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The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek). | The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek). | ||
== | ==Transitional Tables== | ||
=== | ===From the Codes to Aryan=== | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;" | ||
! style="width: 66px; " | | ! style="width: 66px; " | | ||
! style="width: 66px; " | | ! style="width: 66px; " |Aryan | ||
|- | |||
! | ! p | ||
| *p<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup> / *p<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *p<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup> | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! t | ||
| *t<sup>h</sup>k<sup>h</sup>; *t<sup>h</sup>kʷ<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup> / *t<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup> | |||
| * | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! k | ||
| * | | *k<sup>h</sup>p<sup>h</sup> / *k<sup>h</sup>; *kʷ / *k<sup>h</sup>t<sup>h</sup> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! b | ||
| *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ | |||
| * | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! d | ||
| * | | *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! g | ||
| * | | *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! pʼ | ||
| * | | *pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! tʼ | ||
| * | | *tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! kʼ | ||
| kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ | |||
| | |- | ||
| | ! ɓ | ||
| *b<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup> / *b<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *b<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup> | |||
| * | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! ɗ | ||
| *d<sup>h</sup>g<sup>h</sup>; *d<sup>h</sup>gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup> / *d<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup> | |||
| * | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! ɠ | ||
! | | *g<sup>h</sup>b<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>; *gʷ<sup>h</sup> / *g<sup>h</sup>d<sup>h</sup> | ||
| | |} | ||
| | |||
| | ===From Aryan to Indo-Anatolian Languages=== | ||
| | |||
| | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;" | ||
| | ! style="width: 66px; " | | ||
| | ! style="width: 66px; " |Sanskrit | ||
! style="width: 66px; " |Avestan | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |O.C.S. | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Lithuanian | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Albanian | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Armenian | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Hittite | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Tocharian | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Greek | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Latin | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Goidelic | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Gothic | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! >*p | ||
| | | p; pʰ | ||
| * | | p; f | ||
| | | p | ||
| p | |||
| p | |||
| h; w | |||
| p; pp | |||
| p | |||
| p / pt | |||
| p | |||
| ∅ | |||
| f; β | |||
|- | |||
! >*t | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| x x | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! >*k | ||
| | |||
| x x | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |||
! >*ḱ | |||
| | | | ||
| | | x x | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
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|} | |} | ||
p pt p ∅ f; | |||
b [β] [C 6] f; | |||
v, f[C 2] | |||
{| | thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law... | ||
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;" | |||
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="3"| PIE | ||
| | ! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] | ||
| | ! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] | ||
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] | |||
| | ! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] | ||
| | |- align=center | ||
! | ! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]] | ||
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] | |||
| | ! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] | ||
! | ! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]] | ||
| | ! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] | ||
|- | ! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]] | ||
! | ! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]] | ||
| | |- align=center | ||
| <small>normal</small> | |||
! | | <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small> | ||
| | | <small>normal</small> | ||
| | | <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small> | ||
|- align=center | |||
| | !{{PIE|*p}} | ||
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref> | |||
! | |{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref> | ||
| | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref> | ||
! | |{{PIE|p}}, pp | ||
| | | colspan="2" |p | ||
| | |{{PIE|pt}} | ||
! | |{{PIE|p}} | ||
| | |colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}} | ||
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | |||
|- align=center | |||
| | !{{PIE|*t}} | ||
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | |||
| | |{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/> | ||
|} | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}} | ||
|{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}} | |||
|{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | |||
|{{PIE|t}} | |||
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/> | |||
|{{PIE|t}} | |||
|{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}} | |||
|{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | |||
|{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*ḱ}} | |||
|{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} | |||
! | |{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}} | ||
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|s}} | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk | |||
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/> | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}} | |||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} | ||
| | | rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br /> | ||
| | |- align=center | ||
| | !{{PIE|*k}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*kʷ}} | |||
| | |{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|ku}}, kku | ||
| | |{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref> | ||
| | |{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref> | ||
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br /> | |||
| | |{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | ||
| | |- align=center | ||
| | !{{PIE|*b}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/> | ||
| | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}} | ||
| | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}} | ||
| | | {{PIE|b}} | ||
| {{PIE|pt}} | |||
| | | {{PIE|b}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}- | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}} | ||
| | |- align=center | ||
| | !{{PIE|*d}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/> | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|d}} | ||
| | |rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} | ||
|{{PIE|d}} | |||
| | |{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}- | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}} | ||
| | |- align=center | ||
| | !{{PIE|*ǵ}} | ||
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}} | |||
| | |{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|k | ||
| | | rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} | ||
|} | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}- | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}} | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*g}} | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/> | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/> | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} | |||
{| | |{{PIE|g}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}} | ||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*gʷ}} | ||
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | |||
|ku | |||
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/> | |||
