Valthungian/Nouns: Difference between revisions

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Line 109: Line 109:


=====ga-stems=====
=====ga-stems=====
ga-stems (breǧ, daǧ) nom. sg. has -ǧ instead of **-gs
Masculine a–stems ending in –gaz deviate from the rest of the standards only in the nominative singular, in which *–gaz becomes Gothic and Griutungi –gs, and later –gz and finally –ǧ.
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.ga|da|daǧ|day}}
 
=====ha-stems=====
=====ha-stems=====
ha-stems (skōfs) nom & acc sg have f; gu elsewhere
ha-stems (skōfs) nom & acc sg have f; gu elsewhere

Revision as of 21:06, 1 July 2023


Noun classes differ by suffix vowel and by gender. They may also differ by glides (/j/ or /w/) suffixed to the stem and/or the presence of infixive /n/. The main classes are those stems in /a/ or /ō/, in /i/, in /u/, or in /n/ (as described below: See “Strong” vs. “Weak”). There is also a small class of nouns in /r/ having to do with familial relations. Some former noun classes in Gothic (such as consontant-stem and nd-stem nouns) have been regularised in Valthungian through paradigmatic levelling, and their declensions have been assimilated into other classes.

Every noun in Valthungian (and many of the older Germanic languages, as well as modern German and Icelandic) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).

Masculine and feminine nouns usually take an ending of –s or –a for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by –is (this is equivalent to the “’s” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes –a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.

In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take –as as an ending; neuter takes –a. The genitive plural takes –aro, borrowed from Latin. The dative plural takes –am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it –ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually –ans, but again may metathesise to –nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take –a.

Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardised, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See Phonology). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section of this document in order to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.

a-Stems (Masculine & Neuter)

This is by far the most common noun class, and technically includes the feminine ō-stems as well, though we describe those here separately. The masculine and neuter forms of all a-stems differ only in the nominative and accusative.

a-Stems

These nouns end in a consonant and are followed by a simple ending with no drama. There are some minor variations, more of which will be detailed below.

Historically, this is the development of the standard a-stem from Proto-Germanic:

Strong Masculine a-stem: slēps ‘sleep’
  Singular Plural
n.st.m.a Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Proto-Germanic *slǣp-az *slǣp-is *slǣp-ai *slǣp-ą *slǣp-ōz *slǣp-ǫ̂ *slǣp-amaz *slǣp-anz
(Gothic) slēp-s slēp-is slēp-a slēp- slēp-ōs slēp-ē slēp-am slēp-ans
Griutungi *slēp-s *slēp-is *slēp-a *slēp- *slēp-ōs *slēp-ē *slēp-am *slēp-ans
Old Valthungian *sleip-s *sleip-is *sleip-a *sleip- *sleip-ous *sleip-ouruv[1] *sleip-am *sleip-ans
Middle Valthungian slêp-s slêp-is slêp-a slêp- slêp-os slêp-oru slêp- slêp-ɴs
Valthungian slēp-s slēp-is slēp-a slēp- slēp-as slēp-aro slēp-ma slēp-nas


Strong Masculine a-Stem Noun: slēps ‘sleep’
n.st.m.a Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular slēps slēpis slēpa slēp
Plural slēpas slēparo slēpma slēpnas
Strong Neuter a-Stem Noun: plat ‘tie’
n.st.n.a Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular plat platis plata plat
Plural plata plataro platma plata

a-Stem Variations

ba- and da-Stems

Stems which end in –baz or –daz in Proto-Germanic become unvoiced in the nominative and accusative singular in Valthungian. Specifically, ba-stems end in f in the nominative and accusative, and v elsewhere. Historically, the Valthungian ba-stems also include the fa-stems, while the da-stems include the þa-stems, which have come to follow the same voicing patterns.

