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===Introduction===


<!--  
Thulean is the sole surviving member of the Insular branch of the Hercynian language family. It has an estimated 33 million speakers. The language is agglutinative and polysynthetic with an active-stative morphosyntax of the fluid-S subtype. It is written using the Latin alphabet as is universal amongst Western European languages.


This is a short reminder of the language format policy.
===Phonology===


I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration, ideas, and so on).
A) PHONEME INVENTORY
II. Write a short introduction to your language. (Who speaks it? When was it created? By whom? or what? are some example questions that can be answered here)
III. Once done, try making sure everything is properly spelt so as to avoid unnecessary reader fatigue.


-->
1) CONSONANTS


==Introduction==
NASAL:


===Description===
-fortis: /mb, nd, Ng/
The Thulean language (endonym: Minigkaksi) has an agglutinative and polysynthetic morphology. Its morphosyntactic alignment is split intransitive with the fluid-S subtype. It is left-branching and double-marking. Thulean is a language isolate and has not been proven to belong to any established language family, although speculative suggestions of links between it and the Uralic or Uralo-Siberian families have been made in the past. Also, of course, not unexpectedly, there are the wild claims of a relationship between Thulean and the usual suspects of Sumerian, Etruscan or Basque. It is spoken by the Selhat or Thuleans and has a total number of speakers exceeding 30 million.


===The Thurse===
-lenis: /m, n, N/


Thurse is the collective name in English for the European pygmy phenotype. Thurse males and females are similar in stature and have an average height of between 135 to 140 cm. They are pale-skinned with a distinctive pattern of dark stripes for which their clade is best known and have straight or wavy hair. Red hair is more common among the Thurse than any other phenotypical group. High androgyny among Thurse males and high neoteny among both sexes are also notable traits. The Thurse belong to several ethnic groups, the largest of which is the Selhat or Thuleans who occupy Thule (endonym: Telku) the westernmost of the British Isles. The Thurse phenotype is believed to have originated in the Hercynian forest zone of central Europe, diverging from other Palaeolithic populations in Europe approximately ten thousand years ago. The Thurse have no connection with the pygmy populations of the tropics.
LIQUID:


===Influences===
-fortis: /rd, ld/


The phonology is inspired by the phonaesthetics of Finnish and Quenya (the Vanyarin dialect specifically) but twisted towards my sensibilities. I just love lateral obstruents, you know? And I'm not excessively fond of /f/
-lenis: /r, l/
Also, the Samic languages have left their mark on Thulean's system of consonant gradation. The morphology is heavily influenced by Yupik and Inuktitut.


===Goals===
PLOSIVE:


My intention is to create a polysynthetic elflang that is relatively easy for me to pronounce and which won't have a grammar too complex for me to use. We'll see how it goes.
-fortis: /pp, tt, kk/


-lenis: /p, t, k/


FRICATIVE:


<!-- ***Phonology*** -->
-fortis: /ss, xx/
<!-- What sounds does your language use? -->
<!-- Here are some example sub-/other categories:


Vowel inventory
-lenis: /s, x/
Consonant inventory
Syllable structure
Stress
Intonation


-->
APPROXIMANT: /v, D, j/


==Phonology==
2) VOWELS
===Orthography===
1) Thulean is written in the Latin script. The spelling is primarily phonemic but will change to indicate the effects of sandhi and consonant gradation. The current alphabet was adopted in 1898 and underwent its last revision in 1965. The orthography is listed in the tables below:


a) MONOPHTHONGS: /i, u, a/


a) Consonants
b) DIPHTHONGS: /@U, OI, aI, aU/


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
B) ALLOPHONES
! colspan="3" rowspan="2"| !! rowspan="2"| Labial !! rowspan="2"| Dental !! colspan="2"|Alveolar !! rowspan="2"|Palatal !! colspan="2"|Velar !! rowspan="2"|Glottal
|-
! Central !! Lateral !! Plain !! Labialised
|-
! rowspan="4"| Sonorant !! rowspan="2"| Nasal !! Fortis
| mm || || nn || || nnj || gg || ggw || rowspan="5"|
|-
! Lenis
| m || || n || || nj || g || gw
|-
! rowspan="2"| Liquid !! Fortis
| || || rr || ll || llj || colspan="2"|
|-
! Lenis
| || || r || l || lj || colspan="2"|
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"|Stop !! Fortis
| pp || || tt || ttl || ttj || kk || kkw
|-
! Lenis
| p || || t || tl || tj || k || kw || q
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"|Fricative !! Fortis
| || þþ || ss || ssl || ssj || xx || xxw || rowspan="3"|
|-
! Lenis
| || þ || s || sl || sj || x || xw
|-
! colspan="3"| Approximant
| v || colspan="3"| || j || h || w
|}


1) /N/ is realised as [g] in word-initial position and in onset position following a coda consonant.


b) Vowels
2) All fortis obstruents are realised as lenis plosives in intervocalic position.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; border-spacing: 20px;"
3) All lenis plosives and /s/ are voiced in intervocalic position.
|-
! colspan="2"|
! Front
! Back
|-
! rowspan="2" | Monophthong
! High
| i
| u
|-
! Low
| e
| a
|-
! colspan="2" | Diphthong
| ai
| au
|}


4) /x/ is realised as [Z] in intervocalic position.


2) Thulean uses Arabic numerals to represent numbers.
5) /D/ is realised as [T] in word-final position.


===Consonants===
6) /i, u/ are realised as [E, O] when preceding a liquid coda or fortis liquid.


Thulean has 45 consonant phonemes which according to WALS is a large inventory. These are listed in the table below:
7) /i, u/ are reslised as [E, O] when adjacent to /v, j/.