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref> | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}- | |||
|{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}} | |||
|{{PIE|qu}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
| < | !{{PIE|''*pʰ''}} | ||
| < | |{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}} | ||
| < | |{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref> | ||
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}} | |||
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | |||
| colspan="2"|p | |||
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} | |||
|{{PIE|pt}} | |||
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}} | |||
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/> | |||
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|''*tʰ''}} | ||
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}} | |||
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/> | |||
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}} | |||
|t | |||
|{{PIE| | |||
|{{PIE| | |||
| colspan=" | |||
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | |{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}} | ||
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE| | | rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref> | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}- | ||
|{{ | |{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/> | ||
|{{PIE|d}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ǵʰ}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} | ||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/> | ||
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | |||
| rowspan="2" | | rowspan="2"|k | ||
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name= | | rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/> | ||
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE| | | rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}- | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/> | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*gʰ}} | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/> | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|g}} | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*gʷʰ}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/> | ||
|{{PIE| | |ku | ||
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/> | |||
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/> | |||
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/> | |||
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|s}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}} | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
| {{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
| {{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}} | ||
| {{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}} | ||
|{{PIE| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? --> | ||
| | | rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}} | ||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}- | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | |||
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/> | |||
|- align=center | |||
|{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/> | |||
|{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/> | |||
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*m}} | ||
| colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}} | |||
| {{PIE|in}} | |||
| colspan=" | | {{PIE|m}} | ||
|{{PIE| | | {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[w̃]}}- | ||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}} | |||
|{{PIE| | |||
|{{PIE| | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref> | ||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}} | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} | ||
|{{PIE| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|∅}} | ||
|n | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}} | |||
| -- | |||
| | |{{PIE|m}} [˜] | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}} | ||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}} | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*n}} | ||
| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/> | ||
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}} | |||
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}} | |||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|n}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|in}} | ||
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*l}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}}) | ||
|{{PIE|r}} | |||
|{{PIE| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
|{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}} | |||
|{{PIE| | | colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}} | ||
|{{PIE| | | {{PIE|il}} | ||
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE| | ! {{PIE|*r}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref> | ||
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}} | |||
| colspan="3"|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
|{{PIE| | | colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}} | ||
| {{PIE|ir}} | |||
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}} | |||
|{{PIE| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE| | ! {{PIE|*y}} | ||
|{{PIE| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}} | ||
|{{PIE| | | colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}} | ||
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}} | |||
|{{PIE|∅}} | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}} | |||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}} <ref group=C name=VXV/> | ||
|?{{PIE|i}} | |||
|{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}} <ref group=C name=VXV/> | |||
|{{PIE| | |colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}} | ||
|{{PIE|j}} | |||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|y}} | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*w}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}} | ||
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}} | |||
|{{PIE|v}} | |||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}} | ||
|{{PIE| | |{{PIE|v}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}} | ||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}} | |||
|{{PIE|w > h / ∅}} | |||
|{{PIE|i}} | |||
| | |{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|∅}}- | ||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}} | |||
|- | |- | ||
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]] | |||
|} | |||
| rowspan=" | Notes for table 1: | ||
{{reflist|group=C}} | |||
| | |||
===Consonant clusters=== | |||
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray): | |||
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;" | |||
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3"| PIE | |||
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] | |||
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] | |||
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] | |||
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | ! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]] | ||
| | ! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] | ||
| | ! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] | ||
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]] | |||
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] | |||
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]] | |||
| | ! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]] | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
| <small>normal</small> | |||
| <small>C+[j]</small><!-- | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|*}} | |||
| | | style="color:gray"| | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|--> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sr}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| sr | ||
| | | r | ||
| | | str | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| sr | ||
| | | rr {{IPA|[r]}} | ||
| | | (a)r | ||
| -- | | š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}} | ||
| | | | ||
| style="color:gray"| rh | |||
| | | style="color:gray"| ''n/a'' | ||
| fr-, -br- | |||
| style="color:gray"| sr | |||
| str | |||
| str | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*tw}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| tv | ||
| | | θβ | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| tv | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| tv | ||