Strong Masculine a-Stem Noun: wlufs ‘wolf’
n.st.m.a Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular wlufs wluvis wluva wluf
Plural wluvas wluvaro wluvma wluvnas
Strong Neuter a-Stem Noun: draf ‘job’
n.st.n.a Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular draf dravis drava draf
Plural drava dravaro dravma drava
Strong Masculine a-Stem Noun: mōþs ‘disposition’
n.st.m.a Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular mōþs mōðis mōða mōþ
Plural mōðas mōðaro mōðma mōðnas
Strong Neuter a-Stem Noun: wroþ ‘word’
n.st.n.a Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular wroþ wroðis wroða wroþ
Plural wroða wroðaro wroðma wroða
ga-stems

Masculine a–stems ending in –gaz deviate from the rest of the standards only in the nominative singular, in which *–gaz becomes Gothic and Griutungi –gs, and later –gz and finally –ǧ.

Strong Masculine a-Stem Noun: daǧ ‘day’
n.st.m.a Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular daǧ dagis daga dag
Plural dagas dagaro dagma dagnas
ha-stems

ha-stems (skōfs) nom & acc sg have f; gu elsewhere

iha-stems

iha-stems (slīs) it gets weird...

ma-stems

ma-stems (drǭms, ǣðums) - no metathesis in dative plural

mba-stems

mba-stems (lams) - b is dropped in nom and acc sg

na-stems

na-stems (himins, lapins) - no metathesis in dative or accusative plural

nda-stems

nda-stems (hunǧ, ganǧ) nom. sg. has -nǧ instead of **-nds

ra-stems

ra-stems (wer, bēr) - no nominative singular -s

sa-stems

sa-stems (drus, ams) - no nominative singular -s

za-stems

za-stems (mims, gǣs) - s in nom and acc; ž elsewhere, no nominative singular -s

geminate-stems

geminate-stems (puls, swams) single sonorant in nom and acc sg; extended syllabic reflex elsewhere

syllabic stems

syllabic stems (bagmas, naglas) - no metathesis, -a(-) gets added where necessary

syllabic ra-stems

syllabic ra-stems (þundra, naðra) - syllabic, also no nominative singular -s

ja-Stems

The ja-stem nouns contain a short vowel followed by a single consonant which is followed by –j– which is in turn followed by the a-stem endings. At least that’s how it was two millennia ago, but now the –j– has vanished, the endings disappeared, the vowel (usually) subjected to umlaut, and the stem’s final consonant (usually) subjected to palatalisation.

Strong Masculine ja-Stem Noun: tepis ‘carpet’
n.st.m.ja Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular tepis tepis tepia tape
Plural tepis tepiro tepim tepins
Strong Neuter ja-Stem Noun: kafe ‘coffee’
n.st.n.ja Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular kafe kefis kefia kafe
Plural kefia kefiro kefim kefia

ija-Stems

The ija-stems are a variation of the ja-stems, but these follow stems with long vowels or multiple consonants or syllables before the ending. (This is the modern Valthungian reflex of something called Siever’s Law.) The main difference between ja-stems and ija-stems in Modern Valthungian is that there is no palatalisation in the nominative and genitive singular, though there is still umlaut. (This same pattern occurs in the class 1 weak verbs.)

Strong Masculine ija-Stem Noun: mīris ‘observer’
n.st.m.ija Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular mīris mīris mīria mīre
Plural mīris mīriro mīrim mīrins
Strong Neuter ija-Stem Noun: futle ‘full moon’
n.st.n.ija Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular futle fytlis fytlia futle
Plural fytlia fytliro fytlim fytlia

wa-Stems

The wa-stems nouns have –w– after the stem instead of –j–, and they tend to be a lot less dramatic than the j-stems because there is no palatalisation or umlaut or Siever’s Law to worry about. They are, however, plagued by another rule called Holtzmann’s Law – or an extension of it, anyway – which causes an unexpected –g– to pop up in a few of the declensions.

Strong Masculine wa-Stem Noun: skaðus ‘shadow’
n.st.m.wa Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular skaðus skaðugis skaðuga skaðo
Plural skaðugas skaðugaro skaðugma skaðugnas
Strong Neuter wa-Stem Noun: milo ‘flour’
n.st.n.wa Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular milo milugis miluga milo
Plural miluga milugaro milugma miluga

wja-Stems

The wja-stems combine all of the worst aspects of the w- and j-stems, but fortunately they’re a pretty small group.

ō-Stems (Feminine)

The ō-stems are really just the feminine version of the a-stems, historically speaking.

ō-Stems

The pure ō-stems have even less drama than the masculine and neuter a-stems. No metathesis, no umlaut, no palatalisation: pretty straightforward, really.

