https://linguifex.com/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Chrysophylax&feedformat=atomLinguifex - User contributions [en]2024-03-29T08:11:21ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.39.1https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Linguifex:Bureaucrats&diff=308985Linguifex:Bureaucrats2023-06-09T00:55:32Z<p>Chrysophylax: Created blank page</p>
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<div></div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax&diff=308984User:Chrysophylax2023-06-09T00:40:57Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>__NOTOC__<br />
=Welcome=<br />
Test<br />
If you require help, feel free to write to me on my talk page, and I will respond as soon as possible. You may write to me in English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, Swedish (Danish and Norwegian are fine too), Latin, Bosnian, Serbian, or Croatian, and Ancient Greek.<br />
<br />
<br />
My tasks here as an administrator include: helping users, organising projects, carrying out maintenance, and problem solving.<br />
<br />
{{Template:UBX/Reading all}}<br />
<!-- testing an edit --><br />
== Tools ==<br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=User:Chrysophylax/skapjā<br />
buttonlabel=naunijā namā<br />
prefix=Contionary:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=User:Chrysophylax/skapjā-verb<br />
buttonlabel=naunijā verb<br />
prefix=Contionary:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=Template:qdh-create<br />
buttonlabel=Dhannuá!<br />
prefix=Contionary:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=Template:Newword<br />
buttonlabel=New word<br />
prefix=Contionary:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=User:Chrysophylax/Template:nr<br />
buttonlabel=Reconstructed word<br />
prefix=Contionary:Appendix:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=User:Chrysophylax/new<br />
buttonlabel=Välya!<br />
prefix=Contionary:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<br />
== Languages ==<br />
My languages are mostly sketchlangs, unfortunately. Languages with a '''♦''' marker are sketches.<br />
<br />
;[[Dhannuá]]<br />
:In summary, what if I got to play around with some IE roots and tried to make a proper, naturalistic, modern Indo-European-descendant language with chronicled changes from PIE to Standard Dhannua/Common Late Era Modern Dhannua. It went… so and so. I have unfortunately not had enough time to fully flesh it out as I would have wanted. I do like the feel of the language though.<br />
;[[Finian]]<br />
:Finian is a cousin language to Dhannuá, small but quirky. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[Hirathic]]<br />
:I've been wanting to make a Greek-flavoured language for some time and funnily enough, jokes about Albanian and Greek and this was born. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[Tengos]]<br />
:I'd forgotten about you…<br />
<!--<br />
*[[User:Chrysophylax/Idephines|Dephinian]]<br />
:I've been wanting to make a Greek-flavoured language for some time and funnily enough, jokes about Albanian and Greek and this was born.<br />
::Yet Another Odd Bonus Branch to the IE languages, representing peripheral IE dialects, yo! [But with many changes common to Proto-Greek and Proto-Albanian, whut] <br />
#* See also, [[User:Chrysophylax/Vepos|Ϝέπος Οφώχωι]] (''Vepos Ophōχōi''), the tale o' the serpent.<br />
--><br />
<!--<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/þanwā þydigā|Thanuá]]<br />
:My italolang! Or well, the first few sound changes. '''♦'''<br />
--><br />
;[[Khaz|Khaz]]<br />
:My first online conlang. I recently polished it up and tried to cure it of some of the relexiness.<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/þanwā þydigā|Thanuá]]<br />
:My italolang! Or well, the first few sound changes. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/Skājamāl|Skájamál]]<br />
:My one and only Germanic conlang. So far, only really a list of sound changes. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/YaLU|Yet Another Language Unnamed]]<br />
:Trying to merge a lot of features from several mini-sketches.<br />
<!--<br />
;[[Misqazan]]<br />
:A weird idea stumbled into my brain at 4 am one day (or maybe I should say '''night'''!) and thus the Misqazanic language was born. Funny English name, ''Misqazan'' literally being "our language" in Misqazan. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/sketch-2|Sketch II]] <br />
:I have no clue what I was doing. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/YaLU|Yet Another Language Unnamed]]<br />
:Trying to merge a lot of features from several mini-sketches.<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/vigintiquattuorhoras|Vigintiquattuorhoras]]<br />
:My two-hour sketch for the first “speedlang” challenge.<br />
--><br />
<!--<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/Reconstructing Proto-Tenarian|Tenarian languages]]<br />
:[[Elasian]]<br />
:Again, the sketchlang fever came over me.<br />
:[[Valian]]<br />
:As Tolkien found Finnish, I have found Estonian. Ahhh. ♥♥<br />
--><br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/amaits]]<br />
:more ie!!'''♦'''<br />
<br />
== To-do list ==<br />
*Write case system bit!<br />
*Check if autoconf. have to recaptcha<br />
<br />
<!-- Categories --><br />
[[Category:Administrator]]<br />
<br />
== subpages of this page == <br />
<splist /><br />
<br />
<br />
scratch test</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Sitenotice&diff=306689MediaWiki:Sitenotice2023-05-25T23:34:24Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{ambox|text=We have a discord channel! Join and chat with fellow wiki members on [https://discord.gg/Q425AeNxtj here]. Donations for Linguifex upkeep can be given at [https://liberapay.com/chrysophylax/ Liberapay]. Happy New Year!}}</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax&diff=294448User:Chrysophylax2023-01-11T02:32:41Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>__NOTOC__<br />
=Welcome=<br />
Test<br />
If you require help, feel free to write to me on my talk page, and I will respond as soon as possible. You may write to me in English, Spanish, French, German, Italian, Swedish (Danish and Norwegian are fine too), Latin, Bosnian, Serbian, or Croatian, and Ancient Greek.<br />
<br />
My tasks here as an administrator include: helping users, organising projects, carrying out maintenance, and problem solving.<br />
<br />
{{Template:UBX/Reading all}}<br />
<!-- testing an edit --><br />
== Tools ==<br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=User:Chrysophylax/skapjā<br />
buttonlabel=naunijā namā<br />
prefix=Contionary:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=User:Chrysophylax/skapjā-verb<br />
buttonlabel=naunijā verb<br />
prefix=Contionary:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=Template:qdh-create<br />
buttonlabel=Dhannuá!<br />
prefix=Contionary:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=Template:Newword<br />
buttonlabel=New word<br />
prefix=Contionary:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=User:Chrysophylax/Template:nr<br />
buttonlabel=Reconstructed word<br />
prefix=Contionary:Appendix:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<br />
<inputbox><br />
type=create<br />
break=no<br />
preload=User:Chrysophylax/new<br />
buttonlabel=Välya!<br />
prefix=Contionary:<br />
</inputbox><br />
<br />
== Languages ==<br />
My languages are mostly sketchlangs, unfortunately. Languages with a '''♦''' marker are sketches.<br />
<br />
;[[Dhannuá]]<br />
:In summary, what if I got to play around with some IE roots and tried to make a proper, naturalistic, modern Indo-European-descendant language with chronicled changes from PIE to Standard Dhannua/Common Late Era Modern Dhannua. It went… so and so. I have unfortunately not had enough time to fully flesh it out as I would have wanted. I do like the feel of the language though.<br />
;[[Finian]]<br />
:Finian is a cousin language to Dhannuá, small but quirky. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[Hirathic]]<br />
:I've been wanting to make a Greek-flavoured language for some time and funnily enough, jokes about Albanian and Greek and this was born. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[Tengos]]<br />
:I'd forgotten about you…<br />
<!--<br />
*[[User:Chrysophylax/Idephines|Dephinian]]<br />
:I've been wanting to make a Greek-flavoured language for some time and funnily enough, jokes about Albanian and Greek and this was born.<br />
::Yet Another Odd Bonus Branch to the IE languages, representing peripheral IE dialects, yo! [But with many changes common to Proto-Greek and Proto-Albanian, whut] <br />
#* See also, [[User:Chrysophylax/Vepos|Ϝέπος Οφώχωι]] (''Vepos Ophōχōi''), the tale o' the serpent.<br />
--><br />
<!--<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/þanwā þydigā|Thanuá]]<br />
:My italolang! Or well, the first few sound changes. '''♦'''<br />
--><br />
;[[Khaz|Khaz]]<br />
:My first online conlang. I recently polished it up and tried to cure it of some of the relexiness.<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/þanwā þydigā|Thanuá]]<br />
:My italolang! Or well, the first few sound changes. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/Skājamāl|Skájamál]]<br />
:My one and only Germanic conlang. So far, only really a list of sound changes. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/YaLU|Yet Another Language Unnamed]]<br />
:Trying to merge a lot of features from several mini-sketches.<br />
<!--<br />
;[[Misqazan]]<br />
:A weird idea stumbled into my brain at 4 am one day (or maybe I should say '''night'''!) and thus the Misqazanic language was born. Funny English name, ''Misqazan'' literally being "our language" in Misqazan. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/sketch-2|Sketch II]] <br />
:I have no clue what I was doing. '''♦'''<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/YaLU|Yet Another Language Unnamed]]<br />
:Trying to merge a lot of features from several mini-sketches.<br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/vigintiquattuorhoras|Vigintiquattuorhoras]]<br />
:My two-hour sketch for the first “speedlang” challenge.<br />
--><br />
<!--<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/Reconstructing Proto-Tenarian|Tenarian languages]]<br />
:[[Elasian]]<br />
:Again, the sketchlang fever came over me.<br />
:[[Valian]]<br />
:As Tolkien found Finnish, I have found Estonian. Ahhh. ♥♥<br />
--><br />
<br />
;[[User:Chrysophylax/amaits]]<br />
:more ie!!'''♦'''<br />
<br />
== To-do list ==<br />
*Write case system bit!<br />
*Check if autoconf. have to recaptcha<br />
<br />
<!-- Categories --><br />
[[Category:Administrator]]<br />
<br />
== subpages of this page == <br />
<splist /><br />
<br />
<br />
scratch test</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Sware&diff=290915User talk:Sware2022-10-25T22:51:12Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* Tahano Hikamu font */ new section</p>
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<div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 125%">Welcome to my Talk page</span></div><br />
<br><br />
Any questions? Have I done something I shouldn't have? Just wanted to say hi? <span class="plainlinks">[{{canonicalurl:User talk:Sware|action=edit&section=new}} Create a new topic]</span> and I'll try to answer you as soon as possible.<br />
<br />
Please sign your comments with <code><nowiki>~~~~</nowiki></code>.<br />
<br />
== Permission to use Module:qhv-pron ==<br />
<br />
Hi! I am a contributor for High Valyrian on [https://wiki.languageinvention.com/index.php?title=Main_Page wiki.languageinvention.com], and I was wondering if I could use [[Module:qhv-pron]] (and the associated template [[Template:Qhv-IPA]] and make some adaptations, on our wiki. It's really great work by you and it seems unnecessary to do the same work twice. I will give you credit of course. I would really appreciate it! You can also reach me on juelosw [at] gmail [dot] com --[[User:Juelos|Juelos]] ([[User talk:Juelos|talk]]) 20:10, 7 June 2021 (UTC)<br />
: @[[User:Juelos|Juelos]]: Hi Juelos, permission granted! [[:Category:High Valyrian|High Valyrian entries here on Linguifex]] are based on your work and [[User:Nicomega|Najahho]]'s on the Language Invention wiki, so thanks. Please feel free to correct any mistakes that I have made here, and to create new pages that I missed, to have High Valyrian documented in both wikis. I will add proper credit in the category linked above. Cheers! [[User:Sware|'''swar'''<span style="border-radius:4px;padding:0 3px;background:#fc3;color:#03192d">'''e'''</span>]] • [[User talk:Sware#top|🗣]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sware|🏲]] 10:24, 8 June 2021 (UTC)<br />
::Thanks! Much appreciated.--[[User:Juelos|Juelos]] ([[User talk:Juelos|talk]]) 21:26, 8 June 2021 (UTC)<br />
::I found an error in [[Module:qhv-pron]] in that it assigns stress to the last syllable if the word ends in ''ks''. If you move line 43 (<code><nowiki>term = gsub(term, "·$", "")</nowiki></code>) to line 38 , it is solved. (Also, it doesn't do well with adjacent vowels that don't form a diphtong (hiatus), but you can solve that by adding <code><nowiki>·</nowiki></code> between them. That one seems harder to solve by changing the code). --[[User:Juelos|Juelos]] ([[User talk:Juelos|talk]]) 07:44, 9 June 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Howdy and congratulations ==<br />
<br />
Hey! It's my first time back here in a few months, and it was a pleasant surprise to see a page I'd read a few times before make it to the front page. So I just wanted to pop by and congratulate you on the achievement and say thanks for sharing such a cool language! Best, -[[User:Учхљёная]] <sup>([[User_talk:Учхљёная|talk]],[[:Category:Conlangs by Elliott Wheeler|conlangs]],[[Special:Contributions/Учхљёная|edits]])</sup>. 01:31, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
: @[[User:Учхљёная|Учхљёная]]: Hey, thanks! It was a great surprise for me too; I wasn't expecting getting featured. The language may not be mine, but I enjoyed putting the article together as if I were some kind of scholar. I'd be lying if I said I didn't read your work on [[Proto-Glaeglo-Hyudrontic]] or [[Danterske]], for example.<br />
: Anyways, thanks to you for stopping by and reading the article, highly appreciated; or as they would put it, ''{{term|filu danci}}''. Welcome back to Linguifex! Cheers, [[User:Sware|'''swar'''<span style="border-radius:4px;padding:0 3px;background:#fc3;color:#03192d">'''e'''</span>]] • [[User talk:Sware#top|🗣]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sware|🏲]] 21:30, 22 November 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Tahano Hikamu font ==<br />
<br />
:: Hi, Sware! I can absolutely add it. Can you please give me a quoted css declaration to include in common.css? Best regards, [[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 22:51, 25 October 2022 (UTC)</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Template:Front/featured&diff=231622Template:Front/featured2021-07-19T09:23:22Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
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<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|image = Flag of Avendonia square 2.png<br />
|imagesize = 120px<br />
|name = Avendonian<br />
|nativename = avendoniano<br />
|pronunciation = avendoˈni̯ano<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Avendonian<br />
|state = Avendonia<br />
|setting = Alt-history Europe, Northern Italic Peninsula<br />
|created = 2009<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]<br />
|fam4 = ''{{Abbtip|partially|part.}}''&nbsp;[[w:Elbe Germanic|Elbe&nbsp;Germanic]]<br />
|ancestor = Pre-Avendonian<br />
|creator = S.C.<br />
|dia1 = North Adriatic (''nordadriatico'')<br />
|dia2 = Alpine (''alpino'')<br />
|dia3 = High Burgundian (''ocburgundico'')<br />
|dia4 = Low Burgundian (''lagburgundico'')<br />
|dia5 = Genoese (''genoico'')<br />
|stand1 = Central Avendonian dialect<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|nation = Avendonia<br />
|agency = Grunditio Cuningica per la Spraca Avendoniana<br />
|map = Locator Map Avendonia.png<br />
|mapsize = 280px<br />