C) ORTHOGRAPHY


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
"a" = /a/


!  rowspan="2" colspan="3"|
"ai" = /aI/
!  rowspan="2"| Labial
! rowspan="2"| Dental
!  colspan="2"| Alveolar
!  rowspan="2"| Palatal
!  colspan="2" |Velar
! rowspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!  |Central
!  |Lateral
!  |Plain
!  |Labialised
|-
! rowspan="4" | Sonorant
! rowspan="2"| Nasal
! Fortis
| /mb/
|
| /nd/
|
| /ɲʤ/
| /ŋg/
| /ŋg<sup>w</sup>/
|
|-
! Lenis
| /m/
|
| /n/
|
| /ɲ/
|  /ŋ/
| /ŋ<sup>w</sup>/
|
|-
! rowspan="2"| Liquid
! Fortis
|
|
| /rd/
| /ld/
| /ʎʤ/
|
|
|
|-
! Lenis
|
|
| /r/
| /l/
| /ʎ/
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| Stop
! Fortis
|  /pp/
|
|  /tt/
|  /ttɬ/
| /ttʃ/
| /kk/
| /kk<sup>w</sup>/
|
|-
! Lenis
| /p/
|
| /t/
| /tɬ/
| /tʃ/
| /k/
| /k<sup>w</sup>/
| /ʔ/
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"|Fricative
! Fortis
|
| /θθ/
|  /ss/
|  /ɬɬ/
|  /ʃʃ/
| /xx/
| /xx<sup>w</sup>/
|
|-
! Lenis
|
| /θ/
|  /s/
|  /ɬ/
| /ʃ/
| /x/
| /x<sup>w</sup>/
|
|-
! colspan="3" | Approximant
| /v/
|
|
|
| /j/
| /h/
| /w/
|
|}


===Vowels===
"au" = /aU/


Thulean has 4 vowel phonemes which according to WALS is a small inventory. There are also 2 diphthongs. The consonant to vowel ratio is 11.25 which according to WALS is high. The vowels are listed in the table below:
"g" = /N/


"gg" = /Ng/


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; border-spacing: 20px;"
"h" = /x/
|+
|-
! colspan="2"|
! Front
! Back
|-
! rowspan="2" | Monophthong
! High
| /i/
| /u/
|-
! Low
| /ɛ/
| /ɑ/
|-
! colspan="2" | Diphthong
| /ai/
| /au/
|}


===Allophony===
"hh" = /xx/


1) Nasals are realised as their corresponding voiced stop when following a liquid coda.
"i" = /i/


2) Fortis obstruents are realised as their corresponding lenis obstruents in intervocalic position.
"iu" = /@U/


3) All lenis stops, but not the glottal stop, are aspirated in word-initial position.
"j" = /j/


4) /p, t, tɬ, ʧ, k, kʷ,  θ, s, ɬ, ʃ, x, xʷ/ are voiced in intervocalic position.
"k" = /k/


5) /x/ is realised as [ʃ] in coda position.
"kk" = /kk/


6) /ɑ/ is realised as [ɔ] before a fortis liquid onset or a liquid coda.
"l" = /l/


===Prosody===
"ll" = /ld/
====Stress====
Thulean has stress accent. Primary stress falls within the root. Open syllables without a diphthong are light; open syllables with a diphthong or closed syllables are heavy. Fortis consonants close the syllable preceding them. If the first syllable of a root is heavy then the primary stress falls there otherwise it falls upon the second syllable of the root.The stress placement within a root is fixed so is not affected by consonant gradation.


====Intonation====
"m" = /m/
Secondary stress falls upon every alternate syllable after the primary stress. This gives Thulean a broadly iambic rhythm. Thulean does not have phonemic tone.


===Phonotactics===
"mm" = /mb/
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
1) The syllable template in Thulean is CV(C).


2) Permitted syllable codas:
"n" = /n/


a) Morpheme-medial only: /ɲ, ŋ, r, l, ʎ, p, s/
"nn" = /nd/


b) Morpheme-medial and morpheme-final: /m, n, t, k, θ, x/
"p" = /p/


3) Fortis consonants may not occur in word-initial position.
"pp" = /pp/


4) Fortis consonants may not occur in the onset of closed syllables.
"q" = /D/


5) Consonant clusters may have no more than two segments.
"r" = /r/


6) Consonant clusters may only occur across syllable boundaries.
"rr" = /rd/


7) But suffixes may begin with a consonant cluster.
"s" = /s/


8) Permitted consonant clusters as per table below:
"ss" = /ss/


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
"t" = /t/
!
! m
! n
! ɲ
! ŋ
! p
! t
! tɬ
! ʧ
! kʷ
! ʔ
! θ
! s
! ɬ
! ʃ
! x
! xʷ
! v
! j
! h
! w
|-
! m
| colspan = "4" style = "background: silver"| || mp || colspan = "4" style = "background: silver"| || mʔ || colspan = "6" style = "background: silver"| || mv || colspan = "3" style = "background: silver" |
|-
! n
| colspan = "5" style = "background: silver"| || nt || ntɬ || colspan = "2" style = "background: silver" | || nʔ || nθ ||ns || colspan = "8" style = "background: silver"|
|-
! ɲ
| colspan = "7" style = "background: silver"| || ɲʧ || colspan = "5" style = "background: silver"| || ɲʃ || colspan = "6" style = "background: silver" |
|-
! ŋ
| colspan = "8" style = "background: silver"| || ŋkʷ || ŋʔ || colspan = "4" style = "background: silver"| || ŋx || ŋxʷ || colspan = "2" style = "background: silver" | || ŋh || style = "background: silver" |
|-
! r
| rm || rn || rɲ || rŋ ||  rp || rt || rtɬ || rʧ || rkʷ || rʔ || rθ||rs || rɬ || rʃ || rx || rxʷ || rv || rj || rh || rw
|-
! l
| lm || colspan = "2" style = "background: silver"| || lŋ  || lp || lt || colspan = "2" style = "background: silver"| ||  lkʷ|| lʔ ||lθ|| ls || colspan = "2" style = "background: silver"| || lx || lxʷ || lv || style = "background: silver"| || lh || lw
|-
! ʎ
| colspan = "7" style = "background: silver"| || ʎʧ || colspan = "5" style = "background: silver"| || ʎʃ || colspan = "6" style = "background: silver" |
|-
! p
| colspan = "10" style = "background: silver"| || pθ|| ps || colspan = "2" style = "background: silver"| || px || colspan = "5" style = "background: silver"|
|-
! t  
| colspan = "10" style = "background: silver"| ||tθ || ts || colspan = "2" style = "background: silver"| || tx || colspan = "5" style = "background: silver"|
|-
! k
| colspan = "10" style = "background: silver"| || kθ ||ks|| colspan = "2" style = "background: silver"| || kx || colspan = "5" style = "background: silver"|
|-
! θ
| colspan = "4" style = "background: silver"| || θp|| θt||θtɬ||θʧ||θkʷ||θʔ||colspan = "10" style = "background: silver"|
|-
! s
| colspan = "4" style = "background: silver"| || sp|| st|| stɬ || sʧ ||skʷ || sʔ || colspan = "10" style = "background: silver"|
|-
! x
| colspan = "4" style = "background: silver"| || xp|| xt|| xtɬ || xʧ || xkʷ || xʔ|| colspan = "10" style = "background: silver"|
|}


9) High vowels may not occur before a liquid coda.
"tt" = /tt/


10) /i/ may not occur after an onset of /j/.
"u" = /u/


11) /u/ may not occur after an onset of /w/.
"ui" = /OI/


12) Diphthongs may only occur in the first syllable of a root or in monosyllabic particles.
"v" = /v/


13) Diphthongs may not occur in a closed syllable.
Historical note: /D/ was originally written with "þ". However, when printing was introduced to Thule, no type was available for that letter so "q" was substituted instead.