Strong Feminine ō-Stem Noun: snuža ‘daughter-in-law’
n.st.f.ō Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular snuža snužis snuža snuža
Plural snužas snužaro snužam snužas

jō-Stems

The jō-stems have umlaut, but it is persistent throughout the paradigm, so there are no extra steps to learn. There are the usual palatal variations as well, but they are also consistent.

Strong Feminine jō-Stem Noun: henia ‘hen’
n.st.f.jō Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular henia henis henia henia
Plural henis heniro henim henis

ijō-Stems

The ijō-stems are a bit weird, mainly because the nominative singular seems to have collapsed in Proto-Germanic into a single -i (more of Siever’s shenanigans), leaving a modern reflex of a simple -e following an unumlauted, unpalatalised stem. Otherwise, the ijō-stems are indistinguishable from the jō-stems in modern Valthungian.

Strong Feminine ijō-Stem Noun: hundre ‘century’
n.st.f.ijō Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular hundre hyndris hyndria hyndria
Plural hyndris hyndriro hyndrim hyndris

wō-Stems

The wō-stems are uneventful, differing from the standard ō-stems only in that a /u/ shows up in some of the endings instead of the standard /a/.

Strong Feminine wō-Stem Noun: bandua ‘symbol’
n.st.f.wō Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular bandua bandus bandua bandua
Plural bandus banduro bandum bandus

i-Stems (Masculine & Feminine)

i-Stems

The i-stems are very similar to the a-stems – the singular declension is identical to the masculine a-stems – but the plural resembles the ja-stems, and the nominative plural has umlaut. The i-stems can be masculine or feminine, and their declensions are identical. There are no neuter i-stem nouns.

Most nouns which were part of the “consonant-stems” in Gothic (such as miluks or mēnaþs were assimilated into the i-stem class.

Strong Feminine i-Stem Noun: dluþs ‘feast’
n.st.f.i Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular dluþs dluðis dluða dluþ
Plural dlyðis dluðiro dluðim dluðins
Strong Masculine i-Stem Noun: mats ‘meal’
n.st.m.i Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular mats matis mata mat
Plural metis matiro matim matins

u-Stems (all genders)

u-Stems

The u-stems are similar to the i-stems except – you guessed it! – the stems have /u/ instead of /i/. The masculine and feminine declensions are identical (like the i-stems), but there are also neuter u-stems. A large number of u-stems are made up of borrowed Latin words ending in –us and Greek words ending in -ος (–os). The genitive and dative singular of the u-stems has been assimilated from the wa-stems, and there is both umlaut and palatalisation in the nominative and genitive plural.

Strong Masculine u-Stem Noun: þāsus ‘badger’
n.st.m.u Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular þāsus þāsus þāsua þāso
Plural þǣšis þǣšigaro þāsum þāsuns
Strong Feminine u-Stem Noun: handus ‘hand’
n.st.f.u Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular handus handus handua hando
Plural henǧis henǧigaro handum handuns
Strong Neuter u-Stem Noun: šaltus ‘peach’
n.st.n.u Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular šalto šaltus šaltua šalto
Plural šaltua šelčigaro šaltum šaltua

ju-Stem

The ju-stems are to the u-stems as the ja-stems are to the a-stems. There is umlaut and palatalisation throughout the paradigm. Once again, the masculine and feminine declensions are identical.

The neuter u-stem only exists in newly-borrowed Latin or Latinate words ending in –ium (e.g. aluminio ‘aluminum’), while earlier borrowings of neuter nouns in –ium tend to be ja- or ija-stems (e.g. ōraloge ‘clock’, from hōrologium)

Strong Masculine ju-Stem Noun: drynis ‘voice’
n.st.m.ju Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular drynis drynis drynio drynio
Plural drynis drynigaro drynim drynins
Strong Feminine ju-Stem Noun: wǣǧis ‘wall’
n.st.f.ju Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular wǣǧis wǣǧis wǣǧo wǣǧo
Plural wǣǧis wǣǧigaro wǣǧim wǣǧins
Strong Neuter ju-Stem Noun: krœumis ‘chrome’
n.st.n.ju Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular krœumio krœumis krœumio krœumio
Plural krœumio krœumigaro krœumim krœumio

r-Stems (all genders)