|mapcaption = Approximate borders of Avendonia<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[Avendonian]] ([[w:endonym|autoglossonym]]: ''avendoniano''; <small>Avendonian:&nbsp;</small><span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[IPA for Avendonian|[avendoˈni̯ano&#93;]]</span>) is a [[w:West Germanic language|West Germanic language]], with strong influence of [[w:Vulgar Latin|Vulgar Latin]]. It is the result of a prolonged contact among members of both regions, after West Germanic merchants began travelling to and from the [[w:Western Roman Empire|Western Roman Empire]]. These connections—and the conquest by the Germanic tribes of the northern skirts of the Roman Empire—slowly formed a [[w:creole language|creole]] for mutual communication. Eventually, permanent settlements were established in what would become modern-day Avendonia, where Avendonian is primarily spoken, with official status.<br />
<br />
While its vocabulary derives for the most part from [[w:Proto-Germanic|Proto-Germanic]], Latin influence is most notable in its phonology and its grammar.<br />
<br />
Avendonian grammar is relatively straightforward and akin to the grammar of other Romance languages, due to the influence of Latin.<br />
# Two sets of articles, indefinite and definite, preceding the noun.<br />
# Gender and number inflection in nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Articles and adjectives must agree inflection-wise with the noun or pronoun they modify.<br />
# Twofold gender system, masculine and feminine. Loss of Latin neuter gender.<br />
# Fusional verb inflection for person, number, mood, and tense.<br />
However, noun and adjective declension endings, along with the ablaut in strong verbs are elements derived from Germanic.<br />
<br />
There are six major dialects of Avendonian. Central Avendonian (or '''midio''') is considered the standard language, and it is the language most of the author's work is based upon. The main features of the other five dialects will be discussed in the following sections.<br />
<br />
<noinclude>[[Category:Templates]][[Category:Main page]][[Category:Meta]]</noinclude></div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Template:Front/featured&diff=231621Template:Front/featured2021-07-19T09:22:44Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|image = Flag of Avendonia square 2.png<br />
|imagesize = 120px<br />
|name = Avendonian<br />
|nativename = avendoniano<br />
|pronunciation = avendoˈni̯ano<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Avendonian<br />
|state = Avendonia<br />
|setting = Alt-history Europe, Northern Italic Peninsula<br />
|created = 2009<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]<br />
|fam4 = ''{{Abbtip|partially|part.}}''&nbsp;[[w:Elbe Germanic|Elbe&nbsp;Germanic]]<br />
|ancestor = Pre-Avendonian<br />
|creator = S.C.<br />
|dia1 = North Adriatic (''nordadriatico'')<br />
|dia2 = Alpine (''alpino'')<br />
|dia3 = High Burgundian (''ocburgundico'')<br />
|dia4 = Low Burgundian (''lagburgundico'')<br />
|dia5 = Genoese (''genoico'')<br />
|stand1 = Central Avendonian dialect<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|nation = Avendonia<br />
|agency = Grunditio Cuningica per la Spraca Avendoniana<br />
|map = Locator Map Avendonia.png<br />
|mapsize = 280px<br />
|mapcaption = Approximate borders of Avendonia<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[Avendonian]] ([[w:endonym|autoglossonym]]: ''avendoniano''; <small>Avendonian:&nbsp;</small><span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[IPA for Avendonian|[avendoˈni̯ano&#93;]]</span>) is a [[w:West Germanic language|West Germanic language]], with strong influence of [[w:Vulgar Latin|Vulgar Latin]]. It is the result of a prolonged contact among members of both regions, after West Germanic merchants began travelling to and from the [[w:Western Roman Empire|Western Roman Empire]]. These connections—and the conquest by the Germanic tribes of the northern skirts of the Roman Empire—slowly formed a [[w:creole language|creole]] for mutual communication. Eventually, permanent settlements were established in what would become modern-day Avendonia, where Avendonian is primarily spoken, with official status.<br />
<br />
While its vocabulary derives for the most part from [[w:Proto-Germanic|Proto-Germanic]], Latin influence is most notable in its phonology and its grammar.<br />
<br />
Avendonian grammar is relatively straightforward and akin to the grammar of other Romance languages, due to the influence of Latin.<br />
# Two sets of articles, indefinite and definite, preceding the noun.<br />
# Gender and number inflection in nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Articles and adjectives must agree inflection-wise with the noun or pronoun they modify.<br />
# Twofold gender system, masculine and feminine. Loss of Latin neuter gender.<br />
# Fusional verb inflection for person, number, mood, and tense.<br />
However, noun and adjective declension endings, along with the ablaut in strong verbs are elements derived from Germanic.<br />
<br />
<br />
Nouns in Avendonian fall in one of the following almost fully regular declensions:<br />
* '''A-stem''': mostly feminine nouns. From [[w:Latin declension#First declension (a stems)|Latin first declension]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#ō-stems|Germanic ō-]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#ōn-stems|ōn-stems]]. E.g. '''{{term|erda}}'''.<br />
* '''O-stem''': chiefly masculine nouns. From [[w:Latin declension#Second declension (o stems)|Latin second declension]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#a-stems|Germanic a-stems]]. E.g. '''{{term|vundro}}'''.<br />
* '''E-stem''': both genders. From the [[w:Latin declension#Third declension|third]] and [[w:Latin declension#Fifth declension (e stems)|fifth declensions of Latin]] and various Germanic stems (like [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#an-stems|an-stems]]). E.g. '''{{term|snege}}'''.<br />
* '''U-stem''': both genders but mainly masculine. From Latin [[w:Latin declension#Fourth declension (u stems)|fourth declension]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#u-stems|u-stem]] from Germanic. E.g. '''{{term|vintro}}'''.<br />
Notable exceptions are the productive suffix '''{{term|-tio}}''', which forms feminine o-stem nouns from verbs, and the '''{{term|-ista}}''' suffix forms [[w:epicenity#Specialized uses|epicene]] a-stem nouns. Other words have no distinctive feature in the modern language, i.e. differences are etymological.<br />
<br />
<br />
There are six major dialects of Avendonian. Central Avendonian (or '''midio''') is considered the standard language, and it is the language most of the author's work is based upon. The main features of the other five dialects will be discussed in the following sections.<br />
<br />
<noinclude>[[Category:Templates]][[Category:Main page]][[Category:Meta]]</noinclude></div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Avendonian&diff=231620Avendonian2021-07-19T09:19:19Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
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{{Infobox language<br />
|image = Flag of Avendonia square 2.png<br />
|imagesize = 120px<br />
|name = Avendonian<br />
|nativename = avendoniano<br />
|pronunciation = avendoˈni̯ano<br />
|pronunciation_key = IPA for Avendonian<br />
|state = Avendonia<br />
|setting = Alt-history Europe, Northern Italic Peninsula<br />
|created = 2009<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2 = [[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3 = [[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]<br />
|fam4 = ''{{Abbtip|partially|part.}}''&nbsp;[[w:Elbe Germanic|Elbe&nbsp;Germanic]]<br />
|ancestor = Pre-Avendonian<br />
|creator = S.C.<br />
|dia1 = North Adriatic (''nordadriatico'')<br />
|dia2 = Alpine (''alpino'')<br />
|dia3 = High Burgundian (''ocburgundico'')<br />
|dia4 = Low Burgundian (''lagburgundico'')<br />
|dia5 = Genoese (''genoico'')<br />
|stand1 = Central Avendonian dialect<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
|nation = Avendonia<br />
|agency = Grunditio Cuningica per la Spraca Avendoniana<br />
|map = Locator Map Avendonia.png<br />
|mapsize = 280px<br />
|mapcaption = Approximate borders of Avendonia<br />
|notice = IPA<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Avendonian''' ([[w:endonym|autoglossonym]]: ''avendoniano''; <small>Avendonian:&nbsp;</small><span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[IPA for Avendonian|[avendoˈni̯ano&#93;]]</span>) is a [[w:West Germanic language|West Germanic language]], with strong influence of [[w:Vulgar Latin|Vulgar Latin]]. It is the result of a prolonged contact among members of both regions, after West Germanic merchants began travelling to and from the [[w:Western Roman Empire|Western Roman Empire]]. These connections—and the conquest by the Germanic tribes of the northern skirts of the Roman Empire—slowly formed a [[w:creole language|creole]] for mutual communication. Eventually, permanent settlements were established in what would become modern-day Avendonia, where Avendonian is primarily spoken, with official status.<br />
<br />
While its vocabulary derives for the most part from [[w:Proto-Germanic|Proto-Germanic]], Latin influence is most notable in its phonology and its grammar.<br />
<br />
==Etymology==<br />
The language name derives directly from the country it is spoken in, Avendonia. It makes reference to the Roman description of the Avendonian peoples, which were settled west of Rome; in the direction of the setting sun. Ultimately from Proto-Germanic ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/ēbanþs|*ēbanþs]]'' (“evening”), it came to mean “sunset people” or “people of the setting sun”.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
The Avendonian alphabet consists of 18 letters, five of which are vowels and 13 consonants. There are no diacritics, and contractions make use of the apostrophe to mark vowel omission.<br />
<center><br />
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 50em; text-align: center; border-collapse:collapse;"<br />
! colspan="18" | Letters of the Avendonian alphabet<br />
|-<br />
| Aa || Bb || Cc || Dd || Ee || Ff || Gg || Ii || Ll || Mm || Nn || Oo || Pp || Rr || Ss || Tt || Uu || Vv<br />
|}<br />
</center><br />
Non-native letters such as J, K, Q, Z, etc. may occur in some foreign words or proper nouns, chiefly in toponyms and given names. Yy is part of the alphabet of the Burgundian dialects of Avendonian, like in '''{{term|dydere}}'''.<br />
<br />
The letters correspond almost one to one to their pronunciation. The Avendonian orthography is considered [[w:shallow orthography|shallow]] or [[w:phonetic orthography|phonetic]], as opposed to deep orthographies like [[w:French orthography|French's]]. The orthography features that do not follow the correspondance are:<br />
* The letters {{angbr|c}} and {{angbr|g}} make the sound /{{IPA|t͡ʃ}}/ and /{{IPA|d͡ʒ}}/, respectively, if followed by {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}}. Examples: '''[[Contionary:cicare|cicare]]'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|t͡͡ʃiˈkare}}/, '''[[Contionary:geldo|geldo]]'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|ˈd͡ʒeldo}}/.<br />
* {{angbr|t}} in the combination {{angbr|ti}} makes the sound /{{IPA|t͡s}}/. Example: '''{{term|tite}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|ˈt͡site}}/.<br />
* The combination {{angbr|gn}} makes the sound /{{IPA|ɲ}}/, as in Italian or Spanish ''ñ''. Example: '''{{term|gnagare}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|ɲaˈgare}}/.<br />
* {{angbr|i}} in intervocalic position or word-initially turns into the semivowel /{{IPA|j}}/. Examples: '''{{term|iaro}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|ˈjaro}}/, '''{{term|bluiare}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|bluˈjare}}/.<br />
* The [[w:digraph (Orthography)|digraph]] {{angbr|sc}} before [[w:front vowel|front vowels]] (that is, {{angbr|i}} and {{angbr|e}}) makes the sound /{{IPA|ʃ}}/. Example: '''{{term|sciio}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|ˈʃijo}}/.<br />
* The digraph {{angbr|ch}} makes the sound /{{IPA|k}}/, and it is only found in [[w:loanword|loanword]]s.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Consonant phonemes<br />
|-<br />
! <br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[w:Alveolar consonant|alveolar]]<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]/<br>[[w:Palatal consonant|palatal]]<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced bilabial nasal|m]]<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar nasal|n]]<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced palatal nasal|ɲ]]<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | ([[w:Voiced velar nasal|ŋ]])<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:stop consonant|Stop]]<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless bilabial stop|p]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced bilabial stop|b]]<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless alveolar stop|t]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar stop|d]]<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | &nbsp;[[w:Voiceless velar stop|k]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced velar stop|ɡ]]<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Affricate consonant|Affricate]]<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate|t͡s]] || style="border-left: 0;" |<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate|t͡ʃ]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced palato-alveolar affricate|d͡ʒ]]<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced labiodental fricative|v]]<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless alveolar sibilant|s]] || style="border-left: 0;" |<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | [[w:Voiceless palato-alveolar fricative|ʃ]] || style="border-left: 0;" |<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced palatal approximant|j]]<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Lateral consonant|Lateral]]<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar lateral approximant|l]]<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Trill consonant|Trill]]<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | [[w:Voiced alveolar trill|r]]<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Flap consonant|Flap]]<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | ([[w:Voiced alveolar tap|ɾ]])<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes:<br />
* As stated in [[#Orthography|§Orthography]], /{{IPA|k, g, sk}}/ palatalize to /{{IPA|t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ, ʃ}}/ before front vowels /{{IPA|i, e}}/.<br />
* When followed or preceded by a vowel but not word-initially, /{{IPA|i}}/ shortens and forms a diphthong with the adjacent vowel. Examples: '''{{term|sigie}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|ˈsid͡ʒi̯e}}/, '''{{term|perstelitio}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|persteˈlit͡si̯o}}/.<br />
* [{{IPA|ɾ}}] is a permissible allophone of /{{IPA|r}}/ in fast speech.<br />
* [{{IPA|ŋ}}] is an allophone of /{{IPA|n}}/ before velar stops /{{IPA|k, g}}/, both intra- and intersyllabically, although the former can only happen in the [[#Burgundian dialects|Low Burgundian dialect]].<br>Examples: '''{{term|drincare}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|driŋˈkare}}/, '''{{term|anguste}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|aŋˈguste}}/, Low Burgundian '''{{term|clang}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|klaŋg}}/ (standard '''{{term|clango}}''').<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Vowel phonemes<br />
|-<br />
! !! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]] !! [[w:Central vowel|Central]] !! [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| style="border-right:0;"| [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|i]] || style="border-left:0;"| ([[w:Close front rounded vowel|y]]) || || [[w:Close back rounded vowel|u]]<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]<br />
| colspan="2"| [[w:Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]] || || [[w:Close-mid back rounded vowel|o]]<br />