| | | t | ||
| | | kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}} | ||
| | | ttu, ddu | ||
| | |||
| s-, -ss- | |||
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a'' | |||
| p? | |||
| t | |||
| style="color:gray"| þw | |||
| style="color:gray"| thw | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*dʰw}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| dhv | ||
| rowspan="2"| ðβ | |||
| | | rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv | ||
| | | rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv | ||
| rowspan="2"| d | |||
| | | ? | ||
| tu, du | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | | f | ||
| | | rowspan="2"| d | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| dw | ||
| style="color:gray"| dw | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*dw}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| dv | ||
| | | (e)rk | ||
| | | tu, du | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| b | |||
| style="color:gray"| tw | |||
| | | style="color:gray"| tw | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! {{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*tl}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| | ||
| | |||
| sl | |||
| kl, sl | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | tl | ||
| | | | ||
| kl | |||
| tl | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
! | !{{PIE|*dl}} | ||
| ll | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*dn}} | |||
| nn, ṇṇ | |||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ḱw}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| | | style="color:gray"| śv | ||
| | | sp | ||
| style="color:gray"| sv | |||
| style="color:gray"| | | style="color:gray"| šv | ||
| | | s | ||
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| style="color:gray"| | | | ||
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a'' | | style="color:gray"| ''n/a'' | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| | | style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[kʷ]}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[xʷ]}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| wh | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ǵʰw}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| | | style="color:gray"| hv | ||
| | | | ||
| style="color:gray"| | | rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv | ||
| style="color:gray"| | | rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv | ||
| | | rowspan="2"| z | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ǵw}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| | | style="color:gray"| jv | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[kʷ]}} | |||
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}} | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sw}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| sv | ||
| | | xuu {{IPA|[xʷ]}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| sv | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| sv | ||
| | | v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref> | ||
| | | kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}} | ||
| | | colspan="2" |normal dev. | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| h | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| ''n/a'' | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}} | ||
| | | s | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| sw | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| sw | ||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sp}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| sp | ||
| | | sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref> | ||
| | |colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp | ||
|{{PIE|f}} | |||
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[pʰ]}} | |||
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev. | |||
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ? | |||
| style="color:gray"| sp | |||
|{{PIE|f}} | |||
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref> | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*sbʰ}} | |||
| style="color:gray"| | |||
| spʰ | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
Line 769: | Line 672: | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|-align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*sd}} | |||
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ | |||
| zd | |||
| zd | |||
| zd | |||
| | |||
| st | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| d | |||
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}} | |||
| st | |||
| st | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sdʰ}} | ||
| | | dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh | ||
| zd | |||
| zd | |||
| zd | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | sth | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | -t- {{IPA|[d]}} | ||
| zd | |||
| d | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*st}} | ||
| | | st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> | ||
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/> | |||
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st | |||
| style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}} | |||
| | | st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/> | ||
| colspan="2" | |||
| style="color:gray"| | |||
| | |||
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev. | |colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev. | ||
| | | st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/> | ||
| | |rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref> | ||
|{{PIE| | |colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}} | ||
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/> | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sḱ}} | ||
| style="color:gray"| | |{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/> | ||
| | |{{PIE|s}}? | ||
| | |{{PIE|sk}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|š}}? | ||
| | |{{PIE|h}} | ||
| | |?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/> | ||
| | |colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev. | ||
| | |rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref> | ||
| | |rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}} | ||
| | |rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}} | ||
| | |rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/> | ||
| | |rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}} | ||
| | |- align=center | ||
| | !{{PIE|*sk}} | ||
|-align=center | |rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref> | ||
!{{PIE|* | |rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/> | ||
| | |colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev. | ||
| | |rowspan="2"|? | ||
| | |rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/> | ||
| | |colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev. | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*skʷ}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"|norm. | ||
| | | style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}} | ||
| | |{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/> | ||
| | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}} | |||
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref> | |||
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref> | |||
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} | |||
|{{PIE|s}} | |||
|{{PIE|s}}? | |||
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}} | |||
|{{PIE|ss}}? | |||
|{{PIE|st}} | |||
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} | |||
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}} | |||
|- align=center | |||
!{{PIE|*sǵ}} | |||
| jj | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*sgʰ}} | ||
| | | jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/> | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*dt}} | ||
| | | tt | ||
| | | st | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |st | ||
| | | st | ||
| | | | ||
| | | s | ||
| | | | ||
| ss | |||
| ss [s] | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*ddʰ}} | ||
| | | ddʰ | ||
| zd | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
Line 922: | Line 815: | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | d | ||
| | | t | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | !{{PIE|*dʰt}} | ||
| | | ddʰ | ||
