Shaj
Introduction
The Shaj languages are spoken across the planet Tanoria. The most widely spoken variety is Velshaj. Although the speakers of the language and their homeland are fictional, and most of the language creation was a priori, there is heavy lexical influence from European languages.
General Information
Velshaj nouns are mostly agglutinative, but verbals tend to be monomorphemic. There are five genders, five tenses, and many aspects. Word order is typically SOV. There are many cases of consonant mutation and ablaut, and the language is beginning to show signs of developing vowel harmony.
Phonology
Orthography
Consonants
Nasals
Velshaj has three nasals: /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/. The sequence /n/ + /ĭ/ yields a palatal nasal [ɲ], but this is not regarded as a separate phoneme.
Fricatives
Velshaj has five voiced fricatives /v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, and /ɣ/. Although they each appear in complimentary distribution with their voiceless counterparts (/f/, /θ/, /s/, /ʃ/, and /x/), they are often regarded as separate phonemes.
Plosives
Velshaj has five plosives /p/, /t̪/, /t/, /d/, /k/, and one affricate /tʃ/. There are very few minimal pairs between /t̪/ and /t/. One such pair is /t̪e/ "know", and /te/ "turned".
Liquids
Velshaj has one lateral /l/, and one rhotic /r/. Like its nasal counterpart, the sequence /l/ + /ĭ/ yields a lateral palatal approximant [ʎ], but this is not regarded as a separate phoneme. Semivowels /ŭ/ and /ĭ/ exist, but are not regarded as consonants.
Vowels
Shaj has five cardinal vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, /u/, and two semivowels /ĭ/ and /ŭ/. Semivowels form rising diphthongs /eĭ/, /aĭ/, /oĭ/, /ŭĭ/, /aŭ/; and falling diphthongs /ĭə/, /ĭe/, /ĭa/, /ĭo/, /ĭu/. Any time /u/ or /ŭ/ precedes /i/ or /ĭ/, the result is /ŭĭ/. There are also two rounded front vowels /y/ and /ø/, one open front vowel /æ/, a homogenous diphthong /ĭĭ/, and a schwa /ə/. There is no length distinction in Velshaj, but there used to be in its parent languages.
Prosody
Stress
Intonation
Phonotactics
Syllable structure can be as large as CCCVC and as small as V (where V stands for any vowel or diphthong). Every word needs a vowel, and no word may end in more than one consonant. Typically, stress is on the first syllable of the root, or the penultimate syllable of a word. Morphemes with two syllables rarely end in a vowel.
Mutations and Assimilations
Occasionally, the phonemes within a morpheme will change depending on their phonetic environment. The dental nasal will assimilate to the place of articulation of any consonant that directly follows it, or will completely mutate into any consonant that directly precedes it. For example, /ynken/ → /yŋken/ "walls"; and /unəkno/ → /unəkko/ "the wall". This affects spelling as well.
Nasals
Stops that precede nasals become nasals, and /n/ will assimilate to the place of articulation of any adjacent consonant. For example: /ekni/ → /eŋni/ → /eŋŋi/ "the man".
Fricatives
Fricatives devoice when adjacent to other obstruents, or when ending a syllable. The exception is /ʃ/, which may occur syllable-initially, but rarely appears in consonant clusters in the same syllable. Sequences of /z/ + another fricative or /tʃ/ also yield /ʃ/. Non-sibilant fricatives following nasals, /l/, or a pause tend to become pronounced as voiced stops rather than as voiceless fricatives. When not preceding a consonant, /z/ is pronounced [ts] at the beginning of a word. Although [ts] is not regarded as a separate phoneme, it is sometimes distinguished in certain orthographies.
Liquids
Dental obstruents /t/ and /ð/ may not precede /l/. Thus /l/ changes to /ŭ/ in this context.
Epenthesis
In most registers of Shaj, sequences of VV (where V stands for any vowel or diphthong) are prohibited anywhere within a word, or across word boundaries. Thus /l/ (or /ŭ/ if the first vowel is either /u/ or /aŭ/) becomes inserted between the vowels. For example, /ʒax namballet aĭ ik/ → /ʒax namballet aĭ lik/ "I have red hair". Sequences of /uŭ/ or /ŭŭ/ reduce to /ŭ/. Since epenthesis is an aesthetic rule that makes no semantic difference, it is inconsistently ignored both in speech and in writing. More recently, VV sequences are seen more often, where /l/ or /ŭ/ would need to be inserted.
Alternations
Some words alternate velar and postalveolar consonants. This reflects palatalization in former stages of the language that have yielded some unpredictable irregularities. For example, /vorəx/ "mountain", becomes /vørʒen/ "mountains".
Phonetics
Consonants
Labials
In older stages of Shaj, all labials were bilabial. However, labial fricatives in Velshaj are in free variation between their bilabial and labiodental counterparts. Thus, Velshaj may be pronounced [βelʃaĭ] or [velʃaĭ], with the latter pronunciation becoming more frequent.