14) Diphthongs may not precede a fortis consonant.
The spelling of Thulean is generally phonemic except that the effects of consonant gradation and sandhi are indicated.


15) Diphthongs may not precede /j, w/.
D) PROSODY


===Morphophonology===
Thulean has fixed initial primary stress. Secondary stress falls on every alternate syllable following the primary stress. Rhythm type is trochaic.
===Consonant Gradation===


1) Consonant gradation is word-internal lenition that effects the following:
E) PHONOTACTICS


a) Fortis consonants
1) The syllable template is (C)V(C).


b) Lenis stops following a sonorant coda or a vowel
2) Consonant clusters only occur at syllable boundaries.


2) Consonant gradation is triggered by the closing of a syllable which begins with the above classes of obstruents.
3) Permitted consonant clusters:


3) Consonant gradation proceeds as per the tables below:
a) /m/ + /p/


b) /n/ + /t, s/


a) Fortis consonants, and lenis stops following a liquid coda or a vowel:
c) /N/ + /k, x/


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
d) /r/ + /m, N, p, t, k, s, x, v, j/
! GRADE I !! GRADE II !! GRADE III
|-
| mb || m || style = "background: silver" rowspan="8" |
|-
| nd || n
|-
| ɲʤ || ɲ
|-
| ŋg || ŋ
|-
| ŋgʷ || ŋʷ
|-
| rd || r
|-
| ld || l
|-
| ʎʤ || ʎ
|-
| pp || p || v
|-
| tt || t || r
|-
| ttɬ || tɬ || l
|-
| tʧ || ʧ || j
|-
| kk || k || h
|-
| kkʷ || kʷ || w
|-
| θθ || θ ||  style = "background: silver" rowspan="6" |
|-
| ss || s  
|-
| ɬɬ || ɬ
|-
| ʃʃ || ʃ
|-
| xx || x  
|-
| xxʷ || xʷ
|}


e) /l/ + /m, N, p, t, k, s, x, v, j/


b) Lenis stops following a nasal:
f) /p, t, k/ + /s/
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
! GRADE I !! GRADE II
|-
| mp || mb
|-
| nt || nd
|-
| ntɬ || ld
|-
| ɲʧ || ɲʤ
|-
| ŋk || ŋg
|-
| ŋkʷ || ŋgʷ
|}


g) /s/ + /p, t, k/


4) Permitted word-final codas: /m, n, t, k, s, D/


4) Consonant gradation occurs after /i/ epenthesis and metathesis from sandhi but before sandhi proper.
5) Vowels in hiatus do not occur.


===Sandhi===
6) Diphthongs may not occur in a closed syllable, before a fortis consonant or before /P, j/.


1) In Thulean, sandhi is the term given to interactions between consonants at morpheme boundaries.
F) SANDHI


2) An epenthetic /i/ is inserted after the first segment of the following types of epenthetic clusters:
1) Sandhi occurs at morpheme boundaries as a result of suffixation.


a) morpheme coda + fortis consonant
2) The resulting sandhi transformations are as follows:


b) morpheme coda + consonant cluster
a) /m, n, N/ + /m, n, N/ > [mb, nd, Ng]


3) If a prefix ends in a consonant then an epenthetic /i/ is inserted between the prefix and the following root.
b) /m, n, N/ + /r/ > [rd, rd, rd]


4) All other sandhi interactions are resolved as per the table below:
c) /m, n, N/ + /l/ > [ld, ld, ld]


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
d) /m, n, N/ + /v, D, j/ > [mb, nd, Ng]
!
! m
! n
! ɲ
! ŋ
! ŋʷ
! r
! l
! ʎ
! p
! t
! tɬ
! ʧ
! k
! kʷ
! ʔ
! s
! ɬ
! ʃ
! x
! xʷ
! v
! j
! h
! w
|-
! m
| rowspan ="2"| mb || rowspan ="2"| nd || rowspan ="2"| ɲʤ || rowspan ="2"| ŋg || rowspan ="2"| ŋgʷ || rowspan ="2"| rd || rowspan ="2"| ld || rowspan ="2"| ʎʤ || rowspan ="2"| mp || rowspan ="2"| nt || rowspan ="2"| ntɬ || rowspan ="2"| ɲʧ || rowspan ="2"| ŋk || rowspan ="2"| ŋkʷ || mʔ || rowspan ="2"| ns || rowspan ="2"| nθ || rowspan ="2"| ɲʃ || rowspan ="2"| ŋx || rowspan ="2"| ŋxʷ || rowspan ="2"| mv || rowspan ="2"| ɲ || rowspan ="2"| ŋh || rowspan ="2"| ŋʷ
|-
! n
| nʔ
|-
! t
| colspan = "2" | nt || rowspan = "2" | ɲʧ || nt || rowspan = "2" | ŋkʷ || rt || tɬ || rowspan = "2"| ʎʧ || rowspan = "2"| pp || rowspan = "2"| tt || rowspan = "2"| ttɬ || rowspan = "2"| tʧ || rowspan = "2"| kk || rowspan = "2"| kkʷ || tt || ts || rowspan = "2"| tɬ || rowspan = "2"| ʧ|| tx || rowspan = "2"| kkʷ|| rowspan = "2"| kʷ || rowspan = "2"| ʧ || tx || rowspan = "2" | kʷ
|-
! k
| colspan = "2" | ŋk || ŋk || rk || lk || kk || ks || kx || kx
|-
! x
| colspan = "2" | ŋx || nʃ || ŋx || ŋxʷ || rx || lx || ʎʃ || ʃp || ʃt || ʃtɬ || ʃʧ || ʃk || ʃkʷ || xʔ || ss || ɬɬ || ʃʃ || xx || colspan = "2" | xxʷ || ʃ || xx || xʷ
|}


e) /m, N/ + /t, s/ > [nt, ns]


