify you, noun-focus

pyielùu /pʲeluːɦ/ - to purify ourselves (including you), noun-focus


The last example this is distinct from pyèlùu /pʲɘɦluːɦ/ - to purify who, noun-focus, which has breathy voice spreading onto the infix.

Note that, for the purposes of the syntax, using any of these infixes turns a transitive verb into an intransitive verb. This means that the subject of such an infixed verb can no longer take ergative case e.g.


  • yuenpiluoy - /jɨɴpiloi/ - employee, absolutive
  • yuenpiloy /jɨɴpilɔi/ - employee, ergative
  • sowdla - /sɨudɮ/ - soldier, absolutive
  • damasùe - /damas#616;ɦ/ - to scam / swindle, noun-focus


yuenpiloy damasùe sowdla

employee-ERG scam-NFCS soldier-ABS

An employee scammed a soldier


Above, we can see that the word for "employee" is in the ergative case, and must come before the verb. However, when the object is a pronoun, the word for "employee" must take the absolutive case e.g.


yuenpiluoy daesamasùe

employee-ABS <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam-NFCS

An employee scammed us (including you)


Antarctican also permits the subjects of intransitive verbs to come after the verb, so the following sentence is also grammatical (and perhaps more common):


daesamasùe yuenpiluoy

<1PS.INC.OBJ>scam-NFCS employee-ABS

An employee scammed us (including you)


Antipassive Voice


Antarctican has extremely productive antipassivisation (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipassive_voice). There are two infixes, which depend on whether the verb has perfective or imperfective aspect.


Perfective Antipassive

This is used for when the action described by the verb is not viewed as having any internal structure (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfective_aspect). It can be used for past, present or future actions e.g.


duetamasùe yuenpiluoy

<PFV.AP>scam-NFCS employee-ABS

An employee scammed / will scam (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).


However, remember that alveolar stops (e.g. /t/) can never occur before /i/ and /ʎ/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /eʔ/ and /ɘʔ/, nor before diphthongs starting with these. If a verb begins with a hard consonant followed by one of these vowels, a different infix is used, normally -úows- e.g.


inyieli-aa /ʔiɲeliʔaː/ - to pierce, verb-focus

úowsinyieli-aa /ʔouʔsiɲeliʔaː/ - to pierce, verb-focus, perfective antipassive


kivieliqiewn /kiɥeliʔeuɴ/ - to die, verb-focus

kúowsivieli-iewn /kouʔsiɥeliʔeuɴ/ - to die, verb-focus, perfective antipassive


sisíeychu /siseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus

súowsisíeychu /souʔsiseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus, perfective antipassive


However, if the first vowel of the verb root had tense voice, the ejective -tqs- is used instead e.g.


'kátla /kaʔtɬa/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb focus

'kúowtqsátla /kouʔtsʼaʔtɬa/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb-focus, perfective antipassive


íeypyi-iiey /ʔeiʔpʲiʔeːi/ - to spit out, verb-focus

úowtqsíeypyi-iiey /ʔouʔtsʼeiʔpʲiʔeːi/ - to spit out, verb-focus, perfective antipassive


Imperfective Antipassive

This is used for ongoing, habitual and repeated action (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperfective_aspect).

damamasùe yuenpiluoy

<IMPV.AP>scam-NFCS employee-ABS

An employee is / was / will be scamming (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).


Superordinate Voice

Like the antipassive, this also reduces a transitive verb's valency (the number of arguments it has, see here http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)) by one, and requires that its subject take the absolutive case. However, it requires some other verb to come afterwards to be subordinate to it e.g.


  • wuonnyie /woɴɲe/ - to want (something), verb-focus
  • wátuonnyie /waʔtoɴɲe/ - to want (to do something / something to happen), verb-focus


  • chiqiin /ciʔiːɴ/ - to fear (something), verb-focus
  • cháetliqiin /cɛtɬiʔiːɴ/ - to fear (that something will happen), verb-focus


So using the nouns below:

  • yuenpiluoy - /jɨɴpiloi/ - employee, absolutive
  • yuenpiloy /jɨɴpilɔi/ - employee, ergative
  • sowdla - /sɨudɮ/ - soldier, absolutive
  • sowdlan - /sɨudɮɴ/ - soldier, ergative
  • nayba /naiba/ - neighbour, absolutive
  • nayban /naibaɴ/ - neighbour, ergative
  • ton /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
  • taon /tɒɴ/ - change, ergative


We can say:


yuenpiloy wuonnyie ton

employee-ERG want-VFCS change-ABS

An employee wants change


yuenpiluoy wátuonnyie sowdla damasùe

employee-ABS <SPR>want-VFCS soldier-ABS scam-NFCS

An employee wants to scam a soldier.