|-<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| colspan="2" | [[w:Open front unrounded vowel|a]] || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes:<br />
* /{{IPA|y}}/ is native to the Burgundian dialects. See [[#Burgundian dialects|§Dialects]] below.<br />
* /{{IPA|e, o}}/ may be realized as [{{IPA|e̞, o̞}}].<br />
<br />
===Prosody===<br />
Avendonian is strictly paroxytonic, meaning words always receive stress on their second-to-last syllable.<br />
: '''{{term|spraca}}'''&nbsp;(SPRA-ca)&nbsp;/{{IPA|ˈspra.ka}}/, '''{{term|ordo}}'''&nbsp;(OR-do)&nbsp;/{{IPA|ˈor.do}}/, '''{{term|bucaria}}'''&nbsp;(bu-CA-ria)&nbsp;/{{IPA|bu.ˈka.ri̯a}}/, etc. <br />
Monosyllabic words like '''{{term|blio}}''' have the stress in their only syllable, but it is weaker than those in polysyllabic words, unless emphasized. Enclitic and other unstressed personal pronouns do not affect stress patterns:<br />
: '''{{term|elpare}}-{{term|te}}''', /{{IPA|el.ˈpa.re‿te}}/ and not /{{IPA|el.pa.ˈre‿te}}/<br />
Longer words (four or more syllables) may receive a secondary stress in the fourth-to-last syllable (i.e. two syllables before the main or primary stress):<br />
: '''{{term|sobgrundsporvego}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|sob.ˌgrund.spor.ˈve.go}}/, '''{{term|surstopitio}}'''&nbsp;/{{IPA|ˌsur.sto.ˈpi.t͡si̯o}}/<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
Avendonian grammar is relatively straightforward and akin to the grammar of other Romance languages, due to the influence of Latin.<br />
# Two sets of articles, indefinite and definite, preceding the noun.<br />
# Gender and number inflection in nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. Articles and adjectives must agree inflection-wise with the noun or pronoun they modify.<br />
# Twofold gender system, masculine and feminine. Loss of Latin neuter gender.<br />
# Fusional verb inflection for person, number, mood, and tense.<br />
However, noun and adjective declension endings, along with the ablaut in strong verbs are elements derived from Germanic.<br />
<br />
===Articles===<br />
Both definite and indefinite articles have four distinct forms, for number and gender:<br />
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; border: 0; background:transparent; width:auto; text-align: center; float: left;"<br />
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Indefinite articles<br />
|-<br />
! !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| {{term|uno}} || {{term|una}}<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| {{term|uni}} || {{term|une}}<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
&#32;<br />
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Definite articles<br />
|-<br />
! !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| {{term|el}} || {{term|la}}<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| {{term|li}} || {{term|le}}<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br><br />
Avendonian articles function similarly as English ''a'' and ''the'', but gender and number of the following noun determine the form that must be used. For example:<br />
: '''{{term|buce}}''' ''{{Abbtip|masculine gender|m}}&nbsp;{{Abbtip|singular number|sg}}'' → '''el buce''' (“the book”), '''uno buce''' (“a book”).<br />
: '''{{term|frage}}''' ''{{Abbtip|feminine gender|f}}&nbsp;{{Abbtip|plural number|pl}}'' → '''le frage''' (“the questions”), '''une frage''' (“some questions”).<br />
: etc.<br />
The definite article '''el''' forms a contraction with prepositions '''{{term|a}}''' and '''{{term|de}}''', using an apostrophe: '''a'l''', '''d'el'''. These are the only standard contractions; other contractions like '''[[Contionary:ca ga't|Ca ga't?]]''' from '''{{term|ga}}'''&nbsp;+&nbsp;'''{{term|et}}''' (“How goes it?”, greeting) are permissible but discouraged in formal writing.<br />
<br />
===Demonstratives===<br />
In Avendonian there are two sets of demonstratives, which can be used either as determiners or pronouns: [[w:Demonstrative#Distal and proximal demonstratives|proximal and distal]]. As adjectives, the stem may be suffixed with '''-ie''' to form adverbs, '''{{term|ecie}}''' ''here'' and '''{{term|elie}}''' ''there''.<br />
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; border: 0; background:transparent; width:auto; text-align: center;"<br />
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Proximal demonstratives<br />
|-<br />
! !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| {{term|eco}} || {{term|eca}}<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| {{term|eci}} || {{term|ece}}<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
&#32;<br />
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Distal demonstratives<br />
|-<br />
! !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| {{term|elo}} || {{term|ela}}<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| {{term|eli}} || {{term|ele}}<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Avendonian noun declensions<br />
|-<br />
! !! [[:Category:Avendonian a-stem nouns|A-stem]] !! [[:Category:Avendonian o-stem nouns|O-stem]] !! [[:Category:Avendonian e-stem nouns|E-stem]] !! [[:Category:Avendonian u-stem nouns|U-stem]]<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| -a || -o || rowspan="2" | -e || -o<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| -e || -i || -u<br />
|}<br />
Nouns in Avendonian fall in one of the following almost fully regular declensions:<br />
* '''A-stem''': mostly feminine nouns. From [[w:Latin declension#First declension (a stems)|Latin first declension]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#ō-stems|Germanic ō-]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#ōn-stems|ōn-stems]]. E.g. '''{{term|erda}}'''.<br />
* '''O-stem''': chiefly masculine nouns. From [[w:Latin declension#Second declension (o stems)|Latin second declension]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#a-stems|Germanic a-stems]]. E.g. '''{{term|vundro}}'''.<br />
* '''E-stem''': both genders. From the [[w:Latin declension#Third declension|third]] and [[w:Latin declension#Fifth declension (e stems)|fifth declensions of Latin]] and various Germanic stems (like [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#an-stems|an-stems]]). E.g. '''{{term|snege}}'''.<br />
* '''U-stem''': both genders but mainly masculine. From Latin [[w:Latin declension#Fourth declension (u stems)|fourth declension]] and [[w:Proto-Germanic grammar#u-stems|u-stem]] from Germanic. E.g. '''{{term|vintro}}'''.<br />
Notable exceptions are the productive suffix '''{{term|-tio}}''', which forms feminine o-stem nouns from verbs, and the '''{{term|-ista}}''' suffix forms [[w:epicenity#Specialized uses|epicene]] a-stem nouns. Other words have no distinctive feature in the modern language, i.e. differences are etymological.<br />
<br />
===Personal pronouns===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; float: right;"<br />
|+ Avendonian personal pronouns<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=3 rowspan=2 | !! colspan=2 | personal pronouns !! rowspan=2 | possessive<br>pronoun<br />
|-<br />
! [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#subject|subjective]] !! [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#object|objective]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#first person|first<br>person]] !! colspan=2 | singular<br />
| {{term|eo}} || {{term|me}} || {{term|mede}}<br />
|- valign="top"<br />
! colspan=2 valign="middle" | plural<br />
| {{term|vi}} || {{term|nos}} || {{term|nosde}}<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#second person|second<br>person]] !! rowspan=2 | singular !! default<br />
| {{term|tu}} || {{term|te}} || {{term|tede}}<br />
|-<br />
! formal<br />
| colspan=2 | {{term|Si}} || {{term|Side}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | plural<br />
| {{term|i}} || {{term|vos}} || {{term|vosde}}<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#third person|third<br>person]] !! rowspan=3 | singular !! masculine<br />
| {{term|e}} || rowspan=4 | {{term|si}} || rowspan=4 | {{term|side}}<br />
|-<br />
! feminine<br />
| {{term|si}}<br />
|-<br />
! neuter<br />
| {{term|et}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | plural<br />
| {{term|si}}<br />
|}<br />
Personal pronouns in Avendonian have the following forms:<br />
* Avendonian is not a pro-drop language, as other Romance languages. In other words, the subject, which may or may not be a personal pronoun must appear in every sentence, except in relative clauses where the subject of both statements is the same.<br />
:: '''Eo spreco avendoniano.''' ''I speak Avendonian''<br />
:: '''El hundo ce (et) va mudio asatui.''' ''The dog which was tired sat down.'' <br />
* Objective pronouns act as the direct object of a sentence. If the verb is an infinitive or an imperative, the pronoun is attached to it with a hyphen; otherwise, it precedes the verb.<br />
:: '''E me gavo uno scenco en el burddago mede.''' ''He gave me a present for my birthday.''<br />
:: '''Bido, sende-me uno posrito cando si encumen.''' ''Please, send me a message when they arrive.''<br />
* Possessive pronouns can function as determiners and pronouns, i.e. ''my'' and ''mine''. Possessives<br>must be written in the form of ''article'' + ''noun'' + ''possessive''. The article still agrees in gender and number with the noun.<br />
:: '''El vagno mede.''' ''My car.''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Le sceiate side.''' ''His/Her/Their stories''.<br />
:: '''Perlosasti tu el buce tede? Eo cuno liare el mede.''' ''You lost your book? I can lend you mine.''<br />
* Avendonian has, as in the Romance languages, [[w:T–V distinction|T–V distinction]]. This distinction is lost in the plural. Formal second person pronouns are always capitalized, in all forms, no matter the environment.<br />
:: '''Bido ero, ce bi el name Side?''' ''Excuse me sir, what is your name?'' (formal)<br />
:: '''Si Si bi perlisato, vi cunamos ledere-Si.''' ''If you are lost, we can guide you.'' (formal)<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
As said above, adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun, and are placed after them. They exist in three [[w:Comparison (grammar)|degrees]]: positive, comparative, and superlative. All three degrees have an adverbial form, using the suffix '''-ie'''. In other words, every adjective can be morphed into an adverb.<br />
====Positive degree====<br />
The positive degree is the default form of Avendonian adjectives, which simply describes the noun. It is also the only degree subject to declensional variation. The declension patterns are exactly as those of nouns, although '''{{term|porpora}}''' is considered irregular, not a-stem.<br />
{{Col-begin}}<br />
{{Col-n}}<br />
: '''Uno vagno roto.''' ''A red car.''<br />
{{Col-n}}<br />
: '''La dotre sciia mede.''' ''My shy daughter.''<br />
{{Col-n}}<br />
: '''Li landi fere.''' ''The distant'' or ''far countries.''<br />
{{Col-end}}<br />
The same forms can also be used predicatively. Thus: '''La dotre mede bi sciia.''' ''My daughter is shy.'', '''Li landi bin fere.''' ''The countries are far (away).'', etc.<br />
Passive participles can function as regular adjectives, and active participles (or gerunds) result in undeclinable adjectives. An example of an adjective of each declension is given:<br />
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: center;"<br />
| rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ O-stem<br />
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|alto}}'' “old”<br />
|-<br />
! {{Abbtip|positive|posv|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| alto || alta<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| alti || alte<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
&#32;<br />
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ [[:Category:Avendonian e-stem adjectives|E-stem]]<br />
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|comene}}'' “common”<br />
|-<br />
! {{Abbtip|positive|posv|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | comene<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
&#32;<br />
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ [[:Category:Avendonian u-stem adjectives|U-stem]]<br />
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|engo}}'' “narrow”<br />
|-<br />
! {{Abbtip|positive|posv|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| colspan="2" | engo<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| colspan="2" | engu<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
&#32;<br />
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ [[:Category:Avendonian irregular adjectives|Irregular]]<br />
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|porpora}}'' “purple”<br />
|-<br />
! {{Abbtip|positive|posv|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| colspan="2" | porpora<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| colspan="2" | porpore<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Comparative degree====<br />
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="border: 0; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: center; float: right;"<br />
| rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Regular<br />
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|alto}}'' “old”<br />
|-<br />
! {{Abbtip|comparative|cmpr|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| altior || altiora<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| altiori || altiore<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
&#32;<br />
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Irregular<br />
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|guto}}'' “good”<br />
|-<br />
! {{Abbtip|comparative|cmpr|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| betior || betiora<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| betiori || betiore<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
Avendonian comparative adjectives can establish three sorts of comparison: equative (''X is as Y as Z''), superior (''X is more Y than Z''), and inferior (''X is less Y than Z''). Fusional endings are only used in<br>equative comparatives. Consider the following example:<br />
* ''Iane is shorter than Vilelmo.'' '''Iane bi curtior ce Vilelmo.'''<br />
* ''Iane is as short as Vilelmo.'' '''Iane bi ta curto ca Vilelmo.'''<br />
* ''Iane is “less short” than Vilelmo.'' '''Iane bi minire curto ca Vilelmo'''.<br />
Notice the use of different prepositions in each comparison. Both ''X'' and ''Z'' can be personal pronouns, only in the subject form.<br />
* ''You are shorter than me.'' '''Tu bis curtior ce eo.'''<br />
<br />
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="border: 0; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: center; float: right;"<br />
| rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Regular<br />
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|alto}}'' “old”<br />
|-<br />
! {{Abbtip|superlative|supl|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| altesmo || altesma<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| altesmi || altesme<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
&#32;<br />
| style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Irregular<br />
! colspan="3" style="background: #c8c8c8;" | ''{{term|guto}}'' “good”<br />
|-<br />
! {{Abbtip|superlative|supl|sc}} !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| betesmo || betesma<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| betesmi || betesme<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
|}<br />
====Superlative degree====<br />
Superlatives are always preceded by a definite article, and both must agree with the noun they are modifying. Thus:<br />
* '''Iane bi el curtesmo.''' ''Iane is the shortest.''<br />
* '''Iane e Vilelmo bin li curtesmi.''' ''Iane and Vilelmo are the shortest.''<br />
<br />
====Indeclinable adjectives====<br />
Some adjectives have a single form for all degrees, but the same effect is achieved placing before them the adverbs '''{{term|mere}}''' and '''{{term|mesto}}'''. Some of this adjectives are indeclinable for etymological reasons (e.g. '''{{term|na}}''') or because of their nature as active participles (e.g. '''{{term|denemanti}}'''). '''Mesto''' however does inflect for gender and number, like a regular adjective.<br />
