Gothevian
 | This article is private. The author requests that you do not make changes to this project without approval. By all means, please help fix spelling, grammar and organisation problems, thank you. |
 | This article is a construction site. This project is currently undergoing significant construction and/or revamp. By all means, take a look around, thank you. |
| Gothevian | |
|---|---|
| gušk | |
 Flag of the Republic of Gothevia | |
| Pronunciation | [ɡuʃk] |
| Created by | Vrianne |
| Date | 2024 |
| Setting | Earth |
| Native to | Gothevia |
| Ethnicity | Gothevian |
Indo-European
| |
Early forms | Proto-Indo-European
|
Standard form | Standard Central Gothevian
|
Dialects |
|
| Official status | |
Official language in | Gothevia |
Recognised minority language in | |
| Regulated by | Institute for the Gothevian Language |
 Map of areas where Gothevian is spoken
...as a majority language
...as a minority language | |
Gothevian (gušk, gušk [ɡuʃk], formally róždun gúškun, róždun gúškun [ˈrwɤ̞ʒdun ˈɡuʃkun]) is an East Germanic language descendant from Gothic or a language mutually intelligible with it. Its speakers mainly reside within the borders of Gothevia, though there exist significant Gothevian-speaking communities in Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia. it is the only surviving member of the East Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, though with being a member of Balkan sprachbund, it has evolved to be quite distinct in some aspects of its structure compared to other Germanic languages, with features such as evidentiality and the eradication of the Germanic strong verb.
Old Gothevian shares most of its features with Wulfilan Gothic, likely being descendent from dialects mutually intelligible with it. It was written in a descendant of the Gothic script, which modern Gothevian still uses. Gothevian, however, would begin to diverge from Wulfilan Gothic, with the biggest drivers being the Balkan sprachbund and Slavonic and Greek superstrata.
Classification
Gothevian is an Indo-European language that belongs to the East Germanic branch of the Germanic languages. It is the only surviving member of the East Germanic languages, with its closest living relatives being from other Branches of Germanic, such as Dutch, English, German, and Icelandic. Within the East Germanic branch, its closest relative is Gothic, followed by other East Germanic languages such as Vandalic, Burgundian, and likely Crimean Gothic.
Due to being located within the core Balkan region, it has features that set it apart from other Germanic languages. Such features include post-fixed articles, syncretism of locative and directional expressions, a future-tense particle, an inferential mood, among others. Gothevian was also under Greek and Slavic language influence for most of its history. This influence came with many lexical borrowings, but also several grammatical influences, such as the retention of a synthetic passive voice and creation of a synthetic aorist.
History
The history of Gothevian can be divided into several periods.
- The Migratory period (6th-8th century)...
- Old Gothevian (9th–12th century)...
- Middle Gothevian (13th–16th century)...
- Modern Gothevian (17th century–present)...
Etymology
The exonym "Gothevian" is a Latinized borrowing of the Koine Greek term "Γότθευικος" (Góttheuikos), itself a variant of older "Γότθευδικος" (Góttheudikos), a borrowing from "𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌹𐍃𐌺𐍃" (gutþiudisks), from "𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰" (gutþiuda) + "-𐌹𐍃𐌺𐍃" (-isks), thus meaning "of the Goths". The endonym gušk (gušk) is a cognate of the Latin exonym, being a simplification of earlier gútsišk (gútsišk), from Old Gothevian gútsiudišk (gutþiudisk).
Phonology
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | ɨ~ə~ɐ | u |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Open | a |
- Gothevian lacks a phonemic length distinction, but vowels in stressed syllables may allophonically be slightly lengthened.
- Mid vowels /e, o/ are mostly true-mid [e̞, o̞]. They may be allophonically pronounced closer to open-mid [e, o] in the vicinity of open vowels /i, u/, or closer to open-mid [ɛ, ɔ] in the vicinity of central vowels /a, ɨ/.
- /o/ consistently unrounds to [ɤ̞] when near [w]. This behavior rarely applies to /u/ however.
- The open vowel /a/ is true-central [ä].
- The non-open central vowel (notated here on out as /ɨ/) takes on a couple of realizations. In stressed positions it is commonly [ɨ]. In unstressed positions it is either also [ɨ], [ə], or, particularly in eastern and far-western dialects, [ɐ].
Consonants
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | |||
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | t͡ʃ | k |
| voiced | b | d | d͡ʒ | ɡ | |
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʃ | x |
| voiced | v~ʋ | z | ʒ | ||
| Trill | r | ||||
| Approximant | l | j | (w) | ||
- /p, t, k/ are unaspirated [p, t, k].