Coronals
Most coronal consonants are apico-dental. These include /l/, /t̪/, /ð/, and /n/. The lateral and nasal may be in free variation between their dental and alveolar counterparts. Otherwise, /z/, /r/, and /t/ are strictly apico-alveolar. /t/ is sometimes transcribed as /ʈ/ or /ṭ/ to further distinguish it from /t̪/. The rhotic /r/ is usually a tap [ɾ], which devoices at the ends of words, or becomes a trill [r] at the beginnings of words, or when doubled.
Palatals and Postalveolars
The postalveolar consonants /ʒ/, /ʃ/, and /tʃ/ may alternatively be realized as retroflex, or apico-palatal consonants. The sequences /nĭ/, /lĭ/, and /ŭĭ/, may be realized as true dorso-palatal consonants [ɲ], [ʎ], and [ɥ], respectively before vowels.
Velars and Uvualrs
The velar fricative /ɣ/ becomes pharyngeal [ʕ] between any two non-high back vowels. Additionally, a sequence of /ɣ/ + /r/ may yield a uvular fricative [ʁ] or trill [ʀ]. For example, /ɣroɣa/ "royal" → [ʁoʕa]. A geminated voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħː] occurs in rare cases (e.g. /ɣroxxa/ "the queen" → [ʁoħːa]).
Voiced Stops
Although voiced stops disappeared as phonemes early in the history of Shaj, they appear as allophones of other phonemes. Voiced stops are in free variation with their voiceless counterparts, except when beginning a word, or following /l/ or a nasal, in which case they are voiceless, and maybe aspirated. Voiced stops also occur in free variation with their voiced fricative counterparts when beginning a word, or following /l/ or a nasal. Otherwise, they are fricative. Voiced stops in loanwords are substituted by voiceless plosives.
Examples of Voiced Stops
/velʃaĭ/ = [βelʃaĭ] or [belʃaĭ] /namvellet/ = [namβellet] or [nambellet] /panðriʒen/ = [panðriʒen] or [pandriʒen], but not [banðridʒen] /ʒax/ = [ʒax] or [dʒax] /tʃarpel/ = [tʃarpel] or [tʃarbel], but not [dʒarpel] or [dʒarbel] /ɣaləm/ = [ɣaləm] or [ɡaləm] /kampel/ = [kampel], but not [ɡambel]
Gemination
When two of the same consonant are next to each other, they are geminated. Obstruents are voiceless and sonorants are voiced. The phoneme /ɾ/ becomes a trill [r(ː)] when geminated.
Vowels and Semivowels
Open Vowels
Phonemically there are two open vowels /ɑ/ and /æ/. The open back vowel is in free variation with its central or front counterpart [a]. The falling diphthong /ĭɑ/ is often pronounced [jæ]. The open front vowel ranges between [æ], [ɛ], and [e], being more open in closed syllables.
Lax Vowels
Mid and high monophthongs in closed syllables tend to become lax. /ni/ → [ni], /nið/ → [nɪθ].
Semivowels
Semivowels are typically realized as consonants before vowels, or as non syllabic vowels in rising diphthongs. When /ĭ/ is the only vowel in a syllable, it is pronounced the same as /i/.
Schwa
The schwa, though always written, may disappear after a consonant, or cause a following nasal or liquid to become syllabic. For example, /vorəɣ/ "mountain" → [vorx]; or /muʒər/ "cattle" → [muʒr̩]. The vowel itself is in free variation with any non-open, unround, back or centralized sound.
Umlaut and Falling Diphthongs
In younger, non-standard dialects, rounded front vowels /y/ and /ø/ can alternatively be pronounced as falling diphthongs [wi] and [we], respectively. [wi] is still distinguished from the "rising" diphthong [uj].
Morphophonology
Morphology
Nouns
Most parts of Noun Phrases (NPs) in Velshaj merge together into a single word. For example /rɑnəɣtʃɑrpelloĭn/ is one word meaning "in the red hat". The adjective prefixes to the noun, the article suffixes to the noun, and the postposition suffixes to the entire NP: /rɑnəɣ- tʃɑrpel -lo -ĭn/ red- hat -the -in
Personal Pronouns
Pronouns do not decline for case. Instead, position in the sentence determines part of sentence.
Clusivity
There are three first person pronouns, /ʒɑɣ/ 1sg., and /roz/ or /ez/ 1pl. /roz/ means "we" and includes the second person. /ez/ means "we" and excludes the second person.
Register
There are many second person pronouns, each with their own specific uses. /ĭĭt/ is singular and familiar. It is what to use when addressing someone well known like a friend. Von is plural and familiar. It is what to use when addressing many people at once, but like /ĭĭt/, it implies a certain degree of familiarity and informality. /ʒĭ/ is formal and either singular or plural. It is what to use when addressing any number of people who are not known very well, or who have a different social status.
Summary Chart
| Singlar | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| First Person Exclusive | ʒɑɣ | ez |
| First Person Inclusive | roz | |
| Second Person Familiar | ĭĭt | von |
| Second Person Formal | ʒĭ | ʒĭ |