4) If owing to suffixation a high vowel should precede a fortis liquid onset or a liquid coda then it is lowered to its corresponding low vowel.
f) /m, n/ + /k, x/ > [Nk, Nx]


==Morphology==
g) /n, N/ + /p/ > [mp]
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->


<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
h) /r, l/ + /n/ > [nd]


Nouns
i) /r, l/ + /r, l/ > [rd, ld]
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology


-->
j) /r, l/ + /D/ > [rd, ld]


===General Notes===
k) /p, t, k/ + /p, t, k/ > [pp, tt, kk]


Thulean morphology has the following constituents:
l) /p, t, k, s/ + /v/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]


1) Roots: these are divided into nominal and verbal roots. The latter are divided into transitive and intransitive categories.
m) /p, t, k, s/ + /D/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]


2) Postbases: these are derivational or adjunctival suffixes which directly follow the root. They are scope-ordered.
n) /p, t, k, s/ + /j/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]


3) Inflectional affixes: these bear functions such as case, number, possession, agent, patient, tense amongst others. The usual bread and butter, nuts and bolts stuff that inflection does.
G) CONSONANT GRADATION


4) Particles: Conjunctions, interjections and other miscellany that do not fit into the above categories.
1) This process affects fortis consonants and lenis plosives following a nasal, liquid or vowel.


===Nominal Morphology===
2) It is triggered if the consonants in question form the onset of a closed syllable due to suffixation.
===Nominal Structure===
1) Noun template:


case prefix + nominal or verbal root + postbase(s)+ number suffix + possessive suffix or indefinite suffix + demonstrative suffix
3) The gradation sequences are as follows:


2) A minimally inflected noun has a case prefix and a number suffix.
a) /mp/ > /mb/ > /m/


3) Postbases will be covered in the own separate section after verbs.
b) /nt/ > /nd/ > /n/


===Cases===
c) /Nk/ > /Ng/ > /N/
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|+ '''Nominal Case Declension'''
|-
! Case
! Prefix
! Function
! Examples
|-
!Absolutive
| Ø-
|
*Marks the nominal citation form
*Marks the O argument of a transitive verb
*Marks the stative S argument of an intransitive verb
*Marks the recipient of a ditransitive verb
|
|-
! Ergative
| qa-
|
*Marks the A argument of a transitive verb
*Marks the active S argument of an intransitive verb
*Marks the possessor of a possessive noun phrase
|
|-
! Instrumental
| ki-
|
*Indicates the use of an instrument or tool
*Marks the the focus of an intransitive verb of perception, cognition or affection of stative S arguments
*Marks direct causal arguments
*Marks the theme of a ditransitive verb
|
|-
! Locative
| jet-
|
*Indicates location or place
*Indicates time, event, or occasion
*Marks the locative comitative
*Marks infinite verbal forms in periphrastic constructions
|
|- 
! Allative
| nu-
|
*Indicates direction, goal, or destination
*Marks the focus of an intransitive verb of perception, cognition or affection of active S arguments
*Encodes spatial or temporal relations in conjunction with terminative markers (e.g. up to, until, as far as)
*Marks the beneficiary of an action
*Marks for the purpose of, for the use of
|
|-
! Ablative
| pik-
|
*Indicates motion away from
*Indicates origin
*Indicates distance from a reference point
*Indicates time since an event occurred
*Encodes partitive relations (part of, made from, some of)
*Marks the focus of intransitive malefactive/adversarial verbs
*Encodes aversive case relations (for fear of, lest, in case of)
|
|- 
! Perlative
| me-
|
*Indicates motion through, across or along
*Indicates path, means or mode of transport or transmission
*Indicates duration
*Marks the instrumental or collaborative comitative
*Marks indirect causal arguments
*Encodes distributive functions
|
|-
! Equative
| sin-
|
*Indicates similarity in manner, likeness or composition
*Encodes comparative marking (as, than)
*Marks ordinality in numerals
*Serves as a topicalizer (e.g. regarding, concerning, about, as for)
|
|}


<!--
d) /rp/ > /rP/
1) Case prefixes:


ABS(olutive): Ø-
e) /rt/ > /rd/ > /r/


NOM(inative): a-
f) /rk/ > /rj/


INST(rumental): ki-
g) /lp/ > /lP/


LOC(ative): jet-
h) /lt/ > /ld/ > /ll/


ALL(ative): nu-
i) /lk/ > /lj/


ABL(ative): pik-
j) /pp/ > /p/ > /P/


PER(lative): me-
k) /tt/ > /t/ > /D/


EQU(ative): sin-
l) /kk/ > /k/ > /j/


m) /ss/ > /s/


2) Case Functions:
n) /xx/ > /x/


a) Absolutive Case:


i) Marks the citation form of a noun.


ii) Marks the O argument of a transitive verb.
[[Category:Sketchlangs]]
 
iii) Marks the stative S argument of an intransitive verb.
 
iv) Marks the recipient of a ditransitive verb.
 
b) Nominative Case:
 
i) Marks the A argument of a transitive verb.
 
ii) Marks the active S argument of an intransitive verb.
 
iii) Marks the possessor of a possessive noun phrase
 
c) Instrumental Case:
 
i) Marks the use of an instrument or tool.
 
ii) Marks the the focus of an intransitive verb of perception, cognition or affection if the S argument is stative.
 
iii) Marks direct causation.
 
iv) Marks the theme of a ditransitive verb.
 
d) Locative Case:
 
i) Marks location or place.
 
ii) Marks occasion, time or event.
 
iii) Marks the locative comitative.
 
iv) Marks the infinite form of the verb in periphrastic constructions.
 
e) Allative Case:
 
i)Marks destination or motion towards.
 
ii) Marks the focus of an intransitive verb of an intransitive verb of perception, cognition or affection if the S argument is active.
 
iii) Marks terminative relations (up to, until, as far as) spatially and temporarally.
 
iv) Marks benefactive relations (for, on behalf of).
 
f) Ablative Case:
 
i) Marks origin or motion away from.
 
ii) Marks distance from, time since.
 
iii) Marks the focus of intransitive verbs of opposition or repulsion.
 
iv) Marks aversive functions (for fear of, lest, in case of).
 
g) Perlative Case:
 
i) Marks motion through, across or along.
 
ii) Marks duration.
 
iii) Marks path, means or mode of transport or transmission.
 
iv) Marks the instrumental or collaborative comitative.
 
v) Marks indirection causation.
 
h) Equative Case:
 
i) Marks similarity in manner, likeness or composition.
 
ii) Marks comparative functions (as, than).
 
iii) Marks topical functions (re, regarding, concerning, about, as for).
 