- /s, z/ are denti-alveolar [s̟, z̟].
- /v/ may be a true fricative [v] or an approximant [ʋ].
- /r/ may be pronounced as either a trill [r] or a tap [ɾ]. The trilled pronunciation is commonplace when it is followed by a glide, such as in ⟨róždy⟩ [ˈrwɤ̞ʒdə ~ ˈrʷɤ̞ʒdə].
- In eastern dialects, /l/ is velarized [ɫ].
- Consonant-Glide clusters /Cj, Cw/ may coalesce into a palatalized/labialized consonant /Cʲ, Cʷ/.
- [w] is an allophone of /v/ when directly preceded or followed by a consonant. Compare ⟨oš⟩ [vo̞ʃ] and ⟨šoš⟩ [ʃwɤ̞ʃ ~ ʃʷɤ̞ʃ].
Stress
Historical evolution
From Classical Gothic to Pre-Gothevian
- /ɸ/ shifts to /θ/ before a coronal consonant.
- /h/, /w/ fortify into /k/, /p/ before /l/, /r/.
- /β/ merges into /w/ intervocalically.
- Got. gabei /ˈɡa.βiː/ → P-G gáwɛi(n) /ˈɡa.wiː(n)/ ("wealth")
- /β/, /ɣ/ merge into /w/ before /m/.
- Got. *sib(u)m /ˈsi.β(u)m/ → P-G siwm /siwm/ ("seven")
From Pre-Gothevian to Old Gothevian
- /t, d/, /k, ɡ/ palatalize to /c/, /ɟ/ respectively before /i(ː)/, /eː/, /j/. /kʷ/, /ɡ(ː)ʷ/ are unaffected.
- P-G tɛíhan /ˈtiː.han/ → OG cɛíhan /ˈciː.han/ ("to show")
- P-G gílþa /ˈɡil.θa/ → early OG đílþa /ˈɟil.θa/ ("sickle")
- /ɣ/ is elided intervocalically or in syllable codas if followed by another consonant, without compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel.
- P-G *ígil /ˈi.ɣil/ → OG íǥil, íil /ˈi.il ~ iːl/ ("hedgehog")
- P-G rign /riɣn/ → OG rin /rin/ ("rain")
- /ɣr/, /rɣ/ coalesce into /ɣː/.
- P-G baírgan /ˈbɛr.ɣan/ → OG bɛ́ǥǥan /ˈbɛɣ.ɣan/ ("to keep")
- /ɸ/, /β/ develop into /f/, /v/.
- /l/ is elided in syllable codas if followed by another consonant, with compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel, if short.
- early OG đílþa /ˈɟil.θa/ → OG đɛíþa /ˈɟiː.θa/ ("sickle")
- /h/ is elided in syllable codas, with compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel, if short. If /h/ is followed by a consonant, then that consonant is geminated too.
- P-G módah /ˈmoː.dah/ → OG módah, módaa /ˈmoː.daː/ ("angry")
- P-G naht /naht/ → OG nahtt, naatt /naːtt/ ("night")
- /ɟː/ causes nearby non-front vowels /a(ː)/, /ɔ(ː)/, /oː/, /u(ː)/ to front into /ɛ(ː)/, /œ(ː)/, /øː/, /y(ː)/. Non-geminate /ɟ/ does not trigger this shift.
- P-G wadj /waɟɟ/ → OG wɛdj /wɛɟɟ/ ("wall")
- /kʷ/, /ɡ(ː)ʷ/, /ʍ/ cause nearby unrounded vowels /a(ː)/, /ɛ(ː)/, /eː/, /i(ː)/ to round into /ɔ(ː)/, /œ(ː)/, /øː/, /y(ː)/.
- P-G qen /kʷeːn/ → OG qen /kʷøːn/ ("woman")
From Old Gothevian to Middle Gothevian
- /θ/, /ð/ fortify to /t/, /d/ when directly followed by another consonant that is not a glide or a plosive.
- OG þrɛi /θri(ː)/ → early MG trɛi /tri(ː)/ ("three")
- OG þloþ /θloːθ/ → early MG tloþ /tloːθ/ ("river")
- One of /θ, ð/, /s, z/ retracts to /s, z/, /ʃ, ʒ/ respectively, triggering a chain shift that causes the second to also retract.