| zd, st | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| st | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| st | | st | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*pt}} | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| pt | ||
| | | ft | ||
| | | t? | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| pt | ||
| | | rowspan="4"| t || || || | | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| pt || | ||
| | | style="color:gray"| pt | ||
| | |rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}} | ||
| | |colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/> | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- align=center | |- align=center | ||
!{{PIE|* | ! {{PIE|*ḱt}} | ||
| | | ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}} | ||
| | | št {{IPA|[ʃt]}} | ||
| | |||
| st | | st | ||
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}} | |||
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}} | |||
| | | | | | ||
|rowspan="3"| | |rowspan="3"| | ||
Line 1,747: | Line 1,592: | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Consonants=== | ==Phonology== | ||
===Sounds=== | |||
====Consonants==== | |||
Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera. | |||
=== | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;" | ||
= | ! style="width: 66px; " | | ||
= | ! style="width: 66px; " | | ||
= | ! style="width: 66px; " |Labial | ||
! style="width: 66px; " |Alveolar | |||
= | ! style="width: 66px; " |Palatal | ||
! style="width: 66px; " colspan=2|Velar | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Pharyngeal | |||
! style="width: 66px; " |Glottal | |||
= | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! rowspan=2 | Nasal | ||
! Voiceless | |||
| *m̥ | |||
| *n̥ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! Voiced | ||
| *m | |||
| *n | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! rowspan=5 | Plosive | ||
! Voiceless | |||
| *p | |||
| *t | |||
| | |||
| *k | |||
| *kʷ | |||
| | |||
| *ʔ | |||
|- | |- | ||
| "this" || "person" | ! Voiced | ||
|- | | *b | ||
| colspan="4" | ''<span style="color:blue">this</span> person'' | | *d | ||
|} | | | ||
| *g | |||
Russian: | | *gʷ | ||
| | |||
:{| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="5" | <span style="color:blue">этот</span> человек | ! Aspirated- | ||
|- | | *p<sup>h</sup> | ||
| эт-от || человек | | *t<sup>h</sup> | ||
|- | | | ||
| <small>DEITIC</small>-<small>MASCULINE</small>.<small>SINGULAR</small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> || person.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> | | *k<sup>h</sup> | ||
|- | | *kʷ<sup>h</sup> | ||
| "this" || "person" | | | ||
|- | | | ||
| colspan="4" | ''<span style="color:blue">this</span> person'' | |- | ||
|} | ! Aspirated+ | ||
| *b<sup>h</sup> | |||
Latin: | | *d<sup>h</sup> | ||
| | |||
:{| | | *g<sup>h</sup> | ||
|- | | *gʷ<sup>h</sup> | ||
| colspan="5" | <span style="color:blue">iste</span> homo | | | ||
|- | | | ||
| iste || homo | |- | ||
|- | ! Ejective | ||
| <small>DEITIC</small>.<small>PROXIMAL </small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> || person.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> | | *p’ | ||
|- | | *t’ | ||
| "that" || "person" | | | ||
| *k’ | |||
| *kʷ’ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=2 | Fricative | |||
! Voiceless | |||
| | |||
| *s | |||
| | |||
| *x | |||
| (*xʷ) | |||
| *ħ | |||
| *h | |||
|- | |||
! Voiced | |||
| | |||
| *z | |||
| | |||
| *ɣ | |||
| (*ɣʷ) | |||
| *ʕ | |||
| *ɦ | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=2 | Vibrant | |||
! Voiceless | |||
| | |||
| *r̥ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Voiced | |||
| | |||
| *r | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=2 | Lateral | |||
! Voiceless | |||
| | |||
| *l̥ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Voiced | |||
| | |||
| *l | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=2 | Approximant | |||
! Voiceless | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| *j̊ | |||
| | |||
| *ẘ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Voiced | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| *j | |||
| | |||
| *w | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|} | |||
====Vowels==== | |||
====Pitch Accent==== | |||
===Meta-Segmentals=== | |||
====X==== | |||
====X==== | |||
====X==== | |||
===Supra-Segmentals=== | |||
====X==== | |||
====X==== | |||
====X==== | |||
==Taxology== | |||
===Desinencies=== | |||
====Affixes==== | |||
====Roots==== | |||
====Clitics==== | |||
===X=== | |||
====X==== | |||
====X==== | |||
====X==== | |||
===X=== | |||
====X==== | |||
====X==== | |||
====X==== | |||
==Semantics== | |||
===Phememes=== | |||
====Phones==== | |||
====Morphemes==== | |||
====Phonemes==== | |||
===Tagmemes=== | |||
====Semes==== | |||
====Taxemes==== | |||
====Sememes==== | |||
===Prosodemes=== | |||
====Glossemes==== | |||
====Noemes==== | |||
====Oidemes==== | |||
==Morphology== | |||
===Correlatives=== | |||
German: | |||
:{| | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | <span style="color:blue">dieser</span> Mensch | |||
|- | |||
| dies-er || Mensch | |||
|- | |||
| <small>DEITIC</small>.<small>PROXIMAL</small>-<small>MASCULINE</small>.<small>SINGULAR</small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> || person | |||
|- | |||
| "this" || "person" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" | ''<span style="color:blue">this</span> person'' | |||
|} | |||
Russian: | |||
:{| | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | <span style="color:blue">этот</span> человек | |||
|- | |||
| эт-от || человек | |||
|- | |||
| <small>DEITIC</small>-<small>MASCULINE</small>.<small>SINGULAR</small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> || person.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> | |||
|- | |||
| "this" || "person" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" | ''<span style="color:blue">this</span> person'' | |||
|} | |||
Latin: | |||
:{| | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | <span style="color:blue">iste</span> homo | |||
|- | |||
| iste || homo | |||
|- | |||
| <small>DEITIC</small>.<small>PROXIMAL </small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> || person.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> | |||
|- | |||
| "that" || "person" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" | ''<span style="color:blue">that</span> person'' | |||
|} | |||
Greek: | |||
:{| | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | <span style="color:blue">οὗτος</span> ἄνθρωπος | |||
|- | |||
| οὗτ-ος || ἄνθρωπ-ος | |||
|- | |||
| <small>DEITIC</small>.<small>PROXIMAL</small>-<small>MASCULINE</small>.<small>SINGULAR</small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> || person-<small>MASCULINE</small>.<small>SINGULAR</small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> | |||
|- | |||
| "this" || "person" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="4" | ''<span style="color:blue">this</span> person'' | |||
|} | |||
Aryan: | |||
:{| | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="5" | <span style="color:blue">*tad</span> dʰgʰā́m | |||
|- | |||
| *tad || *dʰgʰā́m | |||
|- | |||
| <small>DEITIC</small>.<small>3PERSON</small>.<small>SINGULAR</small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> || soil(adjective).<small>SINGULAR</small>.<small>NOMINATIVE</small> | |||
|- | |||
| "that" || "person" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="4" | ''<span style="color:blue">that</span> person'' | | colspan="4" | ''<span style="color:blue">that</span> person'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
The above samples follow the term ''*tad'' instead of ''*sa'', as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad | |||
< | |||
*h0e * eah0 *as *ats | |||
**pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man | |||
**pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ | |||
==Syntax== | |||
==Prosody== | |||
==Sample text== | |||
Latest revision as of 17:25, 27 October 2024
This article is a construction site. This project is currently undergoing significant construction and/or revamp. By all means, take a look around, thank you. |
Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh0, pronounced /ai̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language of Proto-Indo-Anatolian.
Aryan | |
---|---|
*airáh0 | |
Pronunciation | [ai̯ˈrəʔ] |
Created by | Veno |
Date | 8000-6000 BP |
Setting | Caucasus Mountains |
Native speakers | - (2024) |
Pangaean Code
| |
Early form | Transitional Dialect
|
Introduction
[...]
