Is Burunking
Background
Phonology
Consonants
Bilabial | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||||
Plosive | p b | t d | k g | ||||
Fricative | ɸ | s | ʃ | ʐ | ç | h | |
Affricate | t͡ʃ d͡ʒ | ||||||
Flap or tap | ɾ | ||||||
Approximant | w | j | |||||
Lateral app. | l |
Vowels
Front | Back | |
---|---|---|
Close | i | u |
Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ |
Open | a |
Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in aanas 'sound' /ˈaːnas/.
Diphthongs
There are only four diphthongs proper: ai /ai/, ei /ei/, oi /oi/ and ou /ou/, which may be considered sequences of vowels in measuring syllables. In addition, any vowel is permitted to occur following the 'glides' /w/ or /j/.
Phonotactics
Is Burunking has a relatively restrictive syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are restrictions on the other elements also:
C1 | G | V1 | V2 | C2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
|
|
The word-final consonants s, sh, ng and z are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:
- Final -s is lost, the preceding vowel lengthens and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: is 'language, speech' + -do (pejorative) = iito 'curse', os 'cold' + -pung (abstract) = oopung 'coldness'.
- Final -sh is replaced by -i-, forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel (ush > oi, ish > ei, ii), and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: banash 'fruit' + -to (diminutive) = banaito 'berry', ush 'empty' + gyong 'person' = oikyong 'vain person'.
- Final -ng becomes -n- (or -m before p, b, f): gyong 'person' + -zoi (collective) = gyonzoi 'team, band', yong 'smooth' + -pung (abstract) = yompung 'smoothness'.
- Final -z is lost entirely: az 'man' + -chi (adjectival) = achi 'masculine'.
Orthography
Is Burunking was originally written in a syllabary called hookozui, mainly carved into wood or, occasionally, stone.
When the language was initially discovered by Europeans the Greek alphabet was used in its transcription, but later studies preferred to use the Latin script, which is still used today.
Graph | IPA |
---|---|
Consonants | |
b | /b/ |
ch | /t͡ʃ/ |
d | /d/ |
f | /ɸ/ |
g | /g/ |
h | /h/ |
j | /d͡ʒ/ |
k | /k/ |
l | /l/ |
m | /m/ |
n | /n/ |
ng | /ŋ/ |
p | /p/ |
r | /r/ |
s | /s/ |
sh | /ʃ/ |
t | /t/ |
w | /w/ |
x | /ç/ |
y | /j/ |
Vowels | |
a | /a/ |
e | /ɛ/ |
i | /i/ |
o | /ɔ/ |
u | /u/ |
Diphthongs | |
ai | /ai/ |
ei | /ei/ |
oi | /oi/ |
ou | /ou/ |
Grammar
Nouns
Gender
Nouns are classified as either animate (bii) or inanimate (es bii) and animate nouns belong to one of three genders: masculine (achi), feminine (buyachi) or common (iziji). Inclusion within a class is based to a large extent on natural gender.
Animate | Masculine |
|
---|---|---|
Feminine |
| |
Common |
| |
Inanimate |
|
These gender distinctions have a limited effect on the morphology of nouns themselves but affect the way other words behave.
Number
Nouns are generally not marked for number and context is usually sufficient to show whether heleji means 'horse' or 'horses'. Numerals or adjectives can be used to qualify the noun for number, e.g. bade oz 'one dog, a dog'.
There are two collective suffixes, which may sometimes translate the English plural: -zoi is used to refer to a group of things, usually within a single place, e.g. gyonzoi 'band, group, team of people', helejizoi 'a herd of horses'; -gua is more abstract, referring to all things within a class collectively and also to the state of being an object within that class, similar in some ways to the English suffix '-hood' in a word like 'priesthood', e.g. gyongua 'everybody, humanity, humankind, population', binjigua 'mountains'. Both of these suffixes are productive, though in some cases the noun with the suffix has taken on a specialised meaning as in azoi 'council, assembly' from az 'man'. Reduplication may also be used to express a large group of something, often with an intensive meaning, e.g. gyongyong 'crowd, mass of people', yaiyai 'storm' (from yai 'wind').
Adjectives
Pronouns
Personal
Singular | Plural | ||
---|---|---|---|
1 | inclusive | ngi | boro |
exclusive | bu | ||
2 | masculine | ngane fu |
foro |
feminine | nepa fu | ||
common | yi | ||
3 | masculine | wane | woro |
feminine | wampa | ||
common | waing |
Verbs
Postpositions
Derivation
Derivation is carried out using a number of suffixes and independent particles, and by compounding.
Suffix | Use | Example |
---|---|---|
Adjectives | ||
-chi | of, like, pertaining to | buyachi 'feminine, female' |
-fu | full of, covered with, made of | uzefu 'golden' |
-king | of, like, pertaining to | Burunking 'of Burung' |
-oi | tending to, fond of | aratoi 'gluttonous' |
Nouns | ||
-daz | person or thing from | eshayodaz 'foreigner' (lit. sea-dweller) |
-do | pejorative | izido 'mocking laughter' |
-gua | collective, abstract | bidegua 'route' |
-ko | instrument, person connected with | onuuko 'goatherder' |
-le | agent | erole 'killer' |
-no | diminutive (often pejorative) | ano 'coward' |
-pung | abstracts states, conditions | buchipung 'smallness' |
-te | continual or chronic states | izite 'sickness' |
-to | diminutive | hizito 'piglet' |
-zoi | collective, group | eshezoi 'settlement' |