===Postbases===
 
Postbases are covered on their own section.
-->
 
===Number===
1) For the purposes of number, Thulean nouns are divided into count nouns and mass nouns.
 
2) For count nouns there are two systems of number:
 
a) singular-plural
 
b) collective-singulative
 
3) The singular-plural system works as it does in most European languages, the singular form of the noun is default and marks a single instance of that noun. The plural form marks multiple instances of that noun. EG:
 
SG: kattu = cat
 
PL: katut = cats
 
4) With the collective-singulative system the collective form of the noun is default and marks multiple instances of that noun. The singulative form marks a single instance of that noun. Collective nouns usually indicate entities that are found in groups. EG:
 
COL: makku = pigs
 
SGV: makux = pig
 
5) Mass nouns are considered to be pluralia tanta and thus use the collective-singulative system. The collective form indicates a lump or mass and the singulative form indicates a part of that lump or mass. EG:
 
COL: ninta = water
 
SGV: ninnax = a drop or sip of water
 
6) Number suffixes:
 
a) After vowel:
 
PL: -t
 
SGV: -x
 
b) After consonant or before suffix:
 
PL: -ta
 
SGV: -xe
 
===Possession===
1) Pronominal Possession:
 
This is indicated by the following set of suffixes:
 
1SG: -nne
 
2SG: -gke
 
3SG ANIM: -nte
 
3SG INAN: -mme
 
4SG ANIM: -lle
 
4SG INAN: -nse
 
1PL EXCL: -gka
 
1PL INCL: -ppa
 
2PL: -kka
 
3PL ANIM: -tta
 
3PL INAN: -mma
 
4PL ANIM: -lka
 
4PL INAN: -ksa
 
EG:
 
a)
 
tlannante
 
= her children
 
b)
 
tlannaxeppa
 
= our child
 
2) Nominal Possession:
 
This is indicated by the following construction:
 
NOM + possessor possessum + pronominal possessive suffix.
 
EG:
 
qakimex katunte = the woman's cat
 
qa-kimex kattu-nte
 
ERG-woman cat-3SG.ANIM.POS
 
===The Indefinite===
1) The indefinite suffix -li imparts the meaning of a, a certain, some, any.
 
EG:
 
jelelli = a valley
 
2) Used with the ablative case has the meaning any of, any one of.
 
EG:
 
a)
 
pikiselhat telli
 
= any one of the people
 
pik-selka-t tin-li
 
ABL-person-PL 3SG.ANIM.PRON-INDEF
 
b)
 
pikiselhat tatli
 
= any of the people
 
pik-selka-t tak-li
 
ABL-person-PL 3PL.ANIM.PL.INDEF
 
===Demonstratives ===
1) Thulean has four demonstrative suffixes which encode the following distances:
 
a) The proximal citerior which marks a person or object near the speaker.
 
b) The distal citerior which marks a person or object near the addressee.
 
c) The proximal ulterior which marks a person or object away from both speaker and addressee but within line of sight.
 
d) The distal ulterior which marks a person or object away from both speaker and addressee but outside visual range.
 
2)The demonstrative suffixes are as follows:
 
PROX CIT: -ksi
 
DIST CIT: -psu
 
PROX ULT: -tje
 
DIST ULT: -nja
 
3) Examples:
 
a)
 
janahiksi = this man
 
b)
 
qavantje
= yon apples that are in sight
 
===Gender===
 
1) Thulean has two genders, animate and inanimate.
 
2) The animate gender contains nouns referring to people, animals and dynamic physical phenomena such as fire or wind.
 
3) The inanimate gender contains the residuum.
 
4) Nouns are not overtly marked for gender but they govern the appropriate pronouns, possessive suffixes and verbal pronominal markers.
 
EG:
 
a)
 
paþanti kattu
 
= the pretty cat
 
paþþa-nti Ø-kattu
 
be.pretty-3SG.ANIM.ABS ABS-cat
 
b)
 
helhammu ninta
 
= the hot water
 
helka-mmu Ø-ninta
 
be.hot-3PL.INAN.ABS ABS-water
 
===Pronouns===
1) Pronouns are treated like any other nominals.
 
2) Personal Pronouns:
 
a) These are listed as follows:
 
1SG: nin
 
2SG: kin
 
3SG ANIM: tin
 
3SG INAN: min
 
4SG ANIM: lin
 
4SG INAN: sin
 
1PL EXCL: nuk
 
1PL INCL: puk
 
2PL: kuk
 
3PL ANIM: tuk
 
3PL INAN: muk
 
4PL ANIM: luk
 
4PL INAN: suk
 
b) Animate pronouns can also encode the meaning of person in the generic sense.
 
EG:
 
paþanti tin
 
= the pretty one
 
paþþa-nti tin
 
be.pretty.3SG.ANIM.ABS 3SG.ANIM.PRON
 
c) Inanimate pronouns can also encode the meaning of object in the generic sense.
 
EG:
 
mukxalla
 
= big things
 
muk-halla
 
3PL.INAN.PRON-big
 
d) 4th person pronouns come into play when there are two referents of the same gender and number that need to be distinguished. Thus, 4th person pronouns can be translated into English as "the latter".
 
e) Exclusive 1st person plural pronouns indicate that the addressee is not included within the referent.
 
IE: we but not you.
 
f) Inclusive 1st person plural pronouns indicate that the addresses is included with I the referent.
 
IE: we and you.
 
3) Indefinite Pronouns:
 
a) These encode the concepts of somebody, something, anybody, anything.
 
b) They are formed by affixing the indefinite suffix to the appropriate pronoun.
 
EG:
 
melli = anything
 
c) In conjuction with the ablative case express the concepts of anyone of, any of.
 
EG:
 
i)
 
pikijanat telli
 
= anyone of the men
 
pik-janak-t tin-li
 
ABL-man-PL 3SG.ANIM.PRON-INDEF
 
ii)
 
pikiqavan mutli
 
= any of the apples
 
pik-qavan muk-li
 
ABL-apples 3PL.INAN.PRON-INDEF
 
4) Reflexive Pronouns:
 
a) There are no dedicated reflexive pronouns.
 
b) Reflexivity is indicated by employing the absolutive, oblique or possessive form which refers to the ergative or sole argument of the verb.
 