{{Col-begin}}<br />
{{Col-n}}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ ''{{term|na}}'' “near, close”<br />
|-<br />
! positive !! comparative !! superlative<br />
|-<br />
| na || mere na || mesto na<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{{Col-n}}<br />
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="border: 0; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: left;"<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| style="vertical-align: middle;" |<br />
* ''That joke is the most welcome.''<br>'''Elo stricolo bi el mesto vilicume.'''<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{{Col-n}}<br />
{| class="multicol" role="presentation" style="border: 0; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; background: transparent; width:auto; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;"<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| style="vertical-align: middle;" |<br />
* ''Those jokes are the most welcome.''<br>'''Eli stricoli bin li mesti vilicume.'''<br />
|-<br />
|&nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{{Col-end}}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Verbs are the part of speech that exhibits the most morphology in Avendonian. There are ten main tenses, three moods, six persons and two numbers—passive participles inflect for gender too. Verbs in Avendonian are, in general, very regular except a small set of verbs, which includes the [[w:Copula (linguistics)|copula]] '''{{term|sire}}'''.<br />
<br />
Avendonian classifies both weak and strong verbs in two conjugations, '''-are''' (first conjugation) and '''-ere''' (second conjugation). The former are the most prone to have [[w:ablaut|ablaut]], which changes the vowel of the stem in the perfect tenses.<br />
<br />
====Weak verbs====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"<br />
|-<br />
|+ colspan="100%"|weak 1<sup>st</sup> conjugation example paradigm — ''{{term|ladare}}'' “to load”<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" | active participle<br />
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" | ladanti<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" | passive participle<br />
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" | <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"<br />
|-<br />
! !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| ladato || ladata<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| ladati || ladate<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
|-<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" style="background:linear-gradient(to top right,#EAECF0 49.5%,#aaa 49.5%,#aaa 50.5%,#EAECF0 50.5%);line-height:1;" | <div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right;">person&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;tense</div><br />
! style="width:12.5%" | first singular<br/>''eo''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | second singular<br/>''tu''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | third singular<br/>''e'', ''si'', ''et''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | first plural<br/>''vi''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | second plural<br/>''i''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | third plural<br/>''si''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | indicative<br />
! present<br />
| lado<br />
| ladas<br />
| lada<br />
| ladamos<br />
| ladates<br />
| ladan<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| lade<br />
| ladasti<br />
| lado<br />
| ladamos<br />
| ladastes<br />
| ladaron<br />
|-<br />
! imperfect<br />
| ladaba<br />
| ladabas<br />
| ladaba<br />
| ladabamos<br />
| ladabates<br />
| ladaban<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| ladarabo<br />
| ladarabes<br />
| ladarabe<br />
| ladarabemos<br />
| ladarabetes<br />
| ladaraben<br />
|-<br />
! conditional<br />
| ladaraba<br />
| ladarabas<br />
| ladaraba<br />
| ladarabamos<br />
| ladarabates<br />
| ladaraban<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | subjunctive<br />
! present<br />
| lade<br />
| lades<br />
| lade<br />
| lademos<br />
| ladetes<br />
| laden<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| ladase<br />
| ladases<br />
| ladase<br />
| ladasemos<br />
| ladasetes<br />
| ladasen<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | imperative<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
| lada<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
| ladan<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"<br />
|-<br />
|+ colspan="100%" | weak 2<sup>nd</sup> conjugation example paradigm — ''{{term|ladere}}'' “to invite”<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" | active participle<br />
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" | ladenti<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" | passive participle<br />
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" | <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"<br />
|-<br />
! !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| ladeto || ladeta<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| ladeti || ladete<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
|-<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" style="background:linear-gradient(to top right,#EAECF0 49.5%,#aaa 49.5%,#aaa 50.5%,#EAECF0 50.5%);line-height:1;" | <div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right;">person&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;tense</div><br />
! style="width:12.5%" | first singular<br/>''eo''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | second singular<br/>''tu''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | third singular<br/>''e'', ''si'', ''et''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | first plural<br/>''vi''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | second plural<br/>''i''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | third plural<br/>''si''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | indicative<br />
! present<br />
| lado<br />
| lades<br />
| lade<br />
| lademos<br />
| ladetes<br />
| laden<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| ladui<br />
| laduis<br />
| ladui<br />
| laduimos<br />
| laduites<br />
| laduin<br />
|-<br />
! imperfect<br />
| ladia<br />
| ladias<br />
| ladia<br />
| ladiamos<br />
| ladiates<br />
| ladian<br />
|-<br />
! future<br />
| laderabo<br />
| laderabes<br />
| laderabe<br />
| laderabemos<br />
| laderabetes<br />
| laderaben<br />
|-<br />
! conditional<br />
| laderaba<br />
| laderabas<br />
| laderaba<br />
| laderabamos<br />
| laderabates<br />
| laderaban<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | subjunctive<br />
! present<br />
| lada<br />
| ladas<br />
| lada<br />
| ladamos<br />
| ladates<br />
| ladan<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| laduise<br />
| laduises<br />
| laduise<br />
| laduisemos<br />
| laduisetes<br />
| laduisen<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | imperative<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
| lade<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
| laden<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
|}<br />
Notice:<br />
* The only difference between active and passive participles, present indicative, future, and conditional of each conjugation is the [[w:Thematic vowel#Latin|thematic vowel]]. E.g. 2{{Abbtip|singular number|sg|sc}} {{Abbtip|present tense|prs|sc}} {{Abbtip|indicative mood|ind|sc}} '''lad<u>a</u>s''' vs. '''lad<u>e</u>s'''.<br />
* Perfect subjunctive forms are perfect indicative forms with a '''-se''' suffix.<br />
* If the thematic vowel is {{angbr|a}}, then the vowel in the present subjunctive endings is {{angbr|e}}, and vice versa.<br />
* The personal endings in their most basic form are '''-Ø''', '''-s''', '''-Ø''', '''-mos''', '''-tes''', '''-n'''.<br />
* Imperative forms are exactly as singular and plural third-person present indicative forms. Formal imperatives are formed similarly with present subjunctive forms.<br />
<br />
====Strong verbs====<br />
Strong verbs are conjugated as weak verbs, but the main stem vowel undergoes a phonological process known as ablaut. This is present in the indicative and subjunctive perfect tense. In the following example, the tenses that remain unchanged are omitted.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"<br />
|-<br />
|+ colspan="100%"|[[:Category:Avendonian first-conjugation strong verbs|strong 1<sup>st</sup> conjugation]] example paradigm — ''{{term|scedare}}'' “to separate”<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" style="background:linear-gradient(to top right,#EAECF0 49.5%,#aaa 49.5%,#aaa 50.5%,#EAECF0 50.5%);line-height:1;" | <div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right;">person&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;tense</div><br />
! style="width:12.5%" | first singular<br/>''eo''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | second singular<br/>''tu''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | third singular<br/>''e'', ''si'', ''et''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | first plural<br/>''vi''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | second plural<br/>''i''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | third plural<br/>''si''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | indicative<br />
! present<br />
| sc'''e'''do<br />
| sc'''e'''das<br />
| sc'''e'''da<br />
| sc'''e'''damos<br />
| sc'''e'''dates<br />
| sc'''e'''dan<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| sc'''i'''de<br />
| sc'''i'''dasti<br />
| sc'''i'''do<br />
| sc'''i'''damos<br />
| sc'''i'''dastes<br />
| sc'''i'''daron<br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
! perfect<br />
| sc'''i'''dase<br />
| sc'''i'''dases<br />
| sc'''i'''dase<br />
| sc'''i'''dasemos<br />
| sc'''i'''dasetes<br />
| sc'''i'''dasen<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"<br />
|-<br />
|+ colspan="100%"|[[:Category:Avendonian second-conjugation strong verbs|strong 2<sup>nd</sup> conjugation]] example paradigm — ''{{term|evere}}'' “to lift”<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" style="background:linear-gradient(to top right,#EAECF0 49.5%,#aaa 49.5%,#aaa 50.5%,#EAECF0 50.5%);line-height:1;" | <div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right;">person&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;tense</div><br />
! style="width:12.5%" | first singular<br/>''eo''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | second singular<br/>''tu''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | third singular<br/>''e'', ''si'', ''et''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | first plural<br/>''vi''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | second plural<br/>''i''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | third plural<br/>''si''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | indicative<br />
! present<br />
| '''e'''vo<br />
| '''e'''ves<br />
| '''e'''ve<br />
| '''e'''vemos<br />
| '''e'''vetes<br />
| '''e'''ven<br />
|-<br />
! perfect<br />
| '''u'''vui<br />
| '''u'''vuis<br />
| '''u'''vui<br />
| '''u'''vuimos<br />
| '''u'''vuites<br />
| '''u'''vuin<br />
|-<br />
! subjunctive<br />
! perfect<br />
| '''u'''vuise<br />
| '''u'''vuises<br />
| '''u'''vuise<br />
| '''u'''vuisemos<br />
| '''u'''vuisetes<br />
| '''u'''vuisen<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Second-conjugation strong verbs are much less common than first-conjugation. They are derived from [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic verbs#j-presents|Proto-Germanic j-present strong verbs]], which were already scarce.<br />
<br />
====Irregular verbs====<br />
Besides the copula, there are only two irregular verbs: '''{{term|duere}}''' and '''{{term|friiere}}'''—and [[w:Derivative (linguistics)|derivatives]] thereof.<br />
In the perfect tenses, '''duere''' uses {{angbr|v}} instead of the expected {{angbr|u}}: '''eo davi''', not ''*eo daui'', '''tu davis''', not ''*tu dauis'', etc.; '''eo davise''', '''tu davises''', etc.<br />
<br />
'''friiere''', on the other hand, has an irregularity in the imperfect indicative tense. The expected ''*eo friiia'', ''*tu friiias'', etc. is rendered as '''eo frigia''', '''tu frigias''', etc.<br />
=====''sire'', to be=====<br />
Like many other languages, including Romance and Germanic, the verb “to be” is very irregular. The copula is [[w:suppletion|suppletive]], meaning the stem changes between tenses. A full conjugation paradigm is given.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" style="background-color: #FFB0B0;" | infinitive<br />
| colspan="5" | {{term|sire}}<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" style="background-color: #95FFCB" | active participle<br />
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" | vesanti<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3" style="background-color: #FFB0B0" | passive participle<br />
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" | <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"<br />
|-<br />
! !! masculine !! feminine<br />
|-<br />
! singular<br />
| sito || sita<br />
|-<br />
! plural<br />
| siti || site<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
|-<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" style="background:linear-gradient(to top right,#EAECF0 49.5%,#aaa 49.5%,#aaa 50.5%,#EAECF0 50.5%);line-height:1;" | <div style="margin-left:2em;text-align:right;">person&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</div><div style="margin-right:2em;text-align:left;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;tense</div><br />
! style="width:12.5%" | first singular<br/>''eo''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | second singular<br/>''tu''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | third singular<br/>''e'', ''si'', ''et''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | first plural<br/>''vi''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | second plural<br/>''i''<br />
! style="width:12.5%" | third plural<br/>''si''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="5" | indicative<br />
! style="background-color: #FFCA95" | present<br />
| bi<br />
| bis<br />
| bin<br />
| bimos<br />
| bites<br />
| bin<br />
|- <br />
! style="background-color: #95FFCB" | perfect<br />
| va<br />
| vas<br />
| va<br />
| vamos<br />
| vates<br />
| van<br />
|- <br />
! style="background-color: #B8B8FF" | imperfect<br />
| era<br />
| eras<br />
| era<br />
| eramos<br />
| erates<br />
| eran<br />
|- <br />
! style="background-color: #FFB0B0" | future<br />
| sirabo<br />
| sirabes<br />
| sirabe<br />
| sirabemos<br />
| sirabetes<br />
| siraben<br />
|- <br />
! style="background-color: #FFB0B0" | conditional<br />
| siraba<br />
| sirabas<br />
| siraba<br />
| sirabamos<br />
| sirabates<br />
| siraban<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | subjunctive<br />
! style="background-color: #FFB0B0" | present<br />
| si<br />
| sis<br />
| si<br />
| simos<br />
| sites<br />
| sin<br />
|-<br />
! style="background-color: #95FFCB" | perfect<br />
| vari<br />
| varis<br />
| vari<br />
| varimos<br />
| varites<br />
| varin<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" style="background-color: #FFB0B0" | imperative<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
| si<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
| sin<br />
| style="background-color:#aaa" |<br />
|}<br />
:::: {{legend|#ffb0b0|Ultimately from [[w:Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁es-|*h₁es-]]''. Cognate with [[w:German language|German]] ''[[wikt:sein#German|sein]]'' and [[w:Dutch language|Dutch]] ''[[wikt:zijn#Dutch|zijn]]''.}}<br />
:::: {{legend|#95ffcb|From [[w:Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/wesaną|*wesaną]]''.}}<br />
:::: {{legend|#b8b8ff|From [[w:Latin language|Latin]] ''[[wikt:sum#Latin|sum]]''.}}<br />
:::: {{legend|#ffca95|From Proto-Germanic ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/beuną|*beuną]]''.}}<br />
<br />
