History
Phonology
Consonants
Pre-??? possessed the following consonants:
|
|
Labial
|
Alveolar
|
Palatal-
alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Uvular
|
| Palatalized
|
Plain
|
Labialized
|
Plain
|
Labialized
|
| Nasal
|
*m /m/
|
*n /n/
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|
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| Plosive
|
Voiceless
|
*p /p/
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*t /t/
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|
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*ky /kʲ/
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*k /k/
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*kw /kʷ/
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|
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| Voiced
|
|
*d /t/
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|
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*gy /gʲ/
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*g /g/
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*gw /gʷ/
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| Aspirated
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*ph /pʰ/
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*th /tʰ/
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|
|
*kyh /kʲʰ/
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*kh /kʰ/
|
*kwh /kʷʰ/
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|
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| Fricative
|
Voiceless
|
*f /f/
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*s /s/
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*sh /ʃ/
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|
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*x /x/
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*q /χ/
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*qw /χʷ/
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| Voiced
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*v /v/
|
|
*j /ʒ/
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|
|
|
|
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| Affricate
|
|
|
*ch /t͡ʃ/
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|
|
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|
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| Approximant
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*l /l/
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|
|
|
|
|
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| Flap/Trill
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*r /r/
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Vowels
The following vowel phonemes are used:
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| Short
|
Long
|
Short
|
Short
|
Long
|
| High
|
*i /i/
|
|
|
*u /u/
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|
| Mid
|
*e /e/
|
*ē /eː/
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|
*o /o/
|
*ō /oː/
|
| Low
|
|
|
*a /a/
|
|
|
Stress accent
Pre-??? inherited the phonemic stress system of Proto-Indo-European. No syllable in a word had to be stressed, and sometimes more than one were. Here, stress is indicated with an acute accent, written thus:
- á é í ó ú ḗ ṓ
Grammar
Pronouns
The following pronouns were used:
|
|
| 1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
| Sing.
|
Pl.
|
Sing.
|
Pl.
|
Sing.
|
Pl.
|
| Masc.
|
Neut.
|
Fem.
|
Them.
|
Masc.
|
Neut.
|
Fem.
|
Them.
|
| Nominative
|
*xig
|
*evij
|
*fax
|
*jafa
|
*su
|
*tud
|
*siq
|
*qins
|
*tuj
|
*tuq
|
*tiqaj
|
*qini
|
| Accusative
|
*amí
|
*esmí
|
*fí
|
*vōs
|
*tum
|
*tiq
|
*qim
|
*tuns
|
*tiqes
|
*qines
|
| Genitive
|
*míni
|
*esu
|
*tívi
|
*shafsu
|
*safó
|
*isiq
|
*qinchu
|
*tisum
|
*tiqum
|
*qinum
|
| Dative
|
*míshu
|
*esmij
|
*pháju
|
*fasmij
|
*smṓj
|
*qij
|
*qinij
|
*tujmaf
|
*tiqmaf
|
*qimus
|
| Ablative
|
*míd
|
*esmid
|
*fíd
|
*fasmid
|
*smṓd
|
*qind
|
*tujus
|
*tuqus
|
| Locative
|
*muáj
|
*esmaj
|
*tuáj
|
*fasmaj
|
*smaj
|
*qaj
|
*qinch
|
*chaf
|
*tiqshaf
|
*qinchaf
|
| Instrumental
|
*esmáj
|
*fasmu
|
*tuj
|
*qinax
|
*tushphaj
|
*tiqphaj
|
*qinash
|
| Comitative
|
*amík
|
*esmík
|
*fíkum
|
*vōskum
|
*tiqum
|
*tudum
|
*tuqum
|
*qimum
|
*tunsum
|
*tuqum
|
*tiqem
|
*qiskum
|
| Illative
|
*míshuq
|
*esmin
|
*phájux
|
*fasmin
|
*smṓsh
|
*shin
|
*qinchax
|
*tujman
|
*tuqun
|
*qinchin
|
Case declension
Nouns and adjectives were declined for case, number, and gender. The cases were identical for both the nouns and the adjectives.
|
|
| Singular
|
Plural
|
| Masc.
|
Neut.
|
Fem.
|
Them.
|
Masc.
|
Neut.
|
Fem.
|
Them.
|
| Nominative
|
*-∅
|
*-∅
|
*-(a)s
|
*-i
|
*-(a)x
|
*-ish
|
*-i
|
| Vocative
|
*-∅
|
| Accusative
|
*-(a)m
|
*-(a)m
|
*-es
|
*-es
|
| Genitive
|
*-(a)s
|
*-shu
|
*-um
|
| Dative
|
*-ij
|
*-mus
|
| Ablative
|
*-(a)d
|
*-(a)s
|
*-(a)d
|
| Locative
|
*-ij
|
*-(a)j
|
*-sav
|
*-shaf
|
| Instrumental
|
*-(a)x
|
*-phaj
|
*-(a)sh
|
| Comitative
|
*-mum
|
*-kum
|
*-shum
|
*-mum
|
*-skum
|
*-xum
|
*-shum
|
*-skum
|
| Illative
|
*-shax
|
*-shin
|
*-shax
|
*-shin
|
Verb phrases
Person/number conjugation
|
|
| Athematic
|
Thematic
|
| 1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
| Sing.
|
Pl.
|
Sing.
|
Pl.
|
Sing.
|
Pl.
|
Sing.
|
Pl.
|
Sing.
|
Pl.
|
Sing.
|
Pl.
|
| Past
|
*-am
|
*-amí
|
*-as
|
*-ití
|
*-at
|
*-and
|
*-um
|
*-umi
|
*-is
|
*-iti
|
*-id
|
*-und
|
| Present
|
*-ma
|
*-mus
|
*-sa
|
*-ti
|
*-ta
|
*-anch
|
*-u
|
*-um
|
*-ash
|
*-it
|
*-umu
|
*-unch
|