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).
Transitional Tables
From the Codes to Aryan
Aryan | |
---|---|
p | *phth / *ph / *phkh; *phkʷh |
t | *thkh; *thkʷh / *th / *thph |
k | *khph / *kh; *kʷ / *khth |
b | *bd / *b / *bg; *bgʷ |
d | *dg; *dgʷ / *d / *db |
g | *gb / *g, *gʷ / gd |
pʼ | *pʼtʼ / *pʼ; *p / *pʼkʼ; *pʼkʷʼ |
tʼ | *tʼkʷʼ / *tʼ, t / *tʼpʼ |
kʼ | kʼpʼ / *kʼ; *k; *kʷʼ / kʼtʼ |
ɓ | *bhdh / *bh / *bhgh; *bhgʷh |
ɗ | *dhgh; *dhgʷh / *dh / *dhbh |
ɠ | *ghbh / *gh; *gʷh / *ghdh |
From Aryan to Indo-Anatolian Languages
Sanskrit | Avestan | O.C.S. | Lithuanian | Albanian | Armenian | Hittite | Tocharian | Greek | Latin | Goidelic | Gothic | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
>*p | p; pʰ | p; f | p | p | p | h; w | p; pp | p | p / pt | p | ∅ | f; β |
>*t | x x | |||||||||||
>*k | x x | |||||||||||
>*ḱ | x x |
p pt p ∅ f; b [β] [C 6] f; v, f[C 2]
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
PIE | Indo-Iranian | Balto-Slavic | Alb. | Arm. | Anatol. | Toch. | Greek | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sanskrit | Avestan | O.C.S. | Lith. | Hitt. | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English | |||||||
normal | C+[j] [C 1] | normal | -C- [C 2] [C 1] | ||||||||||||
*p | p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] | p; f [C 4] | p | h; w [C 5] |
p, pp | p | pt | p | ∅ | f; b [β] [C 6] |
f; v, f[C 2] | ||||
*t | t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] | t; θ[C 4] | t | tʿ [tʰ] | t, tt; z [ts] [C 7] |
t; c [c] [C 7] |
t | s; tt/ss[C 5] | t | t | th [θ] | þ [θ]; d [ð]; [C 6] |
th; d; [C 6] | ||
*ḱ | ś [ɕ] | s | š [ʃ] | th [θ]; k[C 8] |
s | k, kk | k; ś [ɕ][C 8] |
k | c [k] | c [k] | ch [x] | h; g [ɣ] [C 6] |
h; ∅;[C 2] y [C 6] | ||
*k | k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7] kh [kʰ] [C 3] |
k; c [tʃ]; [C 7] x[C 4] |
k; č [tʃ]; [C 7] c [ts][C 9] |
k | k; q [c][C 9] |
kʿ [kʰ] | |||||||||
*kʷ | k; s; [C 7] q [c][C 9] |
ku, kku | p; t; [C 7] k[C 10] |
qu [kʷ]; c [k] [C 11] |
ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w [C 6] |
wh; w [C 6] | |||||||||
*b | b; bh [C 3] | b; β [C 12] | b | p | b | pt | b | b [b] | -[β]- | p | |||||
*d | d; dh [C 3] | d; δ [C 12] | d | d; dh [ð][C 2] |
t | ts; ś [ɕ] [C 7] |
d | z [zd] > [z] | d | d [d] | -[ð]- | t | |||
*ǵ | j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ] [C 3] |
z | ž [ʒ] | dh [ð]; g[C 8] |
c [ts] | k | k; ś [ɕ][C 8] |
g | g | g [ɡ] | -[ɣ]- | k | c / k; ch[C 9] | ||
*g | g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7] gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3] |
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7] γ [C 12] |
g; ž [ʒ]; [C 7] dz[C 9] |
g | g | k | |||||||||
*gʷ | g; z; [C 7] gj [ɟ][C 9] |
ku | b; d; [C 7] g[C 10] |
u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] |
b [b] | -[β]- | q [kʷ] | qu | |||||||
*pʰ | bh [bʱ] | b; β [C 12] | b | b; w[C 2] |
p | ph [pʰ] | pt | f;[C 14] b |
b [b]; b [β];[C 2] f [C 15] |
b; v / f[C 16] | |||||
*tʰ | dh [dʱ] | d; δ [C 12] | d | t | t; c [c] [C 7] |
th [tʰ] | tt/ss | f;[C 14] d; b [C 17] |
d [d] | -[ð]- | d; d [ð];[C 2] þ [C 15] |
d | |||
*ǵʰ | h [ɦ] | z | ž [ʒ] | dh [ð]; d[C 8] |
j [dz]; z[C 2] |
k | k; ś [ɕ] [C 7] |
kh [kʰ] | h; h / g[C 8] |
g [ɡ] | -[ɣ]- | g; g [ɣ];[C 2] g [x] [C 15] |
g; y / w[C 16] | ||
*gʰ | gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ] [C 7] |
g; j [dʒ]; [C 7] γ [C 12] |
g; ž [ʒ]; [C 7] dz[C 9] |
g | g | g; ǰ [dʒ] [C 7] | |||||||||
*gʷʰ | g; z; [C 7] gj [ɟ][C 9] |
ku | ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; [C 7] kh [kʰ][C 10] |
f;[C 14] g / u [w];[C 2] gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] |
g; b;[C 14] w;[C 2] gw [C 13] |
g; b;[C 14] w[C 2] | |||||||||
*s | s | h [h, x] | s | sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ];[C 18] h[C 2] |