- OG síwþan /ˈsiw.θan/ → MG šíwsan /ˈʃiw.sɨn/ ("to boil")
- OG seþ /seːθ/ → early MG šes /ʃeːs/ ("seed")
- OG raz /raz/ → MG raž /raʒ/ ("house")
- /ŋk, ŋɡ/, /ŋkʷ, ŋɡʷ/ coalesce into /nː/, /wː/ respectively.
- OG drínkan /ˈdriŋ.kan/ → early MG drínnan /ˈdrin.nan/ ("to drink")
- OG síngwan /ˈsiŋ.ɡʷan/ → early MG šíwwan /ˈʃiw.wan/ ("to sing")
- /kʷ/, /ɡʷ/, /ʍ/ lose their labialization and merge with /k/, /ɡ/, /h/.
- OG qen /kʷøːn/ → early MG qen /køːn/ ("woman")
- OG ƕass /ʍɔss/ → early MG ƕašš /hɔʃʃ/ ("sharp")
- /ɣ/, /w/ are elided before back vowels /u(ː)/, /oː/.
- OG wulkán /wul.ˈkan/ → MG ulkán /ul.ˈkan/ ("volcano")
- Geminate consonants lose their gemination.
- /œ/, /y/ merge into /ɨ~ə/. Unstressed /a/ also develops into /ɨ~ə/. Other short unstressed vowels may also sporadically develop into /ɨ~ə/.
- OG smýrna /ˈsmyr.na/ → MG šmýrna, šmýrny /ˈʃmɨr.nə/ ("myrrh")
- Vowels preceding a nasal consonant coalesce into a long nasalized vowel if followed by a fricative or a liquid. These nasalized vowels lose their nasalization shortly after. /ẽː/, /ø̃ː/, /õː/ develop into /aː/ during this process.
- OG swinþ /swinθ/ → early MG šwinþ, *šwɛiþ /ʃwiːθ/ ("strong")
- late OG ξanθ /skanθ ~ ksanθ/ → early MG ξanθ, ξanþ /ʃkaːs/ ("blond")
- /iː, eː/, /yː, øː/, /uː, oː/ develop into /je̞/, /we̞/, /wo̞/ respectively.
- early MG fimf /fiːf/ → MG fimf, fɛif /fjef/ ("five")
- early MG dówẅa /ˈduː.a/ → MG dow, *do /dwo/ ("dove; bird")
- early MG qen /køːn/ → MG qen /kwen/ ("woman")
- early MG šes /ʃeːs/ → MG šes /ʃjes/ ("seed")
- early MG bóka /ˈboː.ka/ → MG bóka /ˈbwo.kɨ/ ("book")
- /ɛː/, /œː/, /ɔː/, /aː/ develop into /ja/, /wɨ~wə/, /wa/, /a/ respectively.
- early MG klaif /klɛːf/ → MG klaif /kljaf/ ("bread")
- early MG qain /kœːn/ → MG qain /kwɨn/ ("wail")
- early MG šawjl /ʃɔːjl/ → MG šawjl /ʃwajl/ ("sun")
- early MG ahš, aašš /aːʃʃ/ → MG aašš, ašš /aʃ/ ("hand, ear of corn")
- /iu̯/ merges into /wɨ/.
- early MG niwm /niu̯m/ → MG niwm /nwɨm/ ("nine")
- early MG biwž /biu̯ʒ/ → MG biwž /bwɨʒ/ ("beer")
- /ɛ/, /ɔ/ develop into /e̞/, /o̞/.
- /tj, kj, cj/, /dj, ɡj, ɟj/, /sj, zj/, /wj, jw/ coalesce into /c/, /ɟ/, /ʃ, ʒ/, /j, w/.
- MG twai /twja/ → late MG twai, cai, cwai /ca/ ("two")
- MG wínsišk, wɛísišk /wje.siʃk/ → late MG wínsišk, wɛísišk /je.siʃk/ ("Macedonian Slav")
From Middle Gothevian to Modern Gothevian
- /h/ is completely lost.
- /c/, /ɟ/ affricate to /t͡ʃ/, /d͡ʒ/.
- early mod. Gthv đíštry /ˈɟiʃt.rɨ/ → Gthv đíštry /ˈd͡ʒiʃt.rɨ/ ("tomorrow")
- early mod. Gthv mécyry /ˈmje.cɨ.rɨ/ → early mod. Gthv mécyry /ˈmje.t͡ʃɨ.rɨ/ ("sword")
- /t͡ʃ/, /d͡ʒ/ de-affricate in unstressed and/or coda positions.