Note that in the second sentence, the case for the word "employee" has changed from ergative to absolutive. And since Antarctican allows nouns in the absolutive case to also come after the verb, the following sentences would also be grammatical, and all mean roughly the same thing:


wátuonnyie yuenpiluoy sowdla damasùe

yuenpiluoy wátuonnyie damasùe sowdla

wátuonnyie yuenpiluoy damasùe sowdla


Similarly, using the verb meaning "to fear", we can say:


yuenpiluoy chiqiin sowdla

employee-ERG fear-VFCS soldier-ABS

The employee fears the soldier


yuenpiluoy 'cháetliqiin sowdla damasùe

employee-ERG <SPR>fear-VFCS soldier-ABS scam-NFCS

The employee fears he will scam / has scammed the soldier.


The words in this sentence can be ordered in the same fashion as before.


yuenpiluoy 'cháetliqiin sowdlan damasùe

employee-ERG <SPR>fear-VFCS soldier-ERG scam-NFCS

The employee fears the soldier will scam / has scammed him.


Here, while the word for "employee" can come after the verb meaning "to fear", the word for "soldier", cannot, since it takes the ergative case (as it is the subject of the transitive verb damasù meaning "to scam").


Vowel Replacement

All Antarctican verbs use infixation to mark 1st person exclusive objects, whom, what (as a direct object), reflexive objects, the imperfective antipassive, and the superordinate voice. However, there is a subset of verbs that use vowel replacement to mark 1st person inclusive objects, 2nd person objects, and the perfective antipassive.

These are verbs where either a) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /i/, the second vowel has breathy voice, and there is no nasal intervening (plain nasals, prestopped nasals, and the placeless nasal /ɴ/ all count) or b) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /ʎ/, which is immediately followed by a voiceless obstruent, without /ɴ/ intervening or c) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /ʎ/, which is immediately followed by an approximant and then a vowel with breathy voice, without /ɴ/ intervening

The vowel replacements depend on whether the verb begins with a hard or soft consonant, but are regular (and have tense voice) and given in the table below:


Vowel Replacements for Voice and Object Pronouns
Hard Form Soft Form
1PS Inclusive á áe
2PS óe óe
Perfective Antipassive N/A use the -íeys- infix instead úow


For example:


sisíeychu /siseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus

sásíeychu /saʔseiʔcu/ - to stab us (including you), verb focus

sóesíeychu /sɜʔseiʔcu/ - to stab you, verb focus


Note that the perfective antipassive form is created using the infix -iéys- i.e. síeysisíeychu /seiʔsiseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus, perfective antipassive. It is only with verbs starting with soft consonants that vowel replacement is used.


Also note that, for the other persons and voices, infixation is used e.g.

siemisíeychu /semiseiʔcu/ - to stab me / us (not including you), verb focus

sierisíeychu /seʁiseiʔcu/ - to stab oneself, verb focus

sarisíeychu /saʁiseiʔcu/ - to stab who, verb focus

sabisíeychu /sabiseiʔcu/ - to stab what, verb focus

samisíeychu /samiseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus, imperfective antipassive


More examples:


kiròemùe /kiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite, verb focus

kimyiròemùe /kimʲiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite me / us (not including you), verb focus

'káròemùe /kaʔʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite us (including you), verb focus

'kóeròemùe /kɜʔʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite you, verb focus

kieriròemùe /keʁiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite oneself, verb focus

kariròemùe /kaʁiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite who, verb focus

kabiròemùe /kabiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite what, verb focus

'kúowròemùe /kouʔʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite, verb focus, perfective antipassive

kamiròemùe /kamiʁɜɦmɨɦ/ - to bite, verb focus, imperfective antipassive


shuetinju /çɨtiɴɟu/ - to count, verb focus

shimyuetinju /çimʲɨtiɴɟu/ - to count me / us (not including you), verb focus

yáetinju /jɛʔtiɴɟu/ - to count us (including you), verb focus

yóetinju /jɜʔtiɴɟu/ - to count you, verb focus

shiluetinju /çilɨtiɴɟu/ - to count oneself, verb focus

shieluetinju /çelɨtiɴɟu/ - to count who, verb focus

shiebyuetinju /çebʲɨtiɴɟu/ - to count what, verb focus

yúowtinju /jouʔtiɴɟu/ - to count, verb focus, perfective antipassive

shiemyuetinju /çemʲɨtiɴɟu/ - to count, verb focus, imperfective antipassive


(The /ç/ is lenited to /j/ when the vowel is replaced, since Antarctican does not like words starting with fricatives other than /s/ if the next vowel has tense voice.