EG:
 
i)
 
temmaiserittu
 
= he misleads himself
 
ten-maiset-ttu
 
3SG.ANIM.ERG-mislead-3SG.ANIM.ABS
 
VS
 
temmaiserelku
 
= he misleads him
 
ten-maiset-lku
 
3SG.ANIM.ERG-mislead-4SG.ANIM.ABS
 
ii)
 
tigki xinnunti
 
= he sees himself
 
tin-ki xintu-nti
 
3SG.ANIM.PRON-INST see-3SG.ANIM.ABS
 
VS
 
ligki xinnunti
 
= he sees him
 
lin-ki xintu-nti
 
4SG.ANIM.PRON-INST see-3SG.ANIM.ABS
 
iii)
 
qavagxente tenqarxansi
 
= she eats her own apple
 
Ø-qavan-xe-nte ten-qarxa-nsi
 
ABS-apples-SGV-3SG.ANIM.POS 3SG.ANIM.ERG-eat-4SG.INAN.ABS
 
VS
 
qavagxelli tenqarxansi
 
= she eats her apple
 
Ø-qavan-xe-lle ten-qarxa-nsi
 
ABS-apples-SGV-4SG.ANIM.POS 3SG.ANIM.ERG-eat-4SG.INAN.ABS
 
5) Reciprocal Pronouns:
 
There are no dedicated reflexive pronouns. Their functions are performed by a verbal suffix.
 
6) Negative Pronouns:
 
a)These encode the concepts of nobody and nothing.
 
b) The negative pronouns are listed as follows:
 
3SG ANIM: vannin
 
3SG INAN: vamin
 
4SG ANIM: valin
 
4SG INAN: vansin
 
3PL ANIM: vatuk
 
3PL INAN: vamuk
 
4PL ANIM: valuk
 
4PL INAN: vaksuk
 
c) Diachronically, the negative pronouns are derived from relative clauses of negative auxiliary plus pronoun.
 
EG:
 
vannin
 
< *qavanti tin
 
= the one who is not
 
qapa-nti tin
 
NEG-3SG.ANIM.ABS 3SG.ANIM.PRON
 
7) Demonstrative Pronouns:
 
a) These are derived from affixing the appropriate demonstrative suffix.
 
EG:
 
kiminiksi teghannalli
 
= she gives this to him
 
ki-min-ksi ten-hanta-lli
 
INST-3SG.INAN.PRON-PROX.CIT 3SG.ANIM.ERG-give-4SG.ANIM.ABS
 
b) Inanimate demonstrative pronouns can also encode the concepts of here and there.
 
EG:
 
numinipsu kimpalka
 
= you go there
 
nu-min-psu kin-palka
 
ALL-3SG.INAN.PRON-DIST.CIT 2SG.ERG.go
 
8) Relative Pronouns:
 
There are no reflexive pronouns. Thulean uses gap relativisation.
 
EG:
 
kimex qavan lenqarxammu kijanak xinnunti
 
= the woman sees the man who eats the apples
 
Ø-kimex Ø-qavan len-qarxa-mmu janak-ki qinnu-nti
 
ABS-woman ABS-apples 4SG.ANIM.ERG-eat-3PL.INAN INST-man see-3SG.ANIM.ABS
 
9) Interrogative Pronouns:
 
1) Interrogatives pronouns are formed by affixing -ka to the appropriate pronoun.
 
EG:
 
a)
 
migka keniqarxammi
 
= you're eating what?
 
Ø-min-ka ken-qarxa-mmi
 
ABS-3SG.INAN.PRON 2SG.ERG-eat-3SG.INAN.ABS
 
===Numerals===
1) Numerals are treated as nominals.
 
2) The numeral system is hybrid vigesimal-decimal
 
3) The thurse language families of Western Europe and Basque, while otherwise unrelated, share the same set of basic numerals: the Western.Palaeo-European Numerals (WPEN).
 
4) The cardinal numerals from 1-10 are as per the table below:
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! colspan="15" | Numbers
|-
! Num. !! Name || WPEN
|-
! '''1'''
|| vaþe || *bade
|-
! '''2'''
|| miha ||  *miga
|-
! '''3'''
|| kirun || *kirur
|-
! '''4'''
|| lawan  || *lawur
|-
! '''5'''
|| marse || *martse
|-
! '''6'''
|| xai ||  *xai
|-
! '''7'''
|| saspi || *saspi
|-
! '''8'''
|| rassu || *ratsu
|-
! '''9'''
|| vaþerassu ||  *baderatsu
|-
! '''10'''
|| tamvan || *tambar
|}
 
 
 
 
tamvaþe = 11
 
tammiha = 12
 
tagkirun = 13
 
tallawan = 14
 
tammarsa = 15
 
tagxai = 16
 
tansaspi = 17
 
tarrassi = 18
 
tamvaþerassu = 19
 
paje = 20 (WPEN: *pogai)
 
mihapaje = 40
 
kirumpaje = 60
 
lawampaje = 80
 
qekum = 100 (WPEN: *ekum)
 
mihakun = 200
 
kirugkun = 300
 
lawagkun = 400
 
marsekun = 500
 
xaikun = 600
 
saspikun = 700
 
rassukun = 800
 
vaþerassukun = 900
 
melja = 1,000
 
melljan = 1,000,000
 
melja vaþerassukun kirumpaje marse = 1965
 
5) Nouns counted by a cardinal numeral take the ablative case and precede the numeral.
 
EG:
 
pigkelhit vaþerassu
 
= nine lords
 
pik-melki-t vaþerassu
 
ABL-lord-PL nine
 
6) Ordinal numerals are indicated with the equative case:
 
EG:
 
simpaje vaþe kespet
 
= the twenty-first month
 
sin-paje vaþe kespe-t
 
EQU-twenty one month-PL
 
7) Fractions are encoded by a periphrastic construction involving kwerþi "piece, portion" and the ablative case.
 