====Periphrastic forms====<br />
The future and conditional forms shown in all tables above are more common in formal settings. Usually, in everyday Avendonian, constructions with the verb '''{{term|verdare}}''' (“to become”) and an infinitive following it are used instead. If '''verdare''' is inflected as present, the periphrasis conveys a future meaning. If the verb is in the perfect tense, it functions as a conditional. Compare:<br />
: '''Eo si duerabo morgano.'''<br />
: '''Eo verdo duere-si morgano.''' ''I will do it tomorrow.''<br />
: '''Vi Si geldarabamos sed ne abemos nilo.'''<br />
: '''Vi vardamos geldare-te sed ne abemos nilo.''' ''We would pay you but we have nothing.''<br />
Note that '''verdare''' is a [[#Strong verbs|strong verb]], so it undergoes ablaut in the past as usual.<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
:{{Ambox<br />
| name = Planned revamp<br />
| small = left<br />
| subst = <includeonly>{{subst:substcheck}}</includeonly><br />
| issue = The creator of the language has expressed their intent of overhauling the dialect system. Thus, the information hereon provided is the latest available.<br>This section will be updated with the newest information once it is released.<br />
| talk = Dialects<br />
| style = width: auto; margin-right: 0px;<br />
| textstyle = width: auto;<br />
| date = September 2020<br />
}}<br />
There are six major dialects of Avendonian. Central Avendonian (or '''midio''') is considered the standard language, and it is the language most of the author's work is based upon. The main features of the other five dialects will be discussed in the following sections.<br />
===Alpine dialect===<br />
The [[:Category:Alpine dialect|Alpine dialect]] ('''avendoniano alpino''' in Avendonian) is characterized by the partial application of the [[w:High German consonant shift|High German consonant shift]]. This results in words like '''{{term|trincare}}''' (central '''{{term|drincare}}'''), '''{{term|esare}}''' (central '''{{term|etare}}'''), etc.<br />
The perfect tense is periphrastic in Alpine Avendonian. In place of the inflectional endings, a verbal construction is used. Its structure is ''present indicative or subjunctive of '''{{term|abere}}''', inflected for person and number'' + ''masculine singular passive participle of the main verb''. E.g. '''eo levui''' vs. '''eo abo leveto'''.<br />
<br />
===Burgundian dialects===<br />
Both Burgundian dialects feature historical diphthongs not longer extant in other dialects, where they merged with another vowel. [[w:Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] ''*ō'', ''*eu'' which gave {{angbr|u, i}} elsewhere, became {{angbr|uo, ie}} in the Burgundian dialects&nbsp;–&nbsp;for instance, '''{{term|buoce}}''' and '''{{term|friesare}}''' vs. central '''{{term|buce}}''' and '''{{term|frisare}}'''. They also share the presence of {{angbr|y}} /{{IPA|y}}/, descended from earlier ''*iu''; '''{{term|dydere}}''' (central '''{{term|didere}}''').<br />
<br />
The [[:Category:High Burgundian dialect|High Burgundian dialect]] ('''avendoniano ocburgundico''') features the {{Abbtip|High German consonant shift|HGCS}}. [[:Category:Low Burgundian dialect|Low Burgundian]] ('''avendoniano lagburgundico''') does not. Instead, masculine o-stem nouns and regular adjectives drop their final '''-o''', except in those words whose Proto-Germanic ancestor stem ended in /{{IPA|w}}/.<br />
Those words are:<br />
{{Col-begin}}<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|blavo}}'''<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|blio}}'''<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|calo}}'''<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|dovo}}'''<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|frovo}}'''<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|gelo}}'''<br />
{{Col-end}}<br />
{{Col-begin}}<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|gnio}}'''<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|gravo}}'''<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|meo}}'''<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|scado}}'''<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|snevo}}'''<br />
{{col-n|6}}<br />
* '''{{term|tovo}}'''<br />
{{Col-end}}<br />
<br />
===Genoese dialect===<br />
The Avendonian variation spoken in Genoa (former Larastade), the capital city of Avendonia, and its surroundings is considered<sup><small>[''[[User:Sware|by who?]]'']</small></sup> a [[w:sociolect|sociolect]] rather than a fully-fledged dialect. Due to the historical importance of Genoa as a trading center, the local vernacular is more internationalized. As a result, the language is not as conservative, i.e. has a greater tolerance for loanwords, largely from Romance languages. Examples of this are Genoese '''{{term|machina}}''' in lieu of native '''{{term|vilo}}''', '''{{term|depresione}}''' vs. '''{{term|svarmuto}}''', etc.<br />
<br />
===North Adriatic dialect===<br />
Maybe because of [[w:Slavic languages#Linguistic history|Slavic influence]], the [[:Category:North Adriatic dialect|North Adriatic dialect]] of Avendonian ('''nordadriatico''') features a series of [[w:palatalization|palatalization]]s exclusive to this dialect. This is seen in words like '''{{term|nace}}''' ('''{{term|nate}}''') or '''{{term|scione}}''' ('''{{term|scone}}''').<br />
<br />
In addition, there is evidence of the existence of a [[w:pitch accent|pitch-accent]] system in North Adriatic Avendonian. Stressed syllables whose vowel evolved from a long vowel carries a rising [[w:tone (linguistics)|tone]], and causes the following vowel to be pronounced with a mid tone. Moreover, if the stressed vowel comes from a short vowel, but it is not followed by a historical [[w:consonant cluster|consonant cluster]] or [[w:geminate|geminate]], it carries a low falling tone. Vowels in any other environment are rendered toneless.<br />
<br />
{{Col-begin}}<br />
{{col-n|2}}<br />
: '''{{term|alico}}''' “alike, similar”, from {{Abbtip|Proto-Germanic|PGmc.}} ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/galīkaz|*gal'''ī'''kaz]]'' → [{{IPA|a.ˈlǐ.kō}}] or [{{IPA|a.ˈli˩˥.ko˧}}].<br />
{{col-n|2}}<br />
: '''{{term|stulo}}''' “chair”, from {{Abbtip|Proto-Germanic|PGmc.}} ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/stōlaz|*st'''ō'''laz]]'' → [{{IPA|ˈstǔ.lō}}] or [{{IPA|ˈstu˩˥.lo˧}}].<br />
{{Col-end}}<br />
{{Col-begin}}<br />
{{col-n|2}}<br />
: '''[[Contionary:uvilo#Noun|uvilo]]''' “evil” (adj.), from {{Abbtip|Proto-Germanic|PGmc.}} ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/ubilaz|*ubilaz]]'' → [{{IPA|u.ˈvı᷆.lo}}] or [{{IPA|u.ˈvi˨˩.lo}}].<br />
{{col-n|2}}<br />
: '''{{term|fadre}}''' “father”, from {{Abbtip|Proto-Germanic|PGmc.}} ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/galīkaz|*fadēr]]'' → [{{IPA|ˈfa᷆.dre}}] or [{{IPA|ˈfa˨˩.dre}}].<br />
{{Col-end}}<br />
This feature is also somewhat present in northeastern and non-standard Central Avendonian.<br />
<br />
==Sample texts==<br />
===The North Wind and the Sun===<br />
<br />
{{interlinear<br />
|top='''El nordvinto e la suna stridaban ci era el starcior, cando uno resetore encamo uleto en uno mantelo varmo.'''<br />
|1=El nordvinto e l-a suna strid-ab-an ci era el starc-ior, cando un-o resetore<br />
|2=DEF.ART;M.SG {North Wind} CONJ DEF.ART-F.SG sun fight-IMPERF-3PL who COP;IMPERF.3SG DEF.ART;M.SG strong-COMP[M.SG] when INDF.ART-M.SG traveler <br />
|3=The {North Wind} and the Sun {were disputing} which was the stronger, when a traveler<br />
|4=|display-messages=no|italics2=no|italics3=no}}<br />
<br><br />
{{interlinear<br />
|1=encam-o ul-et-o en un-o mantelo varm-o<br />
|2=PRF\come-PST.INDIC.3SG cover-PP-M.SG in INDF.ART-M.SG mantle warm-M.SG<br />
|3={came along} wrapped in a cloak warm<br />
|4=|display-messages=no|italics1=yes|italics2=no|italics3=no}}<br />
''The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveler came along wrapped in a warm cloak.''<br />
===Lord's Prayer===<br />
{{Col-begin}}<br />
{{col-n|2}}<br />
:: Fadre nosde ci bis en el Celo,<br />
:: elageto si el name tede;<br />
:: el cuningricio tede cume,<br />
:: Si dueto el vile tede<br />
:: en la Erda ca bi en el Celo.<br />
:: Geva-nos, en eco dago, el broto dagico nosde,<br />
:: e pergeva-nos le sundie nosde,<br />
:: ca vi pergevamos si ce sunden contra nos;<br />
:: e ne lede-nos en la persucitio,<br />
:: sed defriie nos d'el uvilo.<br />
:: Amen.<br />
{{col-n|2}}<br />
<i><br />
:: Our Father, who art in heaven,<br />
:: hallowed be thy name;<br />
:: thy kingdom come,<br />
:: thy will be done<br />
:: on earth as it is in heaven.<br />
:: Give us this day our daily bread,<br />
:: and forgive us our sins,<br />
:: as we forgive those who sin against us;<br />
:: and lead us not into temptation,<br />
:: but deliver us from evil.<br />
:: Amen.<br />
</i><br />
{{Col-end}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [[:Category:Avendonian words|Avendonian language in Contionary]]<br />
* [https://discord.gg/YENDNvu ‘Conlang Exchange’ Discord Server, where Avendonian, among other conlangs, is taught]<br />
* [https://app.memrise.com/course/6003427/avendonian-spraca-avendoniana/ Avendonian Memrise course]<br />
* [https://pastebin.com/vdq4pvXV Official Avendonian dictionary, the ''Vortbuce Avendoniano'']<br />
* [https://t.me/vorti_avendoniani ‘Avendonian Word of the Day’ Telegram channel]<br />
* [https://t.me/setlanguage/avdnan Telegram translation pack for Avendonian] {{User:Sware/Template:tg|11973|17514}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Avendonian language]][[Category:Germanic languages]][[Category:West Germanic languages]][[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A posteriori]][[Category:Fusional languages]]</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Sceptrian&diff=231619Sceptrian2021-07-19T09:16:15Z<p>Chrysophylax: Removing progress meter (out of fashion... )</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Construction}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Sceptrian<br />
|image = Lusha name.png<br />
|imagesize = 300px<br />
|nativename = Batop Lushan<br />
|pronunciation = ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ<br />
|states = Sceptre<br />
|speakers = 29,200,000 <br />
|date = 7th 641<br />
|familycolor = #d3ffce<br />
|fam1 = West-Herookuan<br />
|fam2 = Lutian<br />
|fam3 = Sceptrian branch<br />
|creator = Ahuelni<br />
|setting = Akekata<br />
|dia1 = Yerzonian<br />
|dia2 = Mulish<br />
|dia3 = Fanish <br />
|scripts = * Toneka alphabet<br />
|nation = Empire of Sceptre<br />
|minority = Coast of Temples, Negovia<br />
|agency = ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan''<br>(Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language)<br />
|map = Lusha_regions.jpg<br />
|mapsize = 300px<br />
|mapcaption = Speakers of Sceptrian and its dialects<br />
}}<br />
'''Sceptrian''' (''batop lushan'' [ˈbäˑtəp luˈʃãˑ] or simply ''lusha'') is an ''a priori'' [[w:Artistic_language|artistic language]] created for the fantasy world Akekata by [[User:Juhhmi|juhhmi]]. Sceptrian language, named after the Sceptre peninsula, derives from Lutian language used in the Empire of Western Sceptre. With 29 million native speakers, Sceptrians outnumber those speaking [[Khattish]] and Guddean, the other two main West-Herookuan languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
<br />
Sceptrian and its dialects feature 51 phonetic consonants, some of them with interesting lateral features. The language also has 25 phonetic vowels: twelve short, nine long and four diphthongs. Nasalization, rhotacization and breathy voice are used phonemically. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
If the romanization symbol is the same as in IPA, it is not duplicated. Not bolded romanization indicates that the sound appears as a vernacular or dialectal version.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 830px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px" colspan="2"|<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Uvular<br />
! style="width: 70px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Nasal<br />
| '''m'''<br />
| [ɱ]<br />
| <br />
| '''n (ń)''' [n]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' [ŋ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4" |Plosive<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| '''p'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''t'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''k'''<br />
| '''q'''<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''b'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''d'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''g'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Breathy<br />
| '''ph bh'''<br>[pʰ] [bʱ]<br />
|<br />
|'''th dh'''<br>[tʰ] [dʱ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''kh gh'''<br>[kʰ] [gʱ]<br />
|'''qh'''<br>[qʰ]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| '''pl bl'''<br />[pˡ] [bˡ]<br />
| <br />
| '''tl dl'''<br />[tˡ] [dˡ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''kl gl'''<br/>[kˡ] [gˡ]<br />
| '''ql'''<br/>[qˡ]<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |Fricative<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| ph [ɸ]<br />
| '''f'''<br />
| '''th''' [θ]<br />
| '''s'''<br />
| '''sh''' [ʃ]<br />
| '''h''' [ç]<br />
| '''kh h''' [x]<br />
| '''qh''' [χ]<br />
| '''h'''<br />
|-<br />
!Voiced<br />
| '''w''' bh [β]<br />
| '''v'''<br />
| '''dh''' [ð]<br />
| '''z'''<br />
| '''zh''' [ʒ]<br />
| <br />
| gh [ɣ]<br />
| <br />
| h [ɦ]<br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|'''sl''' [ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Affricate<br />
!Voiceless<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''ts''' [t͡s] <br />
| '''tsh''' [t͡ʃ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
!Lateral<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| '''tsl''' [t͡ɬ]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |Approximant<br />
!Non-lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''j'''<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! Lateral<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''l''' [l] [l̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" |Trill<br />
| pr [ʙ]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| '''r (ŕ)''' [r] [r̥]<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The liquids ''r'' and ''l'' can appear as '''syllabic consonants''': ''tlsl'' /tˡl̩ɬ/ (shallow), ''prk'' /pr̩k/ (wagon) and ''trs'' /tr̩s/ (smith)<br />
*Vernacularly, both syllabic and obstruent-following alveolar trill ''r'' and lateral approximant ''l'' are pronounced as voiceless [r̩̊], [r̥], [l̩̊] and [l̥] when in contact with only voiceless consonants: ''trs'' [tr̩̊s] (smith) contrasting with ''trls'' [tr̩s] (while standard /trəls/) (smiths); ''gatl'' [gɑtl̥] (houses) whose pronunciation approaches [gɑtɬ]. <br />
**'''Meslatu Hirke''' made his disputed suggestion in 7:693 that a similar process had led to the birth of ''sl'' as plural indicator, when original plural ''l'' turned first into voiceless and then into ''sl'' after a word-final glottal stop, which has disappeared entirely. <br />
*In eastern dialects, ''pr'' is realized as [ʙ] and ''tr'', ''tsr'' and ''trs'' often as [r̝]. In the dialects, aspirated plosives have been fully spirantized into their fricative counterparts, e.g. [tʰ]>[θ].<br />
*Fricatives show properties of syllabic consonants word-initially and word-finally.<br />
<br />
Nasal [ɱ] only appears as an allophone of nasals with labio-dental sounds /f/ and /v/. Before velar sounds (e.g. /k/) nasals turn similarly into [ŋ].<br />
<br />
Letter ''h'' has four allophones: initial is always [h] despite frontness, [ç] appears elsewhere with front vowels, [x] appears word-finally and [h~ɦ] word-medially with back vowels ''tihtóhnah'' [tiçˈtɔɦ.näx] (assassinator). It's also used after consonants to indicate breathy voice.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
====Monophthongs====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 390px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 100px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i'''<br />
| <br />
| '''u'''<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| '''e'''<br />
| o<br/>[ɘ]<br />