h; ∅[C 2] |
š [s] | s; ṣ [ʂ] |
h;[C 14] s;[C 19][C 15]/ ∅;[C 2] [¯] [C 20] |
i | s; r[C 2] |
s ʃ | -[h]- | s; z [C 6] |
s; r [C 6] | |
ṣ [ʂ][C 21] | š [ʃ][C 21] | x [x][C 21] | š [ʃ][C 21] | ||||||||||||
*m | m | in | m | m [m] | -[w̃]- | m | |||||||||
*-m [C 15] | m | ˛ [˜] | n | ∅ | n | n | -- | m [˜] | n | ∅ | |||||
*n | n | n; ˛ [˜] [C 15] |
n | n; ñ [ɲ] |
n | in | n | ||||||||
*l | r (dial. l) | r | l | l; ll [ɫ][C 2] |
l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ] |
l | il | l | |||||||
*r | r/l[C 22] | r | r [ɾ]; rr [r][C 2] |
r | ir | r | |||||||||
*y | y [j] | j [j] | gj [ɟ]; ∅ |
∅ | y [j] | z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅ [C 2] |
?i | i [j]; ∅ [C 2] |
∅ | j | y | ||||
*w | v [ʋ] | v [w] | v | v [ʋ] | v | g / w | w | w > h / ∅ | i | u [w > v] | f | -∅- | w | ||
PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Alb. | Arm. | Hitt. | Toch. | Greek | Greek+/j/ | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English |
Notes for table 1:
- ^ a b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
- ^ a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
- ^ a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
- ^ a b After a vowel.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
- ^ a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
- ^ a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
- ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
- ^ a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
- ^ a b c After n.
- ^ a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
- ^ a b c d e f At the end of a word.
- ^ a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
- ^ After u, r or before r, l.
- ^ Before a stressed vowel
- ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
- ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
- ^ a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
- ^ rare
Consonant clusters
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
PIE | Indo-Iranian | Balto-Slavic | Alb. | Arm. | Anatol. | Toch. | Greek | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Hitt. | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English | ||||||
normal | C+[j] | |||||||||||||
*sr | sr | r | str | sr | rr [r] | (a)r | š(ša)r ʃʃr | rh | n/a | fr-, -br- | sr | str | str | |
*tw | tv | θβ | tv | tv | t | kʿ [kʰ] | ttu, ddu | s-, -ss- | n/a | p? | t | þw | thw | |
*dʰw | dhv | ðβ | dv | dv | d | ? | tu, du | f | d | dw | dw | |||
*dw | dv | (e)rk | tu, du | b | tw | tw | ||||||||
*tl | sl | kl, sl | tl | kl | tl | |||||||||
*dl | ll | |||||||||||||
*dn | nn, ṇṇ | |||||||||||||
*ḱw | śv | sp | sv | šv | s | sk, š | n/a | qu [kʷ] | cu [kʷ] | Template:Transl [xʷ] | wh | |||
*ǵʰw | hv | zv | žv | z | ||||||||||
*ǵw | jv | q [kʷ] | qu [kw] | |||||||||||
*sw | sv | xuu [xʷ] | sv | sv | v, d[CC 1] | kʿ [kʰ] | normal dev. | h | n/a | su [sw] | s | sw | sw | |
*sp | sp | sp [CC 2] | sp | f | sp [CC 2] / pʿ [pʰ] |
normal dev. | sp [CC 2] | ? | sp | f | sp [CC 3] | |||
*sbʰ | spʰ | |||||||||||||
*sd | d; ḷ[CC 4] > ḍ, ḍḍ | zd | zd | zd | st | d | -t- [d] | st | st | |||||
*sdʰ | dh; ḷh[CC 4] > ḍh, ḍḍh | zd | zd | zd | sth | -t- [d] | zd | d | ||||||
*st | st; ṣṭ[CC 4] | st [CC 2] | st | sht [ʃt] | st [CC 2] | normal dev. | st [CC 2] | s; tt/ss[CC 5] | st | st [CC 3] | ||||
*sḱ | ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 5] | s? | sk | š? | h | ?? č`; c`[CC 5] | normal dev. | sk; [CC 2] kh [kʰ];[CC 6] skh [skʰ] [CC 7] |
sc [sk] | sc [sk] | sk [CC 3] | sh [ʃ] | ||
*sk | sk, {śc, ch}[CC 8] | sk, sč [CC 2] | normal dev. | ? | sk [CC 2] | normal dev. | ||||||||
*skʷ | norm. | squ [skʷ] | sq [CC 3] | |||||||||||
*t+t [tst] | tt; tth [CC 9] | st; sθ?[CC 10] | st | s | s? | zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] | ss? | st | ss | ss / st | ||||