- /sc/, /ʃc/ develop into /st/, /ʃt/.
- early mod. Gthv šcányn /ʃca.nɨn/ → Gthv šcányn /ʃta.nɨn/ ("to shine")
- /w/, /ɣ/ merge into /v/, except when within a consonant cluster, then they merge into /w/.
- Final fricatives devoice.
Orthography
Gothevian is written primarily in the Gothevian script. It is an alphabet and at its core a variant of the Wulfilan Gothic alphabet, augmented by letters borrowed from the nearby Greek and Cyrillic scripts. The modern Gothevian spelling convention is based on the reformed Central Gothevian literary norms, and as such the Modern Gothevian Script contains some archaic features, such as the vowel-modifying consonants ⟨q, ƕ⟩ (q, ƕ), and ditched others, such as the obsolete letters ⟨θ, ξ, ψ⟩ (θ, ξ, ψ).
The modern Gothevian script contains 31 letters in common use. Most letters are mapped to a single phoneme, with a few others mapped onto more than one phoneme but in regular and predictable contexts.
| Letter | Translit. | Name | IPA | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| a | a | áfy (áfy) | /a/ | Gothic 𐌰 (a) |
| b | b | béty (béty) | /b/ | Gothic 𐌱 (b) |
| g | g | gámy (gámy) | /ɡ/ | Gothic 𐌲 (g) |
| d | d | déty (déty) | /d/ | Gothic 𐌳 (d) |
| ɛ | ɛ | ècy (ɛ́cy) | /e/ | Gothic 𐌴 (ē) |
| q | q | qèrsy (qɛ́rsy) | /k/1 | Gothic 𐌵 (q) |
| ž | ž | žéty (žéty) | /ʒ/ | Gothic 𐌶 (z) |
| z | z | zéty (zéty) | /z/ | Cyrillic З (z) |
| e | e | éty (éty) | /je/ | Greek Η (ē) |
| đ | đ | đèty (đɛ́ty) | /d͡ʒ/, /ʒ/2 | see below |
| h | h | hály (hály) | /Ø/ | Gothic 𐌷 (h) |
| s | s | séty (séty) | /s/ | Gothic 𐌸 (þ) |
| i | i | íöty (íöty) | /i/ | Gothic 𐌹 (i) |
| k | k | kápy (kápy) | /k/ | Gothic 𐌺 (k) |
| l | l | léty (léty) | /l/ | Gothic 𐌻 (l) |
| m | m | mvɛ (mvɛ) | /m/ | Gothic 𐌼 (m) |
| Letter | Translit. | Name | IPA | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | n | nvɛ (nvɛ) | /n/ | Gothic 𐌽 (n) |
| j | j | éry (éry) | /j/ | Gothic 𐌾 (j) |
| ɔ | ɔ | òmy (ɔ́my) | /o/ | Greek or Cyrillic Ο (o) |
| u | u | úry (úry) | /u/ | Gothic 𐌿 (u) |
| p | p | pe (pe) | /p/ | Gothic 𐍀 (p) |
| r | r | ro (ro) | /r/ | Gothic 𐍂 (r) |
| š | š | šíwmy (šíwmy) | /ʃ/ | Gothic 𐍃 (s) |
| t | t | taw (taw) | /t/ | Gothic 𐍄 (t) |
| y | y | ýcy (ýcy) | /ɨ/ | Gothic 𐍅 (w) |
| v | v | vècy (vɛ́cy) | /v~w/ | derived from y (y) |
| f | f | fe (fe) | /f/ | Gothic 𐍆 (f) |
| x | x | xe (xe) | /x/ | Gothic 𐍇 (x) |
| ƕ | ƕ | ƕaíry (ƕaíry) | /Ø/1 | Gothic 𐍈 (ƕ) |
| c | c | cèty (cɛ́ty) | /t͡ʃ/, /ʃ/2 | see below |
| o | o | ómy (ómy) | /vo~wo/ | Gothic 𐍉 (ō) |
- Qɛ́rsy and ƕaíry are pronounced identically to kápy and hály respectively but alter the pronunciation of the following vowel (see below).
- Đɛ́ty and cɛ́ty are pronounced as /ʒ/ and /ʃ/ in unstressed and/or coda positions.