| o<br/>[ɤ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
|<br />
| '''o'''<br/>[ə]<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''é ø'''<br />[ɛ] [œ]<br />
|<br />
| '''ó'''<br />[ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
|'''æ'''<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| <br />
|'''a'''<br />[ä]<br />
|a<br />[ɑ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
All the nine main vowel sounds (bolded) have '''long''' versions as separate phonemes.<br />
<br />
Schwa '''''o''''' is used as an epenthetic vowel (anaptyxis). When it is used to break consonant clusters (not indicated in native script) it is the simple schwa /ə/: *dŧ → ''doth'' /dəθ/ (man). When stressed, it is vernacularly realized as [ɘ], and in western dialects more clearly as [ɤ]: *dŧs → ''dothos'' [dəˈθɘˑs]<br />
<br />
Vowel ''a'' is [ɑ] after voiced consonants. Vowel ''æ'' is often more open [a], though, in Western dialects, it has merged with ''é''. <br />
<br />
====Diphthongs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, there are only closing diphthongs which go up in the vowel chart:<br />
*Back: ou /ɔʊ̯/<br />
*Front: ai /äɪ̯/, ei /ei̯/, oi /œi̯/<br />
<br />
If the syllable border (glottal stop) is between vowels and they don't form a diphthong, apostrophe is used: ''tai'' (for long) vs. ''ta'i'' (past)<br />
*In native [[Sceptrian#Script|script]], separate graphemes for diphthongs exist and glottal stop is not marked.<br />
<br />
If diphthongs are followed by vowels, they are separated by a glottal stop in formal register. <br />
*In casual speech, ''ouV'' becomes ''owV'' and ''ViV'' ''VjV'': ''oua→ówa'' and ''aia→aja''. If the following vowel is the same, a glottal stop breaks the former diphthong and the ending vowel is lengthened: ''ai'i→a'ii''<br />
<br />
==Phonotactics==<br />
<br />
===Onset===<br />
<br />
Basic [[w:Syllable#Structure|syllabic structure]] is CV, where the onset (beginning) consonant can be of any type. <br />
*It is possible to use liquids and approximants as '''glides''' (CLV) between the onset and the rime (ending). <br />
*Up to two consonants with same voicing may appear in the onset (CCV), especially fricative-plosive combinations, but never two plosives: ''stak'' (fence), ''fkot'' (nest), ''ksaru'' (guard). Affricate ''ts'' takes may be accompanied only by ''w'', ''j'', ''n'' or ''m'': ''tsma'' (doubt). Combination /sl/ has turned into /ɬ/.<br />
*Lateralization and aspiration may never appear together, and nasalized rhoticization is only found in Fanish dialect.<br />
<br />
===Nucleus=== <br />
<br />
The nucleus can be either a vowel or a liquid, thus CVC and CLC are also possible syllables. <br />
*Vowels (diphthongs included) may exist as a stand-alone nucleic syllable (V), mostly in the beginning or at the end of a word. <br />
*If nucleus is a liquid, plosives appear in codas only word-finally: ''dldlp'' /dˡl̩ˈdˡl̩p/ (bubble)<br />
<br />
===Coda=== <br />
<br />
The coda (final) may consist of up to three consonants with possible structures: N, P, F, L; NP, FP, LP; NF, PF, LF; NPF, FPF, LFP, LPF (Nasal, Plosive, Fricative, Liquid). <br />
*Final liquids appear as syllabic consonants<br />
*Approximants ''j'', ''w'' and plain voiced plosives never appear as coda (final) even though they may be written that way (no written schwa): ''nad'' /nä.də/ (stainy). Voiced fricatives may appear as coda. <br />
*In coda, plosives with lateral release, however, will reflect the voicing of the onset: ''gatl'' [gädˡl̩] (houses) vs. ''katl'' [kätˡl̩] (knobs). Vernacularly, the lateral approximant weakens into a voiceless variant [l̥] when in contact with voiceless consonants: ''gatl'' [gätl̥].<br />
<br />
Closed syllables, i.e. those ending in coda, are not as common word-medially as open syllables (ending in nucleus) are. When words are inflected, parts of codas tend to become onsets of the following syllable, if possible. Especially three-consonant clusters are rare word-medially and receive a schwa after a non-lateral stop: ''kamps'' /kämps/ (marsh) → ''kampsku'' → ''kamposku'' /ˈkäm.pəs.ku/ (at marsh)<br />
*Voicing status must be the same for consonants touching at syllable boundaries and the voiced one reduces into voiceless: ''*katbas''→''katpas'' /kätˈpäs/ (fern) vs. ''oist baku'' /œi̯st<sup>(h)</sup> bä.ku/ (under a table)<br />
<br />
==Suprasegmentals==<br />
<br />
Primary '''stress''' in a word is most often on the second syllable, and when there are four or five syllables, secondary stress is placed onto the final syllable. When there are more syllables, minor stress is placed on even-numbered syllables. <br />
*If the to-be-stressed syllable contains the schwa ''o'' /ə/ or a syllabic consonant, the preceding syllable is stressed in two-syllable words and the following in words with more than three syllables.<br />
**In uninflected words, syllable with nuclear ''o'' is only stressed when it comes second and the preceding syllable has also ''o'' as nucleus. Then the stressed nucleus appears as [ɘ]. Contrast between stressed and non-stressed syllabic consonants may occur as voicing and devoicing respectively. <br />
*A non-final syllable with a long vowel or a diphthong is always stressed and steals the stress from its neighboring syllable. This also moves the secondary stress from final to penultimate syllable, if primary stress falls on first syllable.<br />
<br />
Inflected and affixed word forms have almost always the same stress as the base word (even monosyllabic with schwa): ''doth'' (man) → ''dothku'' [ˈdɘθ.ku] (near the man). <br />
*Vocative and ergative cases as well as inflections with long vowels make an exception: ''dothee'' /dəˈθe:/ (by the man), ''dothé'' /dəˈθɛ/ (O man), ''gatóo'' /gɑˈtɔ:/ (to the house)<br />
<br />
Interrogatives are formed by changing the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. This is indicated with ¿: ''¿Eikepoi?'' [ˈei̯˧˦ˈke˩.pœi̯˨˦] (Did you wash it?)<br />
<br />
==Morphophonology==<br />
<br />
===Vowel form===<br />
<br />
There are five ways of sound altering which may be used for grammatical purposes (mainly number, genitive case and imperfective aspect). In the native script the following are marked on the vowel.<br />
*Lengthening: ''paata'' /pä:tä/ (separation), ''ée'' [ɛ:]~[ɛe̯], ''óo'' /ɔ:/<br />
*Lateral (release): ''pló'' /pˡɔ/ (opposite to), ''tlaf'' /tˡäf/ (sprig) <br />
**Western dialects keep the tongue on the alveolar ridge during vowel pronunciation so that the vowels have a distinct l-sound. Historically, this may have lead to the syllabic l.<br />
*Aspiration/breathy voice: ''phó'' [pʰɔ]~[ɸɔ] (along), ''kébhar'' [kɛˈbʱɑ˞]~[kɛˈβɑ˞] (I will wash), ''tha'' [tʰä]~[θä] (abstract "it"), ''dhaka'' [dʱɑkä]~[ðɑkä] (abstract "that"). <br />
**Aspirated plosives of unstressed, schwa-syllables turn into the corresponding fricatives. In casual register, this happens with all unstressed syllables. ''dhoku'' /ðəˈkuˑ/ (head)<br />
*Nasalization: ''on'' [ə̃]~[ɘ̃]~[<sup>N</sup>C] (compare ''oń'' /ən/) when ''n'' in [[Sceptrian#Phonotactics|coda]]<br />
**Vernacularly, nasalized schwa appears as a short syllabic nasal consonant of the same place as the directly preceding or following consonant<br />
**Close-to-mid vowels (''e, i, u, o, ''and'' ó'') are always nasalized between two nasals, and all vowels are after short ''ng'': ''mónge'' /mɔ̃ŋẽ/ (indeed). Nasalization does not occur with open vowels (''a'' and ''é'') between nasals or with any vowel after a long ''ńg'': ''dothé naańgé'' /dəˈθɛˑ nä:ŋ:ɛˑ/ (O sweaty man!).<br />
*Rhotacization: ''or'' /ɚ/, ''ar'' /ä˞/ (compare ''oŕ'' [ər]~[r̩] and ''aŕ'' /är/) <br />
**Nasalization does not occur simultaneously with rhoticization, except in Fanish dialect (near the border of Negovia): ''karon'' → ''karn'' [kæ̃˞:] (soup)<br />
<br />
===Consonant form===<br />
<br />
Combining sounds<br />
*Lateralization<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sl'' and ''zh'' respectively<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' → ''fl'' & ''w''<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' are geminated<br />
**''m'' & ''n'' → ''ng'' and ''ng'' → ''ńg''<br />
* Aspiration<br />
**''s'' and ''z'' turn into ''sh'' and ''zh''<br />
**''f'' & ''v'' are geminated<br />
**''l'' & ''r'' → ''lh'' and ''rh''<br />
* Voicing and aspiration<br />
**''r'' → ''qh'', ''l'' → ''ldh'', ''v'' → ''w''<br />
<br />
===Apophony===<br />
<br />
Apophony in the '''stressed syllable''' is used for example to express adjective gender and to create different verb forms.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Apophony<br />
|-<br />
!Root<br />
!1st<br />
!2nd<br />
|-<br />
|e<br />
|ee<br />
|é<br />
|-<br />
|o<br />
|ó<br />
|ø<br />
|-<br />
|a<br />
|aa<br />
|æ<br />
|-<br />
|u<br />
|uu<br />
|i<br />
|-<br />
|ai<br />
|ii<br />
|ei<br />
|-<br />
|ou<br />
|óo<br />
|oi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*When the stressed root syllable has vowel ''ee, ó, aa, uu, ii'' or ''óo'' as nucleus, the apophony is only partial. ''joqódh''>''joqødh'' (disgusting)<br />
*With ''é, ø, æ, i, ei'' or ''oi'' as root vowels, all forms are the same, e.g. ''luwidh'' (beautiful). Only formal register uses ''ée'' as the second apophony of ''é''.<br />
<br />
==Orthography==<br />
<br />
===Script=== <br />
[[File:Sceptrian.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Toneka script from the early sixth era. Notice that the vowel form info-box romanization should have "o" instead of "a".]]<br />
[[File:SceptrianTsrnet.JPG|500px|thumb|right|Tsrnet cursive script used for handwriting in modern Sceptre.]]<br />
The Sceptrian alphabet script was derived from the ancient temple marks as were the Aoman and Northern (Latin) scripts. The modern alphabet is called ''Tsoklóp Lushan''.<br />
<br />
Diacritics on vowels mark different [[Sceptrian#Vowel_form|sounds]]. The diacritics may be used with consonants as well, especially in the plural forms of consonant-ending nouns: ''gat̆'' (''gatl'' "houses"), ''doŧ̆'' (''dolth'' "men"). With the diacritics, letter ''ts'' can be lateralized into ''tsl'' or aspirated into ''tsh''.<br />
<br />
The native Sceptrian script has a long history of being unicameral, not distinguishing between the upper and lower case. Only during the sixth era under the Tyranny of West, the flow of refugees from the Coast of Temples encouraged the introduction of case separation. In the developed fonts, capital letters were derived from the traditional Toneka and small letters from the cursive Tsrnet.<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Short and long letter names with explanations<br />
|-<br />
|aa<br>aat || ee<br>eet || ée<br>eet maatikipi<br>(opened e) || ii<br>iit || oo<br>oot || óo<br>oot guzbikipi<br>(deepened o) || uu<br>uut <br />
|-<br />
|ææ<br>aat evadh<br>(bright a) || øø<br>oot gudh<br>(dark o) || ai<br>aat zaithon<br>(rising a) || ei<br>eet zaithon<br>(rising e) || oi<br>oot zaithon<br>(rising o) || ou<br>óot bousoson<br>(falling o) ||<br />
|-<br />
| po<br>poot || bo<br>bóot || mo<br>mool || wo<br>wool || to<br>toot || do<br>dóot || <br />
|-<br />
| tho<br>toot hifdo<br>(windy t) || dho<br>dóot hifdo<br>(windy d) || no<br>nool || so<br>siit || sho<br>siit hifdo<br>(windy s) || zo<br>ziit || zho<br>ziit gudh<br>(dark z) <br />
|-<br />
| ngo<br>góot slenguhpi<br>(g using nose) || tso<br>tsiit || lo<br>lool || slo<br>lool hifdo<br>(windy l) || fo<br>fiit || vo<br>fiit gudh<br>(dark f) || jo<br>jool <br />
|-<br />
| ko<br>koot || go<br>góot || ho<br>hiit || qho<br>hiit surmudh<br>(strong h) || qo<br>koot venongp<br>(k being<br> swallowed) || ro<br>rool || <br />
|-<br />
|plo<br>looh tisk<br>(with l<br> mark) || pon<br>slenguhpi tisk<br>(using nose<br> mark) || por<br>tisk prung<br>(mark of<br> trill) || pho<br>tisk hifn<br>(mark of<br> wind) || poo<br>tisk spiing<br>(mark of<br> length) || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Romanization===<br />
<br />
====Modern====<br />
Consonant variation:<br />
*Letter ''r'' is used with consonants for /r̩/ and between vowels for /r/, but after vowels in the end of syllables for rhoticization ''or'' /ɚ/. Letter ''ŕ'' is used to emphasize the use of /r/ after vowels ''oŕ'' /ər/.<br />
*Similarly letter ''n'' can appear syllable-finally with nasalization but ''ń'' always as /n/: ''an'' /ã/ vs. ''ań'' /an/. <br />
*With ''ng'' /ŋ/, the accent signals lengthening ''nańgo'' /näŋ:ə/ or ''naŋŋo'' (sweaty).<br />
*Labialization of plosives is indicated by PuV (V is any vowel except ''u'') or with ''w''.<br />
*Breathry voice is indicated with an ''h'' straight after a plosive. The ''h'' is also used for corresponding fricatives which occur word-finally. This risk of confuse is one of the downsides of the simplified modern system: ''nath'' /näθ/ "a beggar" or /nätʰ/ "with stains".<br />
<br />
====Old====<br />
<br />
The old romanization system (or part of it) was used until western regions of Eastern Sceptre were joined with the Western Sceptre empire in 7th era 161, during the war against Empress Renula of Golden Islet. A revision was needed when both Sceptrian and Aoma were used in the same printing press and texts had to be distributed to westlang-using communities. Peter Martyea suggested in 7:189 that the payment according to number of pages may have favoured quick adaptation as the non-diacritic system induced much longer texts (see the comparison example).<br />
<br />
Consonants:<br />
*Nasal: '''ŋ''' ''ng'' /ŋ/<br />
**Texts from the first century of the seventh era use ''ǥ'' for word-initial /ŋ/.<br />
*Fricative: '''ŧ''' ''th'' /θ/, '''đ''' ''dh'' /ð/, '''ś''' ''sh'' /ʃ/, '''ź''' ''zh'' /ʒ/, '''ħ''' ''qh'' /χ/<br />
*Affricate: '''c''' ''ts'' /t͡s/, '''č''' ''tsh'' /t͡ʃ/<br />
*Lateral: '''š''' ''sl'' /ɬ/, '''ǩ''' ''kl'' /kˡ/, '''ǧ''' ''gl'' /gˡ/<br />
<br />
Compact equivalents of sound altering:<br />
*Lengthening with a bar: ''ṓ'' /ɔ:/ and ''ō'' /ə:/<br />
*Lateral release with a breve diacritic: ''tŏ'' /tˡə/<br />
*Nasalization with a tilde: ''õ'' /ə̃/, ''on'' /ən/<br />
*Rhotacization with a diaeresis: ''ö'' /ɚ/, ''or'' /ər/<br />
*Aspiration with a grave accent: ''pò'' /pʰə/, ''pô'' /pʰɔ/<br />
<br />
Comparison between the systems:<br />
*Old: Ǧëǩ śošēŧã <br />
*Modern: Glerkl shosleethan (maces of a knight)<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
<br />
The most complete study of the structure of pre-modern Sceptrian words was done by Porutingatu of Jerzónó in year 362 of the seventh era. She collected, grouped and analyzed the fusional morphemes and listed the new rules to replace the outdated writings from the sixth era. By 370, her work had led to a new interest in linguistics and ultimately to the founding of ''Tsagadhet Keping Batom Lushan'' (Bureau of the Purity of the Sceptrian Language) which has been unifying and regulating the language along with its orthography since then.<br />
<br />
Sceptrian utilizes [[w:Fusional_language|fusional]] [[w:Inflection|inflections]] and has an [[w:Ergative–absolutive_language|absolutive-ergative]] [[w:Morphosyntactic_alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]. The language is rather [[w:Head-directionality_parameter|head-initial]] and its primary [[w:Word_order|word order]] is verb-agent-object.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
<br />
Pronouns are used to refer to e.g. people or things in sentences instead of using the original nouns. In Sceptrian, they exist in two numbers and are inflected according to six [[Sceptrian#Cases|'''cases''']]. <br />
<br />
====Personal====<br />
Second person includes polite versions as well which were adapted by Aoma-sperkers. Third person singular makes distinction between abstract (Ab), animate (An) and inanimate (In) pronouns while plural only between Ab-An and In. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Personal pronoun inflection'''<br />
|-<br />
! Case !! 1SG !! 1PL !! 2SG !! 2PL !! 2SG.POL !! 2PL.POL !! 3SG.Ab !! 3SG.An !! 3PL.A !! 3SG.In !! 3PL.In<br />
|-<br />
!ABS <br />
| na || mo || fo || po || Nith || With || tha || su || slo || hi || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
| næ || moslo || fø || poslo || Nithe || Widhes || thaa || suu || sloslo || hii || kloslo<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
| nai || mokli || foki || pokli || Nithki || Withkli || thai || swi || slokli || hiki|| klokli<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