*sǵ | jj | |||||||||||||
*sgʰ | jj[CC 8] | |||||||||||||
*dt | tt | st | st | st | s | ss | ss [s] | |||||||
*ddʰ | ddʰ | zd | d | t | ||||||||||
*dʰt | ddʰ | zd, st | st | st | ||||||||||
*pt | pt | ft | t? | pt | t | pt | pt | cht [xt] | ft [CC 3] | |||||
*ḱt | ṣṭ [ʂʈ] | št [ʃt] | st | št [ʃt] | kt | ct [kt] | ht [CC 3] | ght [t] [CC 3] | ||||||
*kt | kt | xt | t? | kt | ||||||||||
*kʷt | pt | ct [kt] | ||||||||||||
*ps | ps | ps | ps | s, ss | fs | ps | ||||||||
*ts | ts | |||||||||||||
*ḱs | kṣ | š | sh [ʃ] | ks | x [ks] | hs | x [ks] | |||||||
*ks | kṣ[CC 4] | xš[CC 4] | (ks) | |||||||||||
*kʷs | kʷs | ps | x [ks] | |||||||||||
*gs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*gʷs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*ǵʰs | kṣ | ž | ks | |||||||||||
*gʰs | kṣ | |||||||||||||
*gʷʰs | kṣ | ps | ||||||||||||
*tḱ | kṣ | š | k | kt | s | |||||||||
*tk | kṣ | xš | kt | |||||||||||
*dʰǵʰ | kṣ | z | ž | tk | tk/k | khth | ||||||||
*dʰgʰ | kṣ | tk | ||||||||||||
*dʰgʷʰ | kṣ | γž | kts | phth | s | |||||||||
PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Alb. | Arm. | Hitt. | Toch. | Greek | Greek+/j/ | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English |
-->
Orthography
Trad. PIE | Laryng. PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Arm. | Alb. | Toch. | Hitt. | Greek | Latin[V 1] | Proto-Celtic | Gothic[V 2] | Old English[V 1] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
normal | umlauted[V 3] | ||||||||||||||
*e | *e, *h₁e | a | e | je, ie, e, i; ja[V 4] | ä | e, ʔe, i | e | i; aí [ɛ][V 5] | e; eo[V 6] | i; ie[V 6] | |||||
*a | (*a[V 7]), *h₂e | o | a | a | ha, a | ā | ha, a | a | a | æ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6] | e; ie[V 6] | ||||
*o | *h₃e | o, a | a | a, e | a | o | |||||||||
*o | a; ā[V 9] | ||||||||||||||
*ə[V 10] | *h₁[V 10] | i | i, ∅ | ∅ | a, ∅ | ā | ∅ | e | a | a, ∅ | |||||
*h₂[V 10] | ḫ | a | |||||||||||||
*h₃[V 10] | ∅ | o | |||||||||||||
*- | *h₁-[V 11] | ∅ | e (a?) | ∅ | a, ∅ | e (o) | ∅ | ||||||||
*h₂-[V 11] | a | ḫa | a | ||||||||||||
*h₃-[V 11] | a, ha | o | |||||||||||||
*ē | *ē, *eh₁ | ā | ě | ė | i | o, ua | a/e?; ā?[V 12] | ē, e, i | ē | ī | ē | ǣ | |||
*ā | (*ā[V 7]), *eh₂ | a | o [oː] | a | a/o? | a, ah | ā > ē[V 13] | ā | ā | ō | ē | ||||
*ō | *ō, *eh₃ | uo | u | e | a/ā?; ū?[V 12] | a, ā | ō | ā; ū[V 12] | |||||||
*i | *i | i | ь | i | i | i; e[V 14] | ä | i, ī | i | i; aí [ɛ][V 5] | i | ||||
*ī | *ih₁ | ī | i | y [iː] | i | i | ī | ī | ei [iː] | ī | |||||
*ih₂ | i or (j)a?[V 15] |
yā | ī or (j)ā?[V 15] | ||||||||||||
*ih₃ | ī or (j)ō?[V 15] | ||||||||||||||
*ei | *ei, *h₁ei | ai > ē | ai > ōi, āi > aē[V 9] |
ei; ie[V 16] | i | e | ē | ei | ī | ē | |||||
*oi | *oi, *h₃ei | ě | ai; ie[V 16] | e | e, ai | ē, ai | oi | ū | oi | ái | ā | ǣ | |||
*ai | (*ai[V 7]), *h₂ei | ai | ae | ai | |||||||||||
*ēi | *ēi | āi > ai; ā[V 12] | āi; ā(i)[V 12] | i | i | ē | ēi | ī? | ei [iː] | ī | |||||
*ōi | *ōi (*oei) | y; u[V 12] | ai; ui[V 12] | e, ai | ai | ōi | ō | u[V 12] | ái | ā | ǣ | ||||
*āi | *eh₂ei | ě | ai | āi > ēi[V 13] | ae | ||||||||||
*u | *u | u | ъ | u | u | u; y[V 17] | ä | u | u | u | u; o[V 18] | u; aú [ɔ][V 5] | u; o[V 19] | y | |
*ū | *uh₁ | ū | y | ū | y; i[V 12] | u | ū | ū | ȳ | ||||||
*uh₂ | u or (w)a?[V 15] |
wā | ū or (w)ā?[V 15] | ||||||||||||
*uh₃ | ū or (w)ō?[V 15] | ||||||||||||||
*eu | *eu, *h₁eu | au > ō | ə̄u; ao[V 9] | ju | iau | oy | e | u | eu | ū | ou | iu | ēo | īe | |
*ou | *ou,*h₃eu | u | au | a | o, au | ou | áu | ēa | |||||||
*au | (*au[V 7]), *h₂eu | aw | au | au | |||||||||||
*ēu | *ēu | āu > au | āu | u | iau | e | ū? | iu | ēo | ||||||
*ōu | *ōu | a | au | ō | áu | ēa | |||||||||
*m̥ | *m̥ | a | ę | im̃; um̃[V 20] | am | a | äm | a, un | a | em | em, am | um | um | ym | |