The r-stems are a very small class of nouns consisting of family members. Here is the full list:

Strong Masculine r-Stem Noun: faðra ‘father’
n.st.m.r Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular faðra faðris faðra faðra
Plural feðris faðro faðrum faðruns
Strong Feminine r-Stem Noun: mōðra ‘mother’
n.st.f.r Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular mōðra mōðris mōðra mōðra
Plural mœuðris mōðro mōðrum mōðruns
Strong Neuter r-Stem Noun: ǧutra ‘grandchild’
n.st.n.r Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular ǧutra ǧutris ǧutra ǧutra
Plural ǧutris ǧutro ǧutrum ǧutruns

n-Stems (all genders)

The n-stems, sometimes known as “weak nouns,” decline in the same manner as weak adjectives. Like the a-, ō-, and u-stems, they have various reflexes depending on the presence of glides between the stem and the endings. Weak neuter nouns are very rare, and mostly refer to parts of the body.

ōn-Stem

Weak Masculine ô-Stem Noun: guma ‘person’
n.st.m.ô Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular guma gumins gumin gumna
Plural gumnas gumnaro gumma gumnas
Weak Feminine ǭ-Stem Noun: drjusa ‘cliff’
n.st.f.ǭ Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular drjusa drjusans drjusan drjusan
Plural drjusans drjusanaro drjusam drjusans
Weak Neuter ô-Stem Noun: hreta ‘heart’
n.st.n.ô Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular hreta hretins hretin hreta
Plural hretana hretnaro hretma hretana

jōn-Stem

Weak Masculine jô-Stem Noun: sinþia ‘traveller’
n.st.m.jô Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular sinþia sinþins sinþin sinþin
Plural sinþins sinþinaro sinþim sinþins
Weak Feminine jǭ-Stem Noun: sinþia ‘traveller’
n.st.f.jǭ Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular sinþia sinþins sinþin sinþin
Plural sinþins sinþinaro sinþim sinþins
Weak Neuter jô-Stem Noun: lipia ‘lip’
n.st.n.jô Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular lipia lipins lipin lipia
Plural lipina lipinaro lipim lipina

wōn-Stem

Weak Masculine wô-Stem Noun: ankua ‘butter’
n.st.m.wô Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular ankua ankuns ankun ankun
Plural ankuns ankunaro ankum ankuns
Weak Feminine wǭ-Stem Noun: þīfua ‘thunder’
n.st.f.wǭ Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular þīfua þīfuns þīfun þīfun
Plural þīfuns þīfunaro þīfum þīfuns
Weak Neuter wô-Stem Noun: tegua ‘toe’
n.st.n.wô Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular tegua teguns tegun tegua
Plural teguna tegunaro tegum teguna

īn-Stem

The īn-stems are exclusively feminine, and are comprised largely of nominalized adjectives.

Weak Feminine īn-Stem Noun: ǣði ‘mother’
n.st.f.į̄ Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular ǣði ǣðins ǣðin ǣðin
Plural ǣðins ǣðinaro ǣðim ǣðins

r/n-Stems (“Heteroclitic Nouns”)

The r/n-stems, also known as “heteroclitic nouns” or “heteroclites,” are a small group of weak neuter nouns in which the typical -n- of the ending is replaced by -r- in some declensions. This is and old, old relic likely from Pre-Indo-European. Heteroclites were not present in Gothic. They are all somewhat irregular, but there are just three of them:

Weak Neuter r/n-Stem Noun: ǧikur ‘liver’
n.wk.n.r/n Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular ǧikur ǧikuns ǧikun ǧikun
Plural ǧikuna ǧikunaro ǧikum ǧikuna
Weak Neuter r/n-Stem Noun: fōr ‘fire’
n.wk.n.r/n Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular fōr funins funin fōn
Plural funa funaro funam funa
Weak Neuter r/n-Stem Noun: watra ‘water’
n.wk.n.r/n Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative
Singular watra watins watin watna
Plural watna watnaro watnam watna
  1. ^ The genitive plural ending was replaced by the Latin ending ōrum sometime around the 6th or 7th century.