Reciprocal Voice

One other voice that needs to be mentioned here is the reciprocal voice. This carries to meaning of "to do to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb base e.g.


wuonnyie /woɴɲe/ - to want, verb focus

wuowuonnyie /wowoɴɲe/ - to want each other, verb focus


darakè /daʁakɘɦ/ - to cover, noun-focus

dadarakè /dadaʁakɘɦ/ - to cover each other, noun-focus


shuetinju /çɨtiɴɟu/ - to count, verb focus

shueshuetinju /çɨçɨtiɴɟu/ - to count each other, verb focus


However, the reduplicated syllable cannot contain a long vowel, a diphthong, or the placeless nasal /ɴ/. If the first syllable of the verb base contains any of these, then it is truncated e.g.


ziitlòeji /ziːtɬɜɦɟi/ - to know (a person), verb-focus

ziziitlòeji /ziziːtɬɜɦɟi/ - to know each other, verb-focus


yinwùumùe /jiɴwuːɦmɨ/ - to turn in, noun-focus

yiyinwùumùe /jijiɴwuːɦmɨ/ - to turn each other in, noun-focus


kaaeykyu /kɛːi&k#690;u/ - to sell, verb-focus

kaekaaeykyu /kɛkɛːikʲu/ - to sell each other, verb-focus


The reduplicated syllable has whatever floating phonation is at the start of the word e.g.


'kátla /kaʔtɬa/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb focus

'kákátla /kaʔkaʔtɬa/ - to make each other's acquaintance, verb focus


This may not be the same phonation as is on the first syllable of the word e.g.


'kamyu /kamʲu/ - to inflate (someone's ego), verb-focus

'kákamyu /kaʔkamʲu/ - to inflate each other('s ego), verb-focus


'kaypùe /kaipɨɦ/ - to scrape, noun-focus

'kákaypùe /kaʔkaipɨɦ/ - to scrape each other, noun-focus


Any changes to vowel quality that happen because of vowel phonation changes, also happen here e.g.


'puytlù /puitɬuɦ/ - to pick a fight, noun-focus

'púoyputlu /poiʔpuitɬuɦ/ - to pick a fight with each other, noun-focus


As well as all the other regular vowel quality changes that happen when a noun takes a prefix e.g.


hali /χali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus

haehali /χɛχali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus


As with reciprocal possession, a few verbs have irregular forms in the reciprocal voice e.g.


ròerùe /ʁɜɦʁɨɦ/ - to twist, transitive, noun-focus

haròerùe /χaʁɜɦʁɨɦ/ - to twist each other, transitive, noun-focus


Generally, if a noun has an irregular reciprocal possessive form, then any verbs derived from it will also have irregular reciprocal voice forms e.g.


wùerèn /wɨɦʀɘɴɦ/ - friend, absolutive

fiwùerèn /fiwɨɦʀɘɴɦ/ - friends (of each other), absolutive


wènzi /wɘɴɦ/ - to befriend, noun-focus

fiwènzi /fiwɘɴɦ/ - to befriend each other, noun-focus


These irregularities happen for the same reason in reciprocal verbs as they do in reciprocal nouns, namely because there is an underlying initial consonant that changes form to something else because it is before a vowel with breathy voice or tense voice (which prohibit some consonants from coming before it). However, if there is modal floating phonation, then the underlying forms can resurface in the reduplication.


Pronominal Subject Prefixes

Instead of using pronouns to indicate subject, Antarctican uses prefixes on verbs. Which prefix is used depends on the tense of the verb (normally unmarked). They do not inflect for number. They are listed in the table below:


Past Present Future
1PS Exclusive uy uomyi uow
1PS Inclusive chi wie wi
2PS nyin ya yu
3PS day die daw
Who / What wu hiew ri


Note that, for habitual actions in the present, the past tense is used. Also the present tense is used for imminent actions in the future (where English might use "about to").


Emphatic Forms

All of the pronomnial affixes have emphatic forms that are generated by lengthening the vowel e.g.


chisòen-gùe /cisɜɦɴgɨɦ/ you bleed, verb-focus

chiisòen-gùe /ciːsɜɦɴgɨɦ/ you (emphatic) bleed, verb-focus


However, the emphatic forms cannot be used with noun-focus forms, so while chisòenkùesè /cisɜɴɦkɨɦsɜɦ/ - to bleed, noun-focus is grammatical, chiisòenkùesè /ciːsɜɴɦkɨɦsɜɦ/ would not be.