Apart from zéty ⟨z⟩, éty ⟨e), đɛ́ty ⟨đ⟩, ɔ́my ⟨ɔ⟩, and cɛ́ty ⟨c⟩, all Gothevian letters can be directly traced to a Gothic-script source. The source of đɛ́ty and cɛ́ty specifically is a point of contention, as no unambigious source has been identified. The many theories include the following:
- Current mainstream theories argue for a Coptic source for cɛ́ty, citing čima ⟨ϭ⟩ as the most likely candidate, followed by ti ⟨ϯ⟩. A Coptic source for đɛ́ty is more dubious, with the likeliest candidate, janjia ⟨ϫ⟩, bearing less of a resemblance than the candidates for cɛ́ty.
- Likewise, đɛ́ty is near-unanimously believed to be derived from a Cyrillic source, with most mainstream theories putting forward tse ⟨ц⟩ or che ⟨ч⟩ as probable sources. Less supported theories instead propose djerv ⟨ꙉ⟩ due to its alphabetical order being nearer to that of đɛ́ty. Djerv has also been proposed as a source for cɛ́ty as a more fringe position, alongside an adaptation of a yer ⟨ь~ъ⟩.
- A popular yet unsupported theory proposes Gothic 𐍁 (90) based wholly on its similar form. This comes with a host of unexplained inconsistencies, such as its sudden shift in alphabetical and numeric order, and its missing usage as a numeral. Others point to 𐍊 (900) as another Gothic source, but those are even less supported and outright rejected.
- Cɛ́ty is also sometimes argued to be a simplification of a ligature, such as ⟨tj⟩ (tj), though this is not backed by historic manuscripts.
- An Armenian source can also be argued for, with letters such as tsa ⟨ծ⟩ and che ⟨ճ⟩ being put forward for cɛ́ty, and cha ⟨չ⟩ and je ⟨ջ⟩ for đɛ́ty.
Digraphs and letter combinations
Additionally, Gothevian contains several letter combinations that have phonetic values different from those of their single components. These include vocalic digraphs from historic long vowels and consonants that modify certain vowels.
Vocalic diphthongs take the form ⟨VG⟩ and phonetically represent /GV/ sequences. Most of these formerly represented long vowels /Vː/ which had later broken up into their current forms.
| Letter | Translit. | IPA | IPA (hist.) |
|---|---|---|---|
| ai | ai | /ja/ | /ɛː/ |
| aw | aw | /va~wa/ | /ɔː/ |
| ɛi | ɛi | /je/ | /iː/ |
| iw | iw | /vɨ~wɨ/ | /iu̯/ |
| ow | ow | deprecated | /uː/ |
The letters qɛ́rsy ⟨q⟩ and ƕaíry ⟨ƕ⟩ can also alter the pronunciation of certain vowels when directly preceding them. Qɛ́rsy and ƕaíry formerly represented labialized consonants /kʷ, ʍ/ and as such triggered the rounding of unrounded vowels, causing them to diverge from their unaffected counterparts.
| Letter | Translit. | IPA | IPA (hist.) |
|---|---|---|---|
| qa | qa | /kwa/ | /k(ʷ)ɔː/ |
| qai | qai | /kwɨ/ | /k(ʷ)œː/ |
| qɛ | qɛ | /kɨ/ | /k(ʷ)œ/ |
| qɛi | qɛi | /kwe/ | /k(ʷ)yː/ |
| qe | qe | /k(ʷ)øː/ | |
| qi | qi | /kɨ/ | /k(ʷ)y/ |
| Letter | Translit. | IPA | IPA (hist.) |
|---|---|---|---|
| ƕa | ƕa | /va~wa/ | /h(ʷ)ɔː/ |
| ƕai | ƕai | /vɨ~wɨ/ | /h(ʷ)œː/ |
| ƕɛ | ƕɛ | /ɨ/ | /h(ʷ)œ/ |
| ƕɛi | ƕɛi | /ve~we/ | /h(ʷ)yː/ |
| ƕe | ƕe | /h(ʷ)øː/ | |
| ƕi | ƕi | /ɨ/ | /h(ʷ)y/ |
Obsolete letters
| Letter | Translit. | Name | IPA | Source | Replaced by |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| θ | θ | θéty (θéty) | /t, s/ | Greek θ (th) | t (t), s (s) |
| ξ | ξ | ξe (ξe) | /kʃ, ʃk, ks/ | Greek ξ (x) | kš (kš), šk (šk), ks (ks) |
| ψ | ψ | ψe (ψe) | /pʃ, ʃp, ps/ | Greek ψ (ps) | pš (pš), šp (šp), ps (ps) |
History
By the time of the first standardization of the Gothevian script based on the Štoven Dialect, influence from literary Greek had taken its course on vowel glyphs. ɛ would be remapped onto short e, with ē becoming represented by e taken from Greek eta (η). A similar system came about for the mid-back vowels, using native o for ō, due to the perceived similarity of its written form to Greek omega (ω), and Hellenic ɔ for o. Other long vowels would become disambiguated using the digraphs ɛi, ow, ai, aw, and rarely aa for ī, ū, ɛ̄, ɔ̄, and ā respectively. A monotonic system would also be adopted, with vowels in stressed syllables gaining an acute (◌́) and vowels in hiatus gaining a diaeresis (◌̈). θ, ξ, ψ (th, ks, ps) would also begin their usage during this period.