EG:
 
pigkinta sigkirun kwerþi
 
= the third part of the water, a third of the water
 
pik-ninta sin-kirun kwerþi
 
ABL-water EQU-three portion
 
===Verbal Morphology===
 
===Verbal Structure===
 
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
 
==Example texts==
==Other resources==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
 
<!-- Template area -->
 
 
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]
===Thulean Lexicon===
 
galen = to have faith in (stative), to trust (active)
 
gaxala = to heal, to doctor
 
hakin = to know (stative), to learn (active)
 
-halla = augmentative
 
hanex = willow trees
 
hanta = to give
 
-hanþe = too much, excessively
 
helka = to be hot (stative), to warm up (active)
 
jaipix = fishes
 
jakken = boat
 
jalla = trees, forest
 
janak = man
 
java = night
 
jelen = valley
 
jensa = pine tree
 
kai = but
 
kalin = dog
 
kallun = witch, sorcerer
 
kamma = be sick (stative), become ill (active)
 
kannarkaralla = counter-colonel (OF-5)
 
kannarkarvalla = counter-corporal (OR-2)
 
kannarkattanju = counter-captain (OF-3)
 
kannarkenalli = counter-general (OF-7)
 
kannallattenat = counter-lieutenant (OF-1)
 
kannarmaristlu = counter-marshal (OF-9)
 
karra = stone
 
karalla = colonel (OF-6)
 
karvalla = corporal (OR-3)
 
karvat = wagon, cart
 
Kastalpari = Constabulary. General term for Thulean armed forces.
 
kastalpi = constable (OR-1)
 
katen = chains
 
katlik = castle, fort
 
katta = to be tired (stative), to exhaust oneself (active)
 
kattanju = captain (OF-4)
 
kattu = cat
 
kave = coffee
 
kelesja = church
 
kenalli = general (OF-8)
 
kentimetla = centimetre
 
kepeþ = shadow
 
keram = gram
 
kerri = land, country
 
kerta = skeleton, frame
 
kespe = moon, month
 
kiggat = to drink
 
kilakeram = kilogram
 
kilametla = kilometre
 
kimex = woman
 
kinje = to love (stative), to like (active)
 
kirun = three
 
kwena = a smile
 
-kwepsu = never
 
kwerþi = piece, portion
 
kwetsan = feathers
 
lakka = duck
 
-lanti = today
 
lattenat = lieutenant (OF-2)
 
latju = thug, bravo
 
lawan = four
 
-lbax = transitiviser
 
-limut = should, must, ought
 
lira = sea ocean
 
litla = litre
 
-lkwa = white, blonde
 
lukat = mice
 
mairi = major (OR-7)
 
mairihalla = master major (OR-8)
 
mairivinja = chief major (OR-9)
 
maiset = to mislead
 
-mak = can, able to
 
makku = pigs
 
-mani = much, a lot
 
maristlu = marshal (OF-10)
 
marse = five
 
marþen = to desire (stative), to want (active)
 
maþen = bread
 
melja = thousand
 
melki = lord, lady
 
melljan = million
 
mesalka = blackbird
 
metla = metre
 
miha = two
 
-mmelet = black, brunette
 
merkukeram = microgram
 
merkumetla = micrometre, micron
 
mellikeram = milligram
 
mellilitla = millilitre, cubic centimetre
 
mellimetla = millimetre
 
nara = to be, to exist (stative), to become (active)
 
Narwerka = Norway
 
naska = ring (jewellery)
 
nasura = bones
 
nina = ash tree
 
ninta = water
 
njara = to purr
 
nugaxala vuta = hospital
 
numme = to be red
 
nutje = eels
 
paje = twenty
 
pakka! = fuck!
 
palka = to go
 
panana = banana
 
pantju = to buy
 
parma = to be ignorant (stative), to be unwilling to learn (active)
 
patata= potatoes
 
pattu = hare
 
pattuhalla = donkey
 
paþþa = be beautiful, be pretty
 
penelku = pencil
 
penta = to fill
 
pigkakku sluse = pork
 
pilun = lead
 
piriþ = to die (stative), to die of self-neglect, to pine away (active)
 
qahax = fire
 
qaira = trees, forest
 
qalman = woad
 
qalwa = lark
 
qana = fruits
 
qanja = copper
 
qapa = to be not, negative auxiliary
 
qarantja = orange (fruit)
 
qarhat = silver
 
qaru = kernel, core, vulva (euphemism)
 
qarxa = to eat
 
qasaþ = to bind, to imprison
 
qaspen = be under, be beneath (stative), go beneath (active)
 
qaþan = blood
 
qaurikat = apricot
 
qausla = police, militia
 
qauslax = cop
 
qavan = apples
 
qaxxa = to hate (stative), to dislike (active)
 
qekwa = horse
 
qekwali = to be of good quality (stative), to have good intentions (active)
 
qekum = hundred
 
qelet = bronze
 
qesak = salmon
 
qesen = leaves
 
qexpe = to taste (stative), to savour (active),to perform oral sex (active)
 
qexku = handsome
 
qisan = iron
 
qiskalva = bird of prey
 
Qislat = Iceland
 
qisparwa = crow
 
qissit = hair
 
qistilu = pen
 
qisjam = stars
 
qunnu = pillow
 
quruk = enemies
 
qusse = gemstone
 
rassu = eight
 
rauna = to be silent (stative), to keep a secret (active)
 
russla = spirit, soul
 
-rusta = red, ginger
 
saspi = seven
 
saxwa = sun, day
 
selka = person, human being
 
serventu = sergeant (OR-4)
 
serventuhalla = master sergeant (OR-5)
 
serventuvinja = chief sergeant (OR-6)
 
sigkaten karvat = train, locomotive
 
sigkaten wala = laser
 
simvassli slatan = helicopter
 
sinarva = gold
 
sinnak = fox
 
sinunnu jakken = hovercraft
 
sjammi = sky
 
slaka = to be enslaved, to be in thrall (stative), to be indentured, to serve (active)
 
slahalmax = to rule, to command
 
slasu = to hear (stative), to listen (active)
 
slatan = wing
 
-slempi = certain, sure
 
sluse = meat, flesh
 
sukkaru = sugar
 
-sun = detransitiviser
 
sunik = snow
 
suvi = strawberries
 
tagka = tin
 
taha = sword
 
taina = foot
 
-tain = allative applicative
 
takku = to bring, to fetch
 
tamate = tomato
 
tamman = ten
 
Tammarke = Denmark
 
tansa = owl
 
Telku = Thule
 
teninta = tea
 
tjakalat = chocolate
 
tjave = to feel (stative), to touch (active)
 
tjuni = nose
 
tlanta = children
 
tlanu = throne
 
Tlusslu = the Squid Mother, the Ten-Armed Lady, Mistress of all Sea-Creatures, Thulean Goddess.
 