This lengthening can also be used on infixes marking objects e.g.


pyoli-uu /pʲɔliʔuː/ - purify you, verb focus

pyooli-uu /pʲɔːliʔuː/ - purify you (emphatic), verb focus


If an object would be formed by vowel replacement (instead of an infix), then the emphatic form is created by lengthening the first vowel e.g.


sisíeychu /siseiʔcu/ - to stab, verb focus

sóesíeychu /sɜʔseiʔcu/ - to stab you, verb focus

sóoesíeychu /sɜːʔseiʔcu/ - to stab you (emphatic), verb focus


Syntax

Basic Word Order

Antarctican is a syntactically ergative (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language#Syntactic_ergativity), topic-prominent language (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topic-prominent_language). The basic word order is (Topic) (Ergative Noun) Verb (Absolutive Noun). So in intransitive sentences the word order is either V-S or S-V (if the subject is topicalised) e.g.


sowdla kivieli-iewn
sɔudɮa kiɥeliʔeuɴ
soldier.ABS die.VFCS

The soldier died.


kivieli-iewn sowdla
kiɥeliʔeuɴ sɔudɮa
die.VFCS soldier.ABS

A soldier died.


In transitive sentences, the possible word orders are S-V-O and O-S-V e.g.

sowdlan amielaykùe wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS frog.ABS

A soldier is hunting frogs.


If we topicalise the object, the sentence becomes:


wùerù sowdlan amielaykùe
wɨɦʁuɦ sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ
frog.ABS soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS

The frogs are being hunted by a soldier.


In SVO sentences, it is also possible to topicalise the subject. This does not create any "visible" effect in the word order, however it does mean that the subject takes the absolutive case e.g.


sowdla amielaykùe wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier.ABS hunt.NFCS frog.ABS

The soldier is hunting frogs.


Note that sentence can only have one topic, so if the object of a transitive sentence is topicalised, then the subject cannot be (and must therefore stay in the ergative case). Hence utterances like "wùeru sowdla amielaykùe" are ungrammatical.


Topicalisation and Possession

Antarctican has two 3rd person possessive prefixes that nouns can take, wa- and si-. They are not interchangable. When the possessor is the noun that has been taken up as the topic, wa- is used. If not, si- is used instead. Compare the following two sentences:


sowdla amielaeychu wawùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelɛicu wawɨɦʁuɦ
soldier.ABS hunt.NFCS TPCPOSS-frog.ABS

The soldier is hunting his frogs (i.e. the ones that the soldier owns).


sowdla amielaeychu siwùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelɛicu siwɨɦʁuɦ
soldier.ABS hunt.NFCS 3POSS-frog.ABS

The soldier is hunting his / her frogs (that someone else other than the soldier owns).


In both cases above, the soldier has been taken up as the topic, indicated by putting it immediately before a transitive verb (indicating that it is the subject of that verb), while keeping it in the absolutive case. Hence, whenever wa- is used, it indicates something belonging to the topic (i.e. the soldier). However, when si- is used, it indicates something belonging to someone or something other than the topic.


Now look at sentences where the soldier has not been topicalised (indicated by keeping it in the ergative case):


sowdlan amielaykùe wawùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wawɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS TPCPOSS-frog.ABS

A soldier is hunting his / her frogs (not belonging to the soldier, but to whoever / whatever has been taken up as a topic previously).


sowdlan amielaykùe siwùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ siwɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS 3POSS-frog.ABS

A soldier is hunting his / her frogs (This sentence is ambiguous, but most likely the frogs belong to the soldier, and definitely not to whoever / whatever has been taken up as a topic previously).


Similar differences in meaning apply in OVS sentences (i.e. where the object of a transitive verb has been topicalised) e.g.


sáaeynátqéy waesowdlan amielaeychu
sɛːiʔnaʔtʼɘiʔ wɛsɔudɮaɴ ʔamelɛicu
general.ABS TPCPOSS-soldier-ERG hunt.VFCS

The general is being hunted by his (own) soldiers.


sáaeynátqéy suesowdlan amielaeychu
sɛːiʔnaʔtʼɘiʔ sɨsɔudɮaɴ ʔamelɛicu
general.ABS 3POSS-soldier-ERG hunt.VFCS

The general is being hunted by his / her soldiers (not his own).