...
Grammar
Syntax
The predominant word order in Gothevian is subject–verb–object (SVO), but in practice, word order exhibits a high degree of flexibility without much ambiguity.
General features
Adjectives commonly precede the noun.
- škázɛiny bóky — ‘leather book’
They can however follow the noun when marked for emphasis.
- ížy bóky škázɛiny — ‘that leather book’
Although not present in the standard variety, a common feature of southern dialects is placing all adjectives after the noun.
- bóky škázɛiny — ‘leather book’
Possessors commonly follow the noun.
- bóky my — ‘my book’
- bóky zy Myxaílen — ‘Mykhail’s book’
For pronominal emphasis however, a genitive phrase with a dative pronoun is used.
- bókun zy min — ‘the book of me’
Possessors are allowed to go before the noun for poetic license without any loss of meaning.
- šcánijus o-dáprun uf — ‘overshone, our bravery’
Subject pronouns are normally dropped, as they can be inferred from verbal endings.
- šócija — ‘I saw’
Though they can be included to emphasize the subject.
- ci šócija — ‘I saw’
Verbs go before participles in compound tenses.
- víšynɔvis túklivyn — ‘he was arrested [reportedly]’
Morphology
Gothevian is a largely synthetic language, in some aspects more so than others. However, it also heavily displays analytic features. Nominal declension was heavily reduced, while verbal conjugation was expanded upon. Most of these innovations were due to the Balkan sprachbund, among them are:
- Lack of an infinitive. Contexts where English would use an infinitive are typically formed with either finite forms or participles.
- Innovation of a post-fixed declining article. The weak adjective declension was re-analyzed and spread to nouns via the old n-stem declensions.
- Syncretism of the dative and genitive cases. Particles are used to form distinct dative and genitive constructions.
- reshaped and expanded compound tenses. The future and perfect tenses were reshaped to be more in line with those of their neighbors. A synthetic aorist was later analogically innovated, and analytic evidential forms later followed.
- Loss of synthetic comparative and superlative forms. The original method of deriving degrees of comparison using suffixation fell out of use in favor of analytic preposed markers.
Nominals
Nouns
Gothevian nouns decline for two cases (direct, dative), three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), two numbers (singular, plural), and two states (indefinite, definite). The original Gothic four cases in nouns synchronized into two cases (nominative-accusative → direct; dative-genitive → dative), and the six strong declensions levelled into three declension, largely correlating with the three genders. The weak declensions were re-analyzed as indicating definiteness and were subsequently joined with the indefinite strong declensions.
Masculine declension
This declension is completely made up of masculine nouns. It came about from a merger of nearly all of the Gothic strong declensions except for the -ō declension, which is the predecessor to the feminine declension.
| MASC FEM BOTH |
šal (šal, "room") | klaif (klaif, "bread") | ško (ško, "shoe") | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | |||||||||
| indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | |||
| direct | šal šal |
šályn šályn |
šalš šalš |
šálaš šálaš |
klaif klaif |
klaívyn klaívyn |
klaifš klaifš |
klaívaš klaívaš |
ško ško |
škóÿn škóÿn |
škoš škoš |
škóäš škóäš | ||
| dative | šályš šályš |
šále šále |
šálen šálen |
klaívyš klaívyš |
klaíve klaíve |
klaíven klaíven |
škóÿš škóÿš |
škóë škóë |
škóën škóën | |||||
Feminine declension
This declension is completely made up of feminine nouns. It evolved directly from the Gothic -ō declension. As such, all feminine nouns that originally belonged to the -ō declension alongside later-derived nouns end with -y (-y ← -a). All -ōn declension and -ein declension nouns later transitioned into Gothevian feminine declension nouns, gaining the -y (-y) ending as well. A small subset of feminine nouns however lacks the ending.