þarka = be bad, be poor in quality (stative), be wicked (active)
 
Þistlat = Germany
 
þunna = fist
 
taikut = to name
 
vagwa = to find (stative), to seek (active)
 
vakkan = rain
 
valþa = wolves
 
vanna = raven
 
vanþa = peak, mountaintop, hilltop
 
varka = badger
 
vassli = wasp
 
vaþe = one
 
vaþerassu = eight
 
vau = and (conjoins two phrases)
 
Vellat = Finland
 
venestla = window
 
-verri = new, young, fresh
 
verru = be short (stative), to shrink (active)
 
vika = bee
 
-vinja = old, mature, wise
 
vussu = mouth
 
vuta = house
 
wala = light
 
wervu = amber
 
xai = six
 
xaste = world
 
xintu = to see (stative), to watch (active)
 
-xku = instrumental applicative
 
-xpak = diminutive suffix
 
xwestu = winds
 
Xwisjaþ = Sweden
 
===Thulean Flags===
 
[[File:Thulean Flag.svg|200px|thumb|left|Thulean national flag]]
 
 
 
[[File:Thulean Flag Variant.svg|200px|thumb|left|Naval ensign]]
 
 
[[File:Thulean naval ensign center cross.svg|200px|thumb|left|Civil ensign]]
 
The footed Othala rune as used in Thulean iconography represents the Squid Goddess Tlusslu. In the alternate universe where Thule exists, Neo-Nazi groups have been rigorously discouraged from making use of this symbol. However, the Thuleans do tolerate the use of the footed Othala rune by Odinists, Asatruar and other adherents of Pagan religions.

Latest revision as of 14:07, 6 June 2017

Introduction

Thulean is the sole surviving member of the Insular branch of the Hercynian language family. It has an estimated 33 million speakers. The language is agglutinative and polysynthetic with an active-stative morphosyntax of the fluid-S subtype. It is written using the Latin alphabet as is universal amongst Western European languages.

Phonology

A) PHONEME INVENTORY

1) CONSONANTS

NASAL:

-fortis: /mb, nd, Ng/

-lenis: /m, n, N/

LIQUID:

-fortis: /rd, ld/

-lenis: /r, l/

PLOSIVE:

-fortis: /pp, tt, kk/

-lenis: /p, t, k/

FRICATIVE:

-fortis: /ss, xx/

-lenis: /s, x/

APPROXIMANT: /v, D, j/

2) VOWELS

a) MONOPHTHONGS: /i, u, a/

b) DIPHTHONGS: /@U, OI, aI, aU/

B) ALLOPHONES

1) /N/ is realised as [g] in word-initial position and in onset position following a coda consonant.

2) All fortis obstruents are realised as lenis plosives in intervocalic position.

3) All lenis plosives and /s/ are voiced in intervocalic position.

4) /x/ is realised as [Z] in intervocalic position.

5) /D/ is realised as [T] in word-final position.

6) /i, u/ are realised as [E, O] when preceding a liquid coda or fortis liquid.

7) /i, u/ are reslised as [E, O] when adjacent to /v, j/.

C) ORTHOGRAPHY

"a" = /a/

"ai" = /aI/

"au" = /aU/

"g" = /N/

"gg" = /Ng/

"h" = /x/

"hh" = /xx/

"i" = /i/

"iu" = /@U/

"j" = /j/

"k" = /k/

"kk" = /kk/

"l" = /l/

"ll" = /ld/

"m" = /m/

"mm" = /mb/

"n" = /n/

"nn" = /nd/

"p" = /p/

"pp" = /pp/

"q" = /D/

"r" = /r/

"rr" = /rd/

"s" = /s/

"ss" = /ss/

"t" = /t/

"tt" = /tt/

"u" = /u/

"ui" = /OI/

"v" = /v/

Historical note: /D/ was originally written with "þ". However, when printing was introduced to Thule, no type was available for that letter so "q" was substituted instead.

The spelling of Thulean is generally phonemic except that the effects of consonant gradation and sandhi are indicated.

D) PROSODY

Thulean has fixed initial primary stress. Secondary stress falls on every alternate syllable following the primary stress. Rhythm type is trochaic.

E) PHONOTACTICS

1) The syllable template is (C)V(C).

2) Consonant clusters only occur at syllable boundaries.

3) Permitted consonant clusters:

a) /m/ + /p/

b) /n/ + /t, s/

c) /N/ + /k, x/

d) /r/ + /m, N, p, t, k, s, x, v, j/

e) /l/ + /m, N, p, t, k, s, x, v, j/

f) /p, t, k/ + /s/

g) /s/ + /p, t, k/

4) Permitted word-final codas: /m, n, t, k, s, D/

5) Vowels in hiatus do not occur.

6) Diphthongs may not occur in a closed syllable, before a fortis consonant or before /P, j/.

F) SANDHI

1) Sandhi occurs at morpheme boundaries as a result of suffixation.

2) The resulting sandhi transformations are as follows:

a) /m, n, N/ + /m, n, N/ > [mb, nd, Ng]

b) /m, n, N/ + /r/ > [rd, rd, rd]

c) /m, n, N/ + /l/ > [ld, ld, ld]

d) /m, n, N/ + /v, D, j/ > [mb, nd, Ng]

e) /m, N/ + /t, s/ > [nt, ns]

f) /m, n/ + /k, x/ > [Nk, Nx]

g) /n, N/ + /p/ > [mp]

h) /r, l/ + /n/ > [nd]

i) /r, l/ + /r, l/ > [rd, ld]

j) /r, l/ + /D/ > [rd, ld]

k) /p, t, k/ + /p, t, k/ > [pp, tt, kk]

l) /p, t, k, s/ + /v/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]

m) /p, t, k, s/ + /D/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]

n) /p, t, k, s/ + /j/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]

G) CONSONANT GRADATION

1) This process affects fortis consonants and lenis plosives following a nasal, liquid or vowel.

2) It is triggered if the consonants in question form the onset of a closed syllable due to suffixation.

3) The gradation sequences are as follows:

a) /mp/ > /mb/ > /m/

b) /nt/ > /nd/ > /n/

c) /Nk/ > /Ng/ > /N/

d) /rp/ > /rP/

e) /rt/ > /rd/ > /r/

f) /rk/ > /rj/

g) /lp/ > /lP/

h) /lt/ > /ld/ > /ll/

i) /lk/ > /lj/

j) /pp/ > /p/ > /P/

k) /tt/ > /t/ > /D/

l) /kk/ > /k/ > /j/

m) /ss/ > /s/

n) /xx/ > /x/