| nar || moŕ || for || poŕ || Nithor || Withoŕ || thar || sur || sloŕ || hir || kloŕ<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
| nas || mosh || fos || posh || Nithos || Withosh ||thas ||sus ||slosh || his ||klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
| nape || moplo || fope || poplo || Nitti || Witti || thape || supe || sloplo || hipi || kloplo<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*'''Comitative''' case is used to indicate company: ''Mo slosh arakha.'' (We were with them yesterday.)<br />
*'''Causal''' describes the cause of an action or origin of something: ''Aitesosai næ su fope'' (I saw him because of (/thanks to) you), ''Hi supe foki.'' (It (is) from him to you.)<br />
<br />
3rd person abstract pronoun is used in the formal register when introducing or referring to a person of higher status.<br />
<br />
====Reflexive====<br />
Self-pronoun ''ru'' for '''reflexive''' and '''reciprocal''': ''tesosón ru'' (they are watching themself), ''ónlatepón ru'' (he is dancing by himself, alone) vs. ''ónlatepón su'' (he is dancing with him); ''sónkephón ru'' (they are washing each other) vs. ''sónkephón sloslo slo/soutu'' (they are washing them)<br />
*reflexive is easier with others: ''anlatepan'' (I'm dancing by myself); ''ankepan'' (I'm washing myself) vs. ''ankep'' ("I'm washing it"), ''kepan'' (I'm being washed)<br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
<br />
Simple words for "this/these" and "that/those". When demonstratives are used with [[Sceptrian#Nouns|nouns]], they behave similarly to [[Sceptrian#Adjectives|adjectives]]. In the following examples, note that Sceptrian lacks the [[Sceptrian#Verbs|verb "to be"]]: <br />
*As a determiner, the demonstrative follows its head and other adjectives: ''Bouson qot ka.'' (This rock is falling.) ''Anzaitlon qoth rkildh kla.'' (I'm lifting these brown rocks.)<br />
*For inanimate class, the pronoun is the same as the demonstrative word: ''Qot ka.'' (This is a rock.) ''Rkidh qot ka.'' (This rock is brown.) ''Qoth rkildh klo.'' (Those are brown rocks.) <br />
*The determiner may precede its head and is then followed by a short pause. In this case, the head acts more like a specifying comment on the true sentence subject: ''Bouson ko qot.'' (That's falling, the rock, I mean.) <br />
<br />
See also the [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|table of correlatives]].<br />
<br />
{|border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Demonstrative pronoun inflection<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"| Case <br />
!colspan="2"| Proximal <br />
!colspan="2"| Distal <br />
|-<br />
!SG !! PL !! SG !! PL<br />
|-<br />
!ABS<br />
|ka || kla || ko || klo<br />
|-<br />
!ERG<br />
|kaa || klaa || kó || kló<br />
|-<br />
!DAT<br />
|kai ||klai || koi || kloi<br />
|-<br />
!POS<br />
|kan ||klang || kon || klong<br />
|-<br />
!COM<br />
|kas || klash || kos || klosh<br />
|-<br />
!CAU<br />
|kap || klapa || kop ||klopo<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Table of correlatives===<br />
<br />
Determiners follow their heads and agree in number and with the cases mentioned above in [[Sceptrian#Demonstrative|the table]], where DAT & LAT, COM & LOC, CAU & ABL and ABS & VOC are corresponding. Words follow the declension shown above or paradigms similar to [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun cases]]. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"| <br />
!rowspan="2"|Interrogative<br />
!colspan="2"|Demonstrative<br />
!colspan="5"|Quantifier<br />
|-<br />
!Proximal !! Distal !! Existential !! Elective !! Universal !! Negatory !! Alternative<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Determiner<br />
| sho || ka (SG)<br/>kla (PL) || ko<br />klo || jofa (some) || ota (any) || orka (every, all) || ze (no) || so (another)<br/>solo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="5"| Pronoun<br />
!Abstract<br />
| ashu || thaka || dhaka || jaafa || thata || thorka || theso || thaso<br />
|-<br />
!Animate<br />
| ¿soutu || saitu || soutu || jonfu || onta || ongka || souso || jonso<br />
|-<br />
!Inanimate <br />
| ¿ko || ka || ko || jofo || oto || orko || ze || so<br />
|-<br />
!Out of two<br />
| ¿tso || tsaka || tsoko || zho || tsoto || tsorko || tseso || tso<br />
|-<br />
!Out of many<br />
| ¿tsolo || tsalka || tsolko || zolo || tsolto || tsongko || tsleso || tsolo<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="6"|Pro-adverb<br />
!Locative<br />
| sku || khau || khu || jofku || otku || orkhu || zengu || sokhu<br />
|-<br />
!Temporal<br />
| sko || kha || kho || jofko || otko || orkho || zeng || sokho<br />
|-<br />
!Comitative<br />
| shos ||kas || kos || jofos || otos || orkos ||zeos || sos<br />
|-<br />
!Causal<br />
| spe || kap || kop || jov || otop || orkop || zenep || sonop<br />
|-<br />
!Manner<br />
| shi || khai || khoi || jofai || otai || orkai || zei || soi<br />
|-<br />
!What kind of<br />
| shodh || kadh || kodh || jodhi || othi || ordhi || zodhi || sothi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Negative determiner ''ze'' has no plural form. Neither have pronouns "Out of two".<br />
*Demonstratives are used when referring to listed items of equal animacy: proximal with the former and distal with the latter: ''Aitesoshóji math kuthos. Óomidh soutu.'' (I saw a cat and a dog. The latter was large.)<br />
*Locative pro-adverb can be conjugated with lative, locative and ablative.<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
Nouns in Sceptrian form the basis of derivational morphology and even the cases are utilized when forming new words. They are declined according to two numbers and nine cases, and the seven declensions are grouped in three genders which affect the verb conjugation and adjective agreement.<br />
<br />
====Gender====<br />
<br />
There are three grammatical genders or classes, abstract, animate and inanimate, which can be fully recognized from their singular dative form endings, ''k'', ''i'' and ''ei''. The seven declensional patterns or simply declensions, which are determined by their absolutive ending, are distributed among these classes.<br />
*Abstract (Ab) class contains concepts, emotions, divine and magical subjects, verb forms etc., and they end in vowels ''a, æ, o, ó, ø'' and ''i''. <br />
*Animate (An) class is preserved for nouns related to living things, e.g. people, animals, body parts, plants and comestibles, whose ending is either a fricative (''f, th, s, sh, h'', same voiced and affricates), nasal (''m, n, ng'') or vowel ''u''. Mass nouns, such as meat, milk and food, have nasal endings.<br />
*Inanimate (In) class has nouns such as objects, places and natural formations whose endings are either plosives (''p, t, k'') or consonant ''l''. Inanimate mass nouns, e.g. sand, salt and water, appear in the ''l''-ending group.<br />
In official language, animate gender doesn't draw a distinction between masculine and feminine so that ''ras'' (horse) can stand for both "stallion" and "mare". If one wishes to emphasize the gender on a binary scale, clitics ''-duus'' and ''-tu'' may be added: ''gutsduus'' (bull). Some archaic words remain in dialects and in poetic use.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
There are two numbers, singular and plural, but abstract ''i''-nouns and inanimate ''l''-nouns are always singular. The declension according to number is complicated and fused with the class/case system explained and tabulated below.<br />
<br />
====Cases====<br />
<br />
*Absolutive (ABS): Unmarked base form for subjects of intransitive and objects of transitive verbs <br />
*Ergative (ERG): Agents of transitive verbs<br />
*Dative (DAT): Indirect object; alienable possession ''gat dothi'' (a house of (lit. "for") the man); comparison (with ADJ comparative)<br />
*Possessive (POS): Inalienable possession ''dhoku dothor'' (the man's head)<br />
*Instrumental-comitative (INS): Using something; "with someone", replaces "and" as Latin [[wikt:-que|-que]]; in antipassive constructions<br />
*Lative (LAT): Movement to; with adpositions<br />
*Locative-temporal (LOC-TEMP): Place; time; with adpositions<br />
*Ablative (ABL): Movement from (+delative); causal<br />
*Vocative (VOC): addressing (people, gods); interjections ''Alæ!'' (Hello! lit. "Day!")<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ '''Genders and desinences'''<br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="3" style="width: 100px"| <br />
!colspan="3"| Abstract <br />
!colspan="6"| Animate <br />
!colspan="3"| Inanimate<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''A'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''i'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''F'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''N'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"| ''u'' <br />
!colspan="2" style="width: 40px"|''P'' <br />
! style="width: 30px"| ''l''<br />
|-<br />
|<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>|| ||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<small>SG</small>||<small>PL</small>||<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px"| Absolutive<br />
| A || Asl || i || F || (o)lF || N || Ning || u || ush || P || Pl || l<br />
|- <br />
! style=""| Ergative <br />
| AA || AslA || ii || Fee || Fele || Nee || Neng || uu || uushu || Pee || Ple || le<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Dative <br />
| Ak || Akl || ik || Fi || Fil || Ni || Nil || (u)ji || (u)wi || Pei || Plei || lei<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Possessive <br />
| An || Ang || ing || For || Foŕ || Nor || Noŕ || ur || uŕ || -N || Pong || lon<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Instrumental-comitative <br />
| Ah || Ash || ish || Fos || Fosh || Nos || Nosh || uh || ush || Ph || Ps || -dh<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Lative <br />
| AgA || AglA || iki || Fko || Fklo || Nong || Nongo || ugu || uglu || Póo || Plóo || lo <br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Locative-temporal <br />
| AkhA || AlkhA || ikhi || Fku || Fklu || Nung || Nungu || ukhu || ulkhu || Pu || Plu || lu<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Ablative <br />
| ApA || AplA || ipi || Fp(o) || Fpl(o) || Nop || Nopl || upu || uplu || PPo || PPol || lp<br />
|-<br />
! style=""| Vocative <br />
| Ae || Asl || ii || Fé || lFé || Né || Nin || -wé || -wésh || Pé || Plé || lé<br />
|}<br />
*''A'': vowels ''a, æ, o, ó'' and ''ø''<br />
**Ae: ae = æ, æe = ææ, oe=é, óe = ø & øe = øø<br />
*''F'': fricatives ''f, th, s, sh'' and ''h''; voiced counterparts and affricates ''ts, tsl'' and ''tsh'' are followed by ''o'' before plosive endings. <br />
*''N'': nasals ''n, m'' and ''ng''<br />
*''P'': plosives ''p, t, k'' and ''q''<br />
**POS ''q''→''ng''<br />
**INS ending Ph marks breathy voice and may turn the plosive into corresponding fricative /ɸ, θ, x, χ/ if followed by a plosive.<br />
*- indicates that the original ending is replaced with the following: ''tup → tu'''m''''' (stick → stick's)<br />
<br />
====Possessive==== <br />
<br />
Different possessive forms and interpretations: <br />
*''Dativus possessivus'' (alienable): ''gat doth'''i''''' "the house which the man has temporarily settled in, i.e. rented"<br />
*Comitative case with alienable possessive suffix: ''doth gat''h'''''os''''' "man with his house which he has purchased"<br />
**Inalienable possessive suffix alters the meaning: ''doth gat''h'''''ozh''''' "man and his birthplace"<br />
*Possessive case (almost inalienable): ''gat doth'''or''''' "the house which was inherited and is now owned by the man". <br />
<br />
The noun in possessive case is not inflected further. With dative case, inflection may be utilized in order to distinguish the ''dativus possessivus'' from the indirect object or benefactive: ''Onzaiton pof tuph dothish slokli.'' "The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them." (Related to the feather ceremony when welcoming upper class members to a household.)<br />
<br />
'''Possessive affixes''', as shown in examples above, draw a distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: ''Óntesoson dothee gat'''s'''/vakuh'''oz'''.'' (A man is watching his house/ his own hand.) With the basic suffixes, the root is inflected first and then suffixed.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+ Possessional suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!Person<br />
!colspan="2"|Singular<br />
!colspan="2"|Plural<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
! ALIEN !! INAL !! ALIEN !! INAL <br />
|-<br />
!1st <br />
| (a)ń || (a)nga || (ó)m || (ó)ngó <br />
|-<br />
!2nd<br />
| (o)f || (ø)fo || (e)v || (ø)vø<br />
|-<br />
!3rd<br />
| (o)s || (o)zh || (o)sl || (o)zhol<br />
|}<br />
*Irregular: Only VOC+possessive with 1SG: ''Pos'''n'''é!'' (My servant!), ''Polsmé!'' (Our servants!)<br />
<br />
'''2nd person polite suffixes''' are added to absolutive base and the endings are then declined according to abstract gender: <br />
*Singular: (a)tha, (a)tazha <br />
*Plural: (a)dhó, (a)dózhó <br />
*Example: ''gat'''atha'''pa'' (from Your house)<br />
<br />
See [[Sceptrian#Adverbial_clauses|adverbial clauses]] which utilize some possessive suffixes with [[Sceptrian#Non-finite_forms|non-finite verb forms]].<br />
<br />
===Adpositions===<br />
<br />
Adpositions are used with inflected nouns to add information about its location or relation to other nouns. Some Sceptrian adpositions can be used as stand-alone adverbs which may be conjugated according to noun declensions.<br />
<br />
====Prepositions====<br />
<br />
Prepositions are used with lative (to, towards), locative (at, near) and ablative (from) cases to alter the meaning.<br />
*''voi'' (in) forms illative, inessive, elative <br />
*''loi'' (out) for "out of", "outside" and "from outside"<br />
*''soi'' (on) to emphasize the surface aspect <br />
*''oist(i)'' (under) for movement under something<br />
*''roi'' (above) similarly to ''oist''<br />
*''boi'' (down) for "down (a surface / to)", "down in (somewhere)" and "from down"; as an adverb as well <br />
*''zoi'' (up) used like ''boi''<br />
*''moi'' (touching, around) with lative for terminative, locative for pertingent and ablative for initiative<br />
*''oil(i)'' (as) forms translative, essive, exessive<br />
*''koi'' (per) distribution: "for each", "every" (temporal), "from each"<br />
*''jon'' (... between) <br />
*''poi'' (... the middle of, among)<br />
*''tsoi'' (... front of; preceding) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = before<br />
*''hoi'' (... behind; following) <br />
**with time nouns in locative = after<br />
*''mots(i)'' (... on side)<br />
**combined with postpositional ''dei'' (right) or ''lai'' (left)<br />
**with time nouns in locative = ago<br />
<br />
====Postpositions====<br />
<br />
Postpositions appear with various cases and often come in groups.<br />
*''pón'' (through) with lative<br />
*''phó'' (along) with lative<br />
*''pló'' (opposite to, across) with locative<br />
*''sós'' (with) with comitative to express a greater degree of endowment (ornative); with ablative to indicate "without"; with lative for "in addition to"<br />
*''óp'' (about, concerning) with genitive; with ablative for "according to"<br />
*''ól'' (like) with genitive; as an adverb "similarly"<br />
*''jak'' (away, despite) with ablative; as an adverb as well<br />
*''mai'' (excluding) with ablative<br />
*''mak'' (except) with ablative<br />
*''mats'' (instead of) with ablative<br />
*''sai'' (including) with comitative<br />
*''sak'' (concerning, regarding) with comitative; with ablative to emphasize the causal aspect (due to, because of, thanks to)<br />
*''phe'' (for the sake of) with lative<br />
<br />
====Pronominal====<br />
<br />
When used with pronouns, separate adpositions only come with dative forms to indicate lative. Otherwise adpositions take possessive suffixes, inalienable for locative and alienable for ablative: ''voi nai'' (into me), ''voinga'' (inside me), ''voiń'' (from inside me)<br />
<br />
Of the polite possessive suffixes, alienable is added onto the adposition and then the entire compound is conjugated for lative, locative or ablative: ''voitha'' (in You; attributive), ''voithaga'' (into You), ''voithakha'' (inside You; predicative), ''voithapa'' (from inside You)<br />