| MASC FEM BOTH |
bóky (bóky, "book") | as (as, "age") | do (do, "bird") | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | |||||||||
| indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | |||
| direct | bóky bóky |
bókun bókun |
bokš bokš |
bókaš bókaš |
as as |
ázun ázun |
ázyš ázyš |
ázaš ázaš |
do do |
dóün dóün |
doš doš |
dóäš dóäš | ||
| dative | bókuš bókuš |
bóko bóko |
bóken bóken |
ázuš ázuš |
ázo ázo |
ázen ázen |
dóüš dóüš |
dóö dóö |
dóën dóën | |||||
Anomalous feminine declension
A closed class of feminine nouns declines according to the masculine declension instead of the feminine declension. This is the result of the Gothic -i declension and -jō declension ultimately merging into the Gothevian masculine declension, with the feminine nouns of those declensions adopting the same endings.
| MASC FEM BOTH |
qen (qen, "woman") | šɛs (šɛs, "seed") | škaft (škaft, "animal") | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | |||||||||
| indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | |||
| direct | qen qen |
qényn qényn |
qenš qenš |
qénaš qénaš |
šɛs šɛs |
šèzyn šɛ́zyn |
šèzyš šɛ́zyš |
šèzaš šɛ́zaš |
škaft škaft |
škáftyn škáftyn |
škaftš škaftš |
škáftaš škáftaš | ||
| dative | qényš qényš |
qéne qéne |
qénen qénen |
šèzyš šɛ́zyš |
šèze šɛ́ze |
šèzen šɛ́zen |
škáftyš škáftyš |
škáfte škáfte |
škáften škáften | |||||
Neuter declension
This declension is completely made up of neuter nouns. It evolved directly from the neuter -a declension, -ja declension, and -u declension. It mirrors the masculine declension in the indefinite singular, but mirrors the feminine indefinite singular direct and plural dative in its indefinite plurals. It also mirrors the feminine declension in the definite singular.
| MASC FEM BOTH |
hairt (hairt, "heart") | biwš (biwš, "beer") | raš (raš, "house") | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | |||||||||
| indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | indefinite | definite | |||
| direct | hairt hairt |
haírtun haírtun |
haírty haírty |
haírtaš haírtaš |
biwš biwš |
bíwžun bíwžun |
klaify bíwžy |
bíwžaš bíwžaš |
raš raš |
rážun rážun |
rážy rážy |
rážaš rážaš | ||
| dative | haírtyš haírtyš |
haírto haírto |
haírten haírten |
bíwžyš bíwžyš |
bíwžo bíwžo |
bíwžen bíwžen |
rážyš rážyš |
rážo rážo |
rážen rážen | |||||
Adjectives
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
| number | person | nominative | accusative (long) | dative (long) | acc./dat./poss. (short) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | first | ci ci | mic mic | min min | my my | |
| second | so so | suk suk | sun sun | sy sy | ||
| third | masculine | ša ša | šic šic | šin šin | šy šy | |
| neuter | ||||||
| feminine | šo šo | šɛj šɛj | ||||
| plural | first | ɛiš ɛiš | oš oš | o o | ||
| second | oš oš | ɛiš ɛiš | ɛi ɛi | |||
| third | masculine | šai šai | ||||
| neuter | šoš šoš | šo šo | ||||
| feminine | ||||||
Demonstrative and relative pronouns
| number | gender | proximal (this) | distal (that) |
|---|---|---|---|
| singular | masculine | iš iš | ai ai |
| neuter | |||
| feminine | ížy ížy | aíny aíny | |
| plural | masculine | ||
| neuter | ížo ížo | aíno aíno | |
| feminine |
Interrogative pronouns
| gender | personal (who) | possessive (whose) | for quality (what; what kind) | for quantity (how much; how many) | for size (how big) | for place/source (where; from where) | for destination (where to) | for manner (why) | for manner (how) | for time (when) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| masculine | ƕɔn ƕɔn | ƕiš ƕiš | ƕɔr ƕɔr | ƕaf ƕaf | ƕel ƕel | ƕɔrs ƕɔrs | ƕɔt ƕɔt | ƕe ƕe | ƕɔm ƕɔm | ƕɔmán ƕɔmán |
| neuter | ||||||||||
| feminine | ƕin ƕin | ƕòry ƕɔ́ry | ƕávy ƕávy | ƕély ƕély | ƕòrzy ƕɔ́rzy | ƕòty ƕɔ́ty |
Indefinite pronouns
Prepositions and particles
Particles
Gothevian employs the use of particles for various purposes.