Implicit Topicalisation

Whenever a noun is the object of a transitive verb or the subject of an intransitive verb, it is, by default, taken up as the topic for any verbs following it e.g.


byaenka damaehlu sowdla wáetuow kaen-guchi wabiraza
bʲɛɴka damɛɬu sɨudɮ wɛʔtou kɛɴguci wabiʁaza
banker.ABS swindle.VFCS soldier.ABS occur during.NFCS be a prisoner.VFCS TPCPOSS-brother

The banker swindled the soldier while his brother was in prison (the soldier's brother).


While the phrase "his brother" in English translation is ambiguous (since both the banker and the soldier can be male), in Antarctican is not. It can only mean "the soldier's brother" because, by being the object of a transitive verb, the soldier has been implicitly taken up as the topic for the next utterance, which uses the topic possessive prefix wa-. However, if we replace wa- with si- the non-topicalised possessive prefix, then the meaning changes:


byaenka damaehlu sowdla wáetuow kaen-guchi sibiraza
bʲɛɴka damɛɬu sɨudɮ wɛʔtou kɛɴguci sibiʁaza
banker.ABS swindle.VFCS soldier.ABS occur during.NFCS be a prisoner.VFCS 3POSS-brother

The banker swindled the soldier while his brother was in prison.


In this case, it is not the soldier's brother that is in prison (most likely the banker's brother).


Serial Verbs

Antarctican often uses serial verb constructions.

Intransitive Verbs

If a verb is intransitive, it is simple to serialise it by placing another verb after it e.g.

sowdla byuowchi-i kivieli-iewn
sɔudɮa bʲouciʔi kiɥeliʔeuɴ
soldier.ABS sick.VFCS die.VFCS

The soldier got sick and died.


The subject comes either immediately before the first verb (as above), or immediately after it e.g.


byuowchi-i sowdla kivieli-iewn
bʲouciʔi sɔudɮa kiɥeliʔeuɴ
sick.VFCS soldier.ABS die.VFCS

The soldier got sick and died.


Of course, it is perfectly possible to string together three or more verbs e.g.


sowdla byuowchi-i sòen-gùe kivieli-iewn
sɔudɮa bʲouciʔi sɜɦɴgɨɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ
soldier.ABS sick.VFCS bleed.VFCS die.VFCS

The soldier got sick, bled, and died.


Transitive Verbs

It is also perfectly possible to use transitive verbs in serial verb constructions, subject to the constraint that all of the verbs share the same noun absolutive argument (i.e. object for transitive verbs, subject for intransitive verbs). Take the following sentence:


sowdlan kiròemùesè wùerù kivieli-iewn
sɔudɮaɴ kiʁɜɦmɨɦsɘɦ wɨɦʁuɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ
soldier-ERG bite.NFCS frog.ABS die.VFCS

A soldier bit a frog and it died.


This sentence can only ever mean that it was the frog that died. Topicalising the subject of the transitive verb (by putting it into the absolutive case) makes no difference to the meaning:

sowdla kiròemùesè wùerù kivieli-iewn
sɔudɮa kiʁɜɦmɨɦsɘɦ wɨɦʁuɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ
soldier.ABS bite.NFCS frog.ABS die.VFCS

The soldier bit a frog and it died.


Topicalising the object of the verb by putting it at the front of the sentence makes no difference either:


wùerù sowdlan kiròemùesè kivieli-iewn
wɨɦʁuɦ sɔudɮaɴ kiʁɜɦmɨɦsɘɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ
frog.ABS soldier-ERG bite.NFCS die.VFCS

The frog was bitten by a soldier and (it) died.


Antipassivisation

To say things like "The soldier bit a frog and died" (as in it was the soldier that died), then the verb meaning "to bite" must be converted into an intransitive verb by putting it in the antipassive voice e.g.

sowdla 'kúowròemùe kivieli-iewn
sɔudɮa kouʔʁɜɦmɨɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ
soldier.ABS <PFV.AP>bite.VFCS die.VFCS

The soldier bit it and died.


Patient Re-introduction

If we want to re-introduce the frog into the sentence, it needs to come after both the antipassivised verb and the subject, take the ergative case, and be followed by the oblique marker nyùe e.g.


'kúowròemùe sowdla wùerùgin `nyùe kivieli-iewn
kouʔʁɜɦmɨɦ sɔudɮa wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ ɲɨɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ
<PFV.AP>bite.NFCS soldier.ABS frog-ERG OBL die.VFCS

A soldier bit a frog and died.