*m̥̅ | *mh₁ | ā | ìm; ùm[V 20] | ama | mā | mē | mā | ||||||||
*mh₂ | mā > mē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*mh₃ | mō | ||||||||||||||
*m̥m | *m̥m | am | ьm/ъm | im; um[V 20] | am | am | em | am | |||||||
*n̥ | *n̥ | a | ę | iñ; uñ[V 20] | an | än | an | a | en | en, an | un | un | yn | ||
*n̥̄ | *nh₁ | ā | ìn; ùn[V 20] | ana | nā | nē | nā | ||||||||
*nh₂ | nā > nē [V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*nh₃ | nō | ||||||||||||||
*n̥n | *n̥n | an | ьn/ъn | iñ; uñ[V 20] | an | an | en | an | |||||||
*l̥ | *l̥ | r̥ | ərə | lь/lъ | il̃; ul̃[V 20] | al | il, li; ul, lu | äl | al | la | ol | li;[V 21] al | ul | ul; ol[V 19] | yl |
*l̥̄ | *lh₁ | īr; ūr[V 22] | arə | ìl; ùl[V 20] | ala | al | lā | lē | lā | ||||||
*lh₂ | lā > lē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*lh₃ | lō | ||||||||||||||
*l̥l | *l̥l | ir; ur[V 22] | ar | ьl/ъl | il; ul[V 20] | al, la | al | el | al | ||||||
*r̥ | *r̥ | r̥ | ərə | rь/rъ | ir̃; ur̃[V 20] | ar | ir, ri; ur, ru | är | ar, ur | ra | or | ri;[V 21] ar | aúr [ɔr] | ur; or[V 19] | yr |
*r̥̄ | *rh₁ | īr; ūr[V 22] | arə | ìr; ùr[V 20] | ara | ra | rā | rē | rā | ||||||
*rh₂ | rā > rē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*rh₃ | rō | ||||||||||||||
*r̥r | *r̥r | ir; ur[V 22] | ar | ьr/ъr | ir; ur[V 20] | ar | ar | ar | ar | ||||||
Trad. PIE | Laryng. PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Arm. | Alb. | Toch. | Hitt. | Greek | Latin[V 1] | Proto-Celtic | Gothic[V 2] | normal | umlauted[V 3] |
Old English[V 1] |
Phonology
Sounds
Consonants
Aryan is reconstructed as having 41 consonants, with an assumption made that it would have maintained the 36 main consonants of the Pangaean Code in some form while adding a labialized series of velars. Later, sounds would be lost in Proto-Indo-European, et cetera.
Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Pharyngeal | Glottal | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | Voiceless | *m̥ | *n̥ | |||||
Voiced | *m | *n | ||||||
Plosive | Voiceless | *p | *t | *k | *kʷ | *ʔ | ||
Voiced | *b | *d | *g | *gʷ | ||||
Aspirated- | *ph | *th | *kh | *kʷh | ||||
Aspirated+ | *bh | *dh | *gh | *gʷh | ||||
Ejective | *p’ | *t’ | *k’ | *kʷ’ | ||||
Fricative | Voiceless | *s | *x | (*xʷ) | *ħ | *h | ||
Voiced | *z | *ɣ | (*ɣʷ) | *ʕ | *ɦ | |||
Vibrant | Voiceless | *r̥ | ||||||
Voiced | *r | |||||||
Lateral | Voiceless | *l̥ | ||||||
Voiced | *l | |||||||
Approximant | Voiceless | *j̊ | *ẘ | |||||
Voiced | *j | *w |
Vowels
Pitch Accent
Meta-Segmentals
X
X
X
Supra-Segmentals
X
X
X
Taxology
Desinencies
Affixes
Roots
Clitics
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Semantics
Phememes
Phones
Morphemes
Phonemes
Tagmemes
Semes
Taxemes
Sememes
Prosodemes
Glossemes
Noemes
Oidemes
Morphology
Correlatives
German:
dieser Mensch dies-er Mensch DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person "this" "person" this person
Russian:
этот человек эт-от человек DEITIC-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE "this" "person" this person
Latin:
iste homo iste homo DEITIC.PROXIMAL .NOMINATIVE person.NOMINATIVE "that" "person" that person
Greek:
οὗτος ἄνθρωπος οὗτ-ος ἄνθρωπ-ος DEITIC.PROXIMAL-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE person-MASCULINE.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE "this" "person" this person
Aryan:
*tad dʰgʰā́m *tad *dʰgʰā́m DEITIC.3PERSON.SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE soil(adjective).SINGULAR.NOMINATIVE "that" "person" that person
The above samples follow the term *tad instead of *sa, as the former is used to refer to third person in general. *sa *tad <
- h0e * eah0 *as *ats
- pʰirás > pʰā́r = *dʰgʰūmás > *gʰā́mar, *gʰā́man
- pʰerós > *phṓr dʰ
Syntax
Prosody
Sample text
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