Function particles
Function particles in Gothevian are grammaticalized particles that form multiword constructions, aiding with tenses and moods, and take on the uses of auxiliary verbs. Unlike discourse particles, they cannot be left out of a sentence. Below are some function particles.
dy (dy, "dative particle") — Placed before a noun to mark it as an indirect object of a verb.
- gycáhiva d'Ášto cánty my — ‘I showed my bag to Ášty’
zy (zy, "possessive/partitive particle") — Placed before a noun to express possession, origin, or partitivity, or attributively in relation to the noun preceding it.
- iš i katt zy Somáë — ‘that is Somá’s cat’
vy (vy, "interrogative particle") — Placed after the main verb to form a yes–no question.
- dránnivɛš vy vat? — ‘have you drunk water?’
ny (ny, "negation particle") — Placed before a noun, verb, adjective, or another particle to negate its meaning.
- n'yrèš dɛ suk! — ‘I don’t like you!’
- oš'ƕɔn qízɛis jy, nyšɛísyn? — ‘who's talking, the not-strong?’
o (o, "vocative particle") — Placed before a noun to form a vocative expression.
- o'Ázlyfe! aš èly! — ‘O Ázlyf! Come here!’
ɛísy (ɛísy, "optative particle") — Placed before a verb in the subjunctive to express wish, hope, or desire. Also placed before a verb in the indicative to express general want or desire.
- ɛísy ƕaílaw dot Iwrópo — ‘I wish to travel around Europe’
- ɛísy ƕail dot Iwrópo — ‘I want to travel around Europe’
ma (ma, "dynamic particle") — Placed before a verb in the indicative to express ability. Also placed before a verb in the subjunctive to express permission.
- ma kawš — ‘I can try’
- ma káwšaw vy? — ‘may I try?’
á (á, "hortative particle") — Placed before a verb in the subjunctive to form a hortative expression.
- á-žepaiš , saíƕyniš mójivyn — ‘it'd be better if you sleep, you look tired’
daw (daw, "affection particle") — Placed before a verb to express habitual enjoyment or affection.
- daw šívɛis áđby žóvvivny — ‘I heard she used to like to draw’
sar (sar, "jussive particle") — Placed before a verb in the indicative to express requirement, necessity, or urgency. Also placed before a verb in the subjunctive to express a more urgent or prioritized hortative expression.
- sar vándɛiš! — ‘you have to leave!’
- sar vándaiš — ‘you probably should leave’
aw (aw, "desiderative particle") — Placed before a verb in the subjunctive to express desire towards the verb. Also placed before a verb in the indicative to express general want or desire.
- aw m'ai búđaw 'aparátyn — ‘I would love to be able to buy the camera’
- aw buđ 'aparátyn — ‘I want to buy the camera’
Discourse particles
Discourse particles in Gothevian are contextual, optional particles used to highlight the mood or the attitude of the speaker or to highlight the sentence's focus. These particles are mainly present in spoken, informal standard Gothevian or throughout its many dialects. In formal, written contexts, they are mostly seen as unprofessional. Below are some discourse particles.
jy (jy) — Used as a general intensifying particle.
- ...
ɛi (ɛi) — Used to indicate that the utterance happened as a consequence to an earlier even or action.
- ...
nušt (nušt) — Used to indicate something is being offered to the listener.
- ...
níjy (níjy) — Used to intensify a negative or opposing utterance. Also used before nouns, adjectives, adverbs, or verbs for stronger negation.
- ...
aš (aš) — Used to intensify imperatives.
- ...
dɛ (dɛ) — Used as indicate haste or urgency. Also used to indicate the speaker is in a state of haste, or in a state of anger or hatred towards the listener or a third party.
- ...
mis (mis) — Used to intensify adjectives and adverbs.
- ...
hax (hax) — Used as a indicate a sudden shift or deviation of topic.
- ...
áđby (áđby) — Used to indicate that the speaker has been ignorant of newly-provided information or fact.
- ...
ɛx (ɛx) — Used to indicate dissatisfaction or disgust.
- ...
óšy (óšy) — Used to add a sense indeterminateness to interrogative pronouns or to add a sense greater indeterminateness to indefinite pronouns. Also used insultingly to add a sense of diminutivity.
- ...
bɛ (bɛ) — Used to indicate frustration or anger.
- ...