<br />
===Derivational Morphology===<br />
<br />
Verbs and adjectives are derived from nouns by adding suffixes and in some cases prefixes as well.<br />
<br />
====Noun====<br />
<br />
Many nouns share same origins and these endings are the most common forms of derivation:<br />
*Suffixing verbs with once established ending vowels or consonant appropriate for the noun class. <br />
*place, region, nearby area: abstract with LOC with ''sk''-ending; fricative and ''u''-ending ABS.PL with final ''t''; nasal ABS.PL with final ''ku''; plosive ABS.PL and ''l''-declension receive an ''s''-suffix<br />
*collection, group: ABS.PL receives ''óf'' in animate, ''óp'' in inanimate class; ''mulfóf'' (school of fish)<br />
**Archaic forms also add the prefix ''kl'' <br />
*being, person, creature: ABS with ''(o)s'': ''trs'' (smith; compare ''trk'' "smithy")<br />
**doer, agent: ERG with ''tu'': ''kepeetu'' (washer)<br />
**experiencer, patient: ABS with ''(k)ois'' or ''(k)oit'' depending on animacy: ''kepois'' (person being washed)<br />
**origin: ABL with ''(o)su'': ''ukopposu'' (person from north)<br />
**characteristic (from abstract quality): INS with final duplicated vowel and ''tu'': ''luwishitu'' (beauty)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)n'' (AN) or ''(o)l'' (INAN): ''koson'' (wood), ''qotol'' (stone)<br />
*diminutive: reduplication of final sound with ''t'' between vowels and ''i'' between consonants: ''kosis'' (small tree)<br />
*augmentative: reduplication of final sound with ''g'' between vowels and ''a'' between consonants: ''kosas'' (great tree)<br />
**apotheosis: augmentative with ''a''-ending: ''kosonana'' (godwood)<br />
*abstract quality, feature: ABS suffixed with ''(k)oti'': ''dothoti'' (manliness)<br />
*'''gerund''' (act of doing): via derivated [[Sceptrian#Verb|verb]] suffixed with ''(o)pi'': ''glerkurpi'' (mace-battering)<br />
<br />
====Adjective====<br />
<br />
Different cases and affixes are used for the derivation:<br />
*similarity, having something: ''dh'' suffix to abstract gender and animate ''u''-ending; voicing of fricatives (''h→qh'', no change with affricates); nasals [[Sceptrian#Consonant_form|"lateralized"]] + ''o''; voicing of plosives + ''o'' (''q→g''); l-declension as in INS-COM: ''evadh'' (bright), ''dodh'' (masculine)<br />
**full of, having something: previous suffixed with ''ol'': ''mel muvol'' (waters full of fish)<br />
*material: ABS with ''(o)p'': ''kosonop'' (wooden)<br />
*origin, relation: ABL form with a final ''ó'' added or replacing the original ending vowel: ''kusupó'' (friendly)<br />
*absence, without: ''ti'' suffixed to VOC form: ''evæti'' (lightless=dark)<br />
*doing: ''on'' added after INS case: ''kephon'' (washing)<br />
*who did: INS with ''ompu'': ''kephompu'' (who washed = ''pessyt'' in Finnish)<br />
*done by: INS with ''empo'' and possibly inalienable possessive suffix: ''kephemponga'' (washed by me)<br />
*not done: LAT suffixed with ''tip'': ''kepóotip'' (unwashed)<br />
*experiencing: LAT suffixed with ''p'': kepóop (being washed)<br />
*result (wanted): LAT suffixed with ''pi'': ''kepóopi'' (washed=clean)<br />
**if unwanted: LAT suffixed with ''pot'': ''vangostóopot'' (drunk)<br />
*possible: POS with ''ta'': ''kenta'' (washable)<br />
*requiring: LOC with ''rt'': ''kepurt'' (needs to be washed)<br />
*opposite, negation: VOC with ''tot''<br />
<br />
Notice that plural forms of adjectives may be derived from plural nouns: ''dolth kep'''s'''on'' (men who are washing)<br />
<br />
====Verb====<br />
<br />
A declined core noun receives an ending which describes how the verb reflects the noun:<br />
*In some cases, the vowel ending of nouns may simply be removed or the absolutive of a consonant-ending noun may also serve as a verb.<br />
*ABS = "happens, is": ''kep'' (is washed)<br />
*COM = "using": ''tuph'' (is poked with a stick), ''glerkh'' (is hit with a mace)<br />
*POS + ''k'' = "similarity": ''melonk'' (is wet)<br />
*DAT + ''k'' = "making/becoming" (no ''k'' with Abstract): ''zurmu'' → ''zurmjik'' (strong person → is strengthened), ''zurp'' → ''zurpeik'' (strong, durable object → hardens) & ''zurma'' → ''zurmak'' (strength → intensifies)<br />
*LAT + ''t'' = "movement, quasi-inceptive": ''glerkóot'' (swings a mace, INTR), ''melot'' (flows), ''latepóot'' (is persuaded to dance, INTR; begins a dance with, TR), ''lehkot'' (runs) <br />
*LOC + ''r'' = "frequentative": ''glerkur'' (is battered with a mace), ''melur'' (rains; drips)<br />
*VOC + ''k'' = "momentane": ''glerkék'' (is hit once with a mace), ''melék'' (splashes once)<br />
*POS + ''(o)v'' = "consider, feel": ''vongv'' (is considered strange = ''oudoksutaan'' in Finnish)<br />
* Several endings can be stacked on verbs without turning it into a noun in between: ''melurék'' (shower of rain falls), ''tup(o)hkur'' (is often poked with a stick). When deriving, the ''r''-ending are declined according to the ''l''-paradigm.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
<br />
Adjectives in Sceptrian agree with the gender, number and cases of their head. When an adjective is used as a predicative, it comes before its head, but when as an attributive, it comes after. Adjective declension follows approximately the same rules as [[Sceptrian#Cases|noun declension]]. In the common ''dh''-ending F-declension, ''o'' is added between ''dh'' and case-endings with consonants. Changes in both casual and poetic speech include mirroring onset into coda: ''dothklu jadaadh'''ulk''''' (near nice men)<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+DH-declension<br />
! !! ABS !! ERG !! DAT !! POS !! INS !! LAT !! LOC !! ABL !! VOC<br />
|-<br />
!SG<br />
|dh || dhee || dhi || dhor || dhos || dh'''ok''' || dh'''uk''' || dh'''op''' || dhé<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
| ldh(o) || dhele || dhil || dhoŕ || dhosh || dh'''olk''' || dh'''ulk''' || dh'''olp''' || ldhé<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Sceptrian#Apophony|Apophony]] in the stressed syllable is used to indicate the gender: base for inanimate, first apophony with animate and second with abstract gender: ''eja jadædh, doth jadaadh, latep jadadh'' <br />
<br />
Polite adjectives are formed from the abstract form with predicative prefix ''nga'' and attributive suffix ''æ'': ''ngaluwidh Nith'' (You are beautiful), ''shosleetha luwidhæ'' (a beautiful knight)<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
<br />
'''Positive''' of an adjective is the base form.<br />
*When two nouns are found equal in comparison, ''ii'' begins the clause, positive is placed before the primary noun (focus) in dative case and preposition ''oil'' (as) with final secondary noun in causative-ablative case (forming exessive): ''Ii luwidh foki oil supe.'' ("Same beautiful for you from the state of being her." You are as beautiful as she is.)<br />
*Negating happens with ''ze'' being joined to the ''ii'' particle.<br />
*When comparing amounts, ''fadh'' (many, much) and ''fidh'' (few, little) are used in place of the adjective and inflected according to their head, the primary noun is now in absolutive plural, no preposition is used and the secondary noun is in comitative: ''Ii faaldh dolth lutush.'' (As many men as women.) <br />
<br />
'''Comparative''' (more than) is identical to the vocative of positive adjective: ''luwidhé'' (more beautiful). Suffixed with ''ti'', the comparative gains a meaning of "less": ''luwidhéti'' (less beautiful). <br />
*Manner quatifiers ''orkai, jofai'' and ''zei'' can be used to indicate the degree: ''luwidhé orkai'' (much more beautiful), ''luwidhé jofai'' (slightly more beautiful), ''luwidhé zei'' (not more beautiful)<br />
*When comparing two nouns adjective comes first (predicative comparative), the standard acquires the dative case, and comparative forms agree with their head in gender and number: ''luwildhé po swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*Pronoun comparison is also possible to construct with alienable possessional suffixes: ''luwildhév swi'' (you all are more beautiful than he is)<br />
*When adjective comparative is not included, postpositional ''fadhé'' (more) or ''føødhi'' (less) can be used with noun plurals: ''dolth faldhé lutwi'' (more men than women)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative''' is similar to noun apotheosis: the ending is reduplicated with ''é'' between consonants and ''j'' between vowels, and an ''a'' added to the end: ''luwidhédha'' (most beautiful). Similarly to comparative, ''ti'' gives the meaning of "least": ''luwidhédhati'' (least beautiful).<br />
<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
<br />
Adverbs are derived from adjectives through second apophony of the singular vocative form: ''zaivia jadædhé'' (I sing pleasantly)<br />
<br />
Placed after adjectives and verbs: ''luwidh óomidhé'' (very beautiful < "largely")<br />
<br />
'''Comparative adverb''' is formed by changing the vocative ending ''é'' into ''ei'': ''zaivió jadædhei'' (she sings more pleasantly)<br />
<br />
'''Superlative adverb''' is similar to adjective superlative in its reduplication but with an ''æ''-ending: ''zaivie jadædhédhæ'' (you sing most pleasantly)<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
Missing verbs: <br />
*"to be": apposition ''trs doth'' (a man is a smith) vs. ''doth trs'' (the smith-man, the smith (who) is a man) and ''Berats trs'' (Berats, the smith, ...) vs. ''trs Berats'' (Berats is a smith); predicative before ''luwidh doth'' (a man is beautiful) vs. attributive after ''doth luwidh'' (a beautiful man)<br />
**Emphasizing ''ma'': ''trs dothma'' (it is the man who is a smith)<br />
**Showing tense-aspect:<br />
***temporal adverbs, such as ''ta'ikhi'' (in the past)<br />
***subject person and tense verb conjugation on adjective<br />
***momentane verb derived from an adjective in past or future tense<br />
***"become" verb derivation -> "will be" <br />
**Vernacularly, [[Sceptrian#Table_of_correlatives|proximal demonstrative pronouns]] are used as copulae with corresponding grammatical gender: ''Trs saitu Berats.'' ("Smith this Berats." Berats is a smith.)<br />
* "to have": various [[Sceptrian#Possessive_affixes|possessive forms]], e.g. ''soput trsor dothi'' ("profession of a smith for the man")<br />
<br />
====Conjugation====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, primary conjugation of verbs indicates person, number and tense-aspect, and it includes affixation and apophony. Conjugation for different [[Sceptrian#Mood|moods]] is slightly more complex.<br />
<br />
=====Root=====<br />
<br />
Verbs are given in their 3SG.INAN GNO form which is used to form all of the third person forms. With first and second person subjects, the first apophony is used in indicative inceptive and future. Polite second person forms use the second apophony<br />
<br />
=====Affixes=====<br />
<br />
Fusional conjugation affixes convey the person, number, tense and aspect (and honorific). Subject and object suffixes are almost always used with verbs, the antipassive being the only exception. Agent prefixes aren't often used in the casual register, mostly to form the [[Sceptrian#Reflexive|reflexive]], but they have to be used in the formal register. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Subject/object suffixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || ha || e || he || ahi || aqhi || ó || hó || (o) || l<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || han || en || hen || ang || aing || ón || hón || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| ast || last || est || lest || æst || hæst || ós || lós || os || osl<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| ajin || hajin || ejin || hejin || azing || izing || ójin || hójin || oin || loin<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || hai || ei || hei || athi || idhi || óji || hóji || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| har || +har || her || +her || athar || idhar || hór || +hór || ho || +ho<br />
|}<br />
* initial ''l'' in endings is for lateralization of the final plosive<br />
* initial ''h'' is for aspiration of the final plosive or simply ''h'' after a vowel<br />
**if the final plosive is already breathy, ''o'' is added after it<br />
*+ indicates voicing of the final consonant together with aspiration<br />
**simple ''h'' becomes ''qh''<br />
*Formal register draws a distinction between abstract and animate genders by adding ''wa'' directly after the ''ó'' of animate and removing the ''j'' from past perfective. Same can be done with agent prefixes. ''Glerkøtówajin shosleetha.'' (A knight was swinging a mace.) Note the second apophony due to the abstract gender.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Agent prefixes for tense and aspect<br />
|-<br />
!Tense !!Aspect !!1SG !!1PL !!2SG !!2PL !!2SG.POL !!2PL.POL !!3SG.A !!3PL.A !!3SG.INAN !!3PL.INAN<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|GNO-STAT<br />
| a || sa || e || se || æ || hæ || ó || só || o || lo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!PROG<br />
| an || san || en || sen || nga || ngai || ón || són || on || lon<br />
|-<br />
!INCEP<br />
| tsa || tsla || tse || tsle || tsæ || tshæ || tsó || tsló || so || slo<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2"| PST<br />
! IPFV<br />
| jan || zhan || jen || zhen || izæ || izhæ || jón || zhón || i || li<br />
|-<br />
!PFV<br />
| ai || sai || ei || sei || thæ || dhæ || jó || zhó || oi || loi<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2"| FUT<br />
| ar || sar || er || ser || thar || dhar || ór || sór || or || lor<br />
|}<br />
*Affixes may be separated from border vowels of verbs with a glottal stop or reduplicated initial consonant (unless risk of confusion with subjunctive): ''Ai(v)eva(v)oi.'' (I illuminated it.)<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ónbouson dothee pof.'' (A man (ERG) is lifting a feather (ABS).), ''Bousón doth.'' (The man falls.) ''Bouson pof.'' (The feather (ABS) falls.).<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, verbs are conjugated for three tenses: past, present and future. These tenses describe when an action took place relative to current moment as their names indicate. <br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
Gnomic-static aspect is used to indicate general truths ''Zaitó Hala.'' (sun rises) and static situations ''Mépa lusha.'' (I can speak Sceptrian). It can be used with expressions of time to specify when something was static ''Petsipha kas arakha.'' (dress-STAT.1SG this.COM yesterday.TEMP "I was dressed in these clothes yesterday (as well).")<br />
<br />
Present progressive describes dynamic actions ''Anbaplóph lusha kha.'' (I'm reading Sceptrian at the moment). Present inceptive is used when an action is about to begin or someone is starting to do something.<br />
*Inceptive is only used once: Subject inceptive with intransitive and mostly agent inceptive with translative verbs. Object ending is either PRES.PROG, when something was begun only a moment ago, or FUT, when something is about to begin.<br />
**Translative object inceptive if the object caused the initialization: ''Órlateepast.'' (He is about to take me to dancing through my initiative.)<br />
<br />
Past imperfective is used with continuous activities which were happening before the present. The contrasting perfective aspect describes the event as a whole and having an endpoint in the past.<br />
<br />
In future tense, no aspects are distinguished, but rather non-finite forms are used.<br />
<br />
Endings with different tenses and aspects may be mixed in some cases:<br />
*PRES retrospective: PST.PFV+verb+STAT: ''ai-tesos-Ø næ ka'' (I've seen this), ''ai-latep-a næ'' (I've taken myself dancing) <br />
*PRES prospective: PRES.INCEP+verb(+FUT): ''tsa-lateep(-ar) (I'm starting to dance (and I'll be doing it for a while))<br />
<br />
====Mood====<br />
<br />
Moods express speaker's attitude towards the subject or their knowledge of it. They are divided into realis and irrealis moods: the former expresses factual statements while the latter indicates that an event hasn't taken place or the speaker is uncertain of a situation.<br />
<br />
=====Realis=====<br />
<br />
'''Gnomic'''-static verb form can be considered representing gnomic mood since it can