The (now absolutive) argument of the verb can be topicalised by putting it at the front of the sentence e.g.


sowdla 'kúowròemùesè wùerùgin `nyùe kivieli-iewn
sɔudɮa kouʔʁɜɦmɨɦsɘɦ wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ ɲɨɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ
soldier.ABS <PFV.AP>bite.VFCS frog-ERG OBL die.VFCS

The soldier bit a frog and died.


However, the noun that was re-introduced with `nyùe cannot be topicalised, so the following sentence is ungrammatical:


wùerùgin `nyùe sowdla 'kúowròemùesè kivieli-iewn
wɨɦʁuɦgiɴ ɲɨɦ sɔudɮa kouʔʁɜɦmɨɦsɘɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ
frog-ERG OBL soldier.ABS <PFV.AP>bite.VFCS die.VFCS

The soldier bit a frog and died. (ungrammatical)


Subject Pronominal Affixes

Pronouns must be marked by prefixes on every single verb that they are the subject of in a serial verb construction e.g.


wuebyuowchi-i wuekivieli-iewn
wɨbʲouciʔi wɨkiɥeliʔeuɴ
1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-sick.VFCS 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-die.VFCS

We (including you) will get sick and die.


With transitive verbs, there is no need for antipassivisation if the subject is a pronoun e.g.


wuekiròemùe wùerù wuekivieli-iewn
wɨkiʁɜɦmɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ wɨkiɥeliʔeuɴ
1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT- bite.VFCS frog.ABS 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-die.VFCS

We (including you) will bite a frog and die.


Leaving the pronominal prefix off a verb in a serial verb construction means that that pronoun is no longer the subject of that verb. This changes the meaning entirely e.g.


wuekiròemùe wùerù kivieli-iewn
wɨkiʁɜɦmɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ
1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT- bite.VFCS frog.ABS 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-die.VFCS

We (including you) will bite a frog and it will die.


Note that, if a transitive verb takes a subject pronominal affix, then it can never take antipassive voice.


Relative Clauses

These follow the noun they modify. There are no relative pronouns or relativising particles. However, the accessibility hierarchy is very important in Antarctican (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_clause#Accessibility_hierarchy). Only absolutive arguments (objects of transitive verbs and subjects of intransitive verbs) can be relativised. So the following two phrases are grammatical:


wùerù kivieli-iewn
wɨɦʁuɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ
frog.ABS die.VFCS

The frog, which died.


wùerù sowdlan amielaykùe
wɨɦʁuɦ sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ
frog.ABS soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS

The frogs the soldier hunted.


However, to say "the soldier that hunted frogs", the verb must be put into the antipassive voice e.g.


sowdla utamielaykùe wùerù `nyùe
sɔudɮaɴ ʔutamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ ɲɨɦ
soldier.ABS <PFV.AP>hunt.NFCS frog.ABS OBL

The soldier that hunted frogs.


Once a transitive verb takes the antipassive voice, the oblique argument (i.e. what used to be its object) can be freely left out e.g.


sowdla utamielaykùe
sɔudɮaɴ ʔutamelaikɨɦ
soldier.ABS <PFV.AP>hunt.NFCS

The soldier that hunted.


Negation

Negation in Antarctican is achieved by using one of two particles, no /nɔ/ (known as general negation) and nay /nai/ (known as specific negation).

The Particle no /nɔ/ (General Negation)

The normal way to negate a sentence is to put this immediately before the verb e.g.


sowdlan amielaykùe wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS frog.ABS

Soldiers are hunting frogs.


sowdlan no amielaykùe wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG NEG.GEN hunt.NFCS frog.ABS

Soldiers aren't hunting frogs.


Either the noun-focus form of the verb (as above), or the verb-focus form can be used e.g.


sowdlan no amielaeychu wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelɛicu wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG NEG.GEN hunt.VFCS frog.ABS

Soldiers aren't hunting frogs.


The default position for the particle is immediately before the verb, however it can be moved to in front of a noun as well. Doing so puts emphasis on negating that noun e.g.


no sowdlan amielaykùe wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
NEG.GEN soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS frog.ABS

Soldiers aren't hunting frogs (but someone else is).


sowdlan amielaykùe no wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS NEG.GEN frog.ABS

Soldiers aren't hunting frogs (but they are hunting something else).


Note that in both of the above cases, the noun-focus form is used. Using the verb focus form "amielaykùe" here would be ungrammatical.


Also note that, if a noun is topicalised, then the particle cannot occur before it. So the following sentence is ungrammatical:


no.GEN sowdla amielaykùe wùerù
sɔudɮa ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
NEG.GEN soldier.ABS hunt.NFCS frog.ABS


The Particle nay /nai/ (Specific Negation)

This is always placed after a verb, which must be in the verb-focus form. It is used for negation with emphasis on the verb e.g.


sowdla amielaeychu nay wùerù
sɔudɮa ʔamelɛicu nai wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier.ABS hunt.VFCS NEG.SPFC frog.ABS

Soldiers aren't hunting frogs (but they are doing something else to them).


It is also used for negating a verb in a relative clause e.g.


wùerù kivieli-iewn `rèdla
wɨɦʁuɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ ʁɘɦdɮa
frog.ABS die.VFCS red.VFCS

The frog, which died, was red.


wùerù kivieli-iewn nay `rèdla
wɨɦʁuɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ nai ʁɘɦdɮa
frog.ABS die.VFCS NEG.SPFC red.VFCS

The frog, which didn't die, was red.


And since Antarctican makes no distinction between adjectives and verbs, and hence no distinction between an attributive adjective (one describing a noun), and a verb in a relative clause, this particle is also used to negate adjectives when they are describing nouns e.g.


sowdlan amielaykùe wùerù `rèdla
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ ʁɘɦdɮa
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS frog.ABS red.VFCS

Soldiers are hunting red frogs.


sowdlan amielaykùe wùerù `rèdla nay
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ ʁɘɦdɮa nai
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS frog.ABS red.VFCS NEG.SPFC

Soldiers aren't hunting red frogs (maybe they're hunting another colour).


Polar Questions

A Yes/No question is formed by using either the particle du /du/, or /ka/ /ka/. These are known as the general and specific interrogatives respectively, and the usage of them very closely parallels the /no/ and /nai/ negative particles.


The Particle du (General Interrogative)

The normal way to ask a polar question is to put this immediately before the verb e.g.


sowdlan amielaykùe wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS frog.ABS

Soldiers are hunting frogs.


sowdlan du amielaykùe wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ du ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG INT.GEN hunt.NFCS frog.ABS

Are soldiers hunting frogs?


Either the noun-focus form of the verb (as above), or the verb-focus form can be used e.g.


sowdlan du amielaeychu wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ du ʔamelɛicu wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG INT.GEN hunt.VFCS frog.ABS

Are soldiers hunting frogs?


The default position for the particle is immediately before the verb, however it can be moved to in front of a noun as well. Doing so puts emphasis on questioning that noun;s involvement in the event being described, rather than whether or not the event actually happened e.g.


du sowdlan amielaykùe wùerù
du sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
INT.GEN soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS frog.ABS

Are soldiers hunting frogs (or is it someone else)?


sowdlan amielaykùe du wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ du wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS INT.GEN frog.ABS

Are soldiers hunting frogs (or something else)?


Note that in both of the above cases, the noun-focus form is used. Using the verb focus form "amielaykùe" here would be ungrammatical.


Also note that, if a noun is topicalised, then the particle cannot occur before it. So the following sentence is ungrammatical:


du sowdla amielaykùe wùerù
du sɔudɮa ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
INT.GEN soldier.ABS hunt.NFCS frog.ABS


The Particle ka

This is always placed after a verb, which must be in the verb-focus form. It is used when the noun's involvement in the event is not in question, rather the question is about what the action was e.g.


sowdla amielaeychu ka wùerù
sɔudɮa ʔamelɛicu ka wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier.ABS hunt.VFCS INT.SPFC frog.ABS

Are soldiers hunting frogs (or doing something else to them)?


It is also used for questioning a verb in a relative clause e.g.


wùerù kivieli-iewn `rèdla
wɨɦʁuɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ ʁɘɦdɮa
frog.ABS die.VFCS red.VFCS

The frog, which died, was red.


wùerù kivieli-iewn ka `rèdla
wɨɦʁuɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ ka ʁɘɦdɮa
frog.ABS die.VFCS INT.SPFC red.VFCS

Was it the frog that died that was red?


And since Antarctican makes no distinction between adjectives and verbs, and hence no distinction between an attributive adjective (one describing a noun), and a verb in a relative clause, this particle is also used to question adjectives when they are describing nouns e.g.


sowdlan amielaykùe wùerù `rèdla
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ ʁɘɦdɮa
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS frog.ABS red.VFCS

Soldiers are hunting red frogs.


sowdlan amielaykùe wùerù `rèdla ka
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ ʁɘɦdɮa ka
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS frog.ABS red.VFCS INT.SPFC

Are soldiers hunting red frogs (or another colour)?


Other Questions

There are a whole host of other question particles in Antarctican, all of which have general and specific forms which follow the same syntactic rules as above.


Interrogative General Specific
Where / Which duku tuovi
When tùownká taensi
How (asking for a description) duonna chuowan
How much / How many / To what extent kùey chetnay
Why tówta tanmay


Below are some example questions using the words for "where":

sowdlan duku amielaykùe wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ duku ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG where.GEN hunt.NFCS frog.ABS

Where are soldiers are hunting frogs?


duku sowdlan amielaykùe wùerù
duku sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ
where.GEN soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS frog.ABS

Soldiers from where are hunting frogs?


sowdlan amielaykùe duku wùerù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ duku wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS where.GEN frog.ABS

Soldiers are hunting frogs from where?


As a specific interrogative particle, tuovi puts emphasis on a particular part of the question e.g.


sowdla amielaeychu tuovi wùerù
sɔudɮa ʔamelɛicu tuɥi wɨɦʁuɦ
soldier.ABS hunt.VFCS where.SPFC frog.ABS

Where are the soldiers hunting frogs (not doing anything else to them)?


wùerù kivieli-iewn tuovi `rèdla
wɨɦʁuɦ kiɥeliʔeuɴ tuɥi ʁɘɦdɮa
frog.ABS die.VFCS where.SPFC red.VFCS

The frog that died where was red?


sowdlan amielaykùe wùerù `rèdla tuovi
sɔudɮaɴ ʔamelaikɨɦ wɨɦʁuɦ ʁɘɦdɮa tuɥi
soldier-ERG hunt.NFCS frog.ABS red.VFCS where.SPFC

Where are soldiers hunting red frogs (as opposed to some other colour)?


Ditransitives

Antarctican differs from English in that it has secundative alignment (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secundative_language). Take, for example, the following sentence:


sowdlan òey yini
sɔudɮaɴ ʔɜiɦ jini
soldier-ERG give.NFCS dog.ABS

A soldier is giving (something to) a dog.


This can only ever mean that the soldier is giving something to a dog, never that the soldier is giving the dog to someone.


A similar situation is found when an object pronominal infix (which makes a verb intransitive for the purposes of case marking on and positioning of the subject) is used on the verb e.g.


asòey sowdla
ʔasɜiɦ sɔudɮ
<1PS.INC.OBJ>give.NFCS soldier.ABS

A soldier is giving (something to) us (including you).


If we want to introduce the Theme (whatever is being given), the default construction places it in the ergative case, followed by `wù /wuɦ/ and after the recipient e.g.


sowdlan òey yini aaehaan-ga `wù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔɜiɦ jini ʔɛːχaːɴga wuɦ
soldier-ERG give.NFCS dog.ABS food-ERG THEME

A soldier is giving food to a dog.


asòey sowdla aaehaan-ga `wù
ʔasɜiɦ sɔudɮ ʔɛːχaːɴga wuɦ
<1PS.INC.OBJ>give.NFCS soldier.ABS food-ERG THEME

A soldier is giving us food.


If we want to remove the Recipient from the sentence, then the verb must take the antipassive voice e.g.


òemòey sowdla aaehaan-ga `wù
ʔɜmɜiɦ sɔudɮ ʔɛːχaːɴga wuɦ
<IMPV.AP>give.NFCS soldier.ABS food-ERG THEME

A soldier is giving food.


Pronominal Themes

If the Theme is a pronoun, then instead of `wu taking a noun before it, it is prefixed with the same prefixes that mark subject on verbs (with breathy voice spread onto them) e.g.


sowdlan òey yini `wèwù
sɔudɮaɴ ʔɜiɦ jini wɘɦwuɦ
soldier-ERG give.NFCS dog.ABS <1PS.INCL.PRES>THEME

A soldier is giving us (including you) to a dog.


If the Recipient is omitted, then the verb takes the antipassive voice as before e.g.


òemòey sowdla `wèwù
ʔɜmɜiɦ sɔudɮa wɘɦwuɦ;
<IMPV.AP>give.NFCS soldier.ABS <1PS.INCL.PRES>THEME

A soldier is giving us (to something / someone).


Like the prefixes on verbs, these prefixes inflect for tense e.g.


òemòey sowdla chùewù
ʔɜmɜiɦ sɔudɮa cɨɦwuɦ;
<IMPV.AP>give.NFCS soldier.ABS <1PS.INCL.PAST>THEME

A soldier was giving us (to something / someone).


òemòey sowdla `wùewù
ʔɜmɜiɦ sɔudɮa wɨɦwuɦ;
<IMPV.AP>give.NFCS soldier.ABS <1PS.INCL.FUT>THEME

A soldier will be giving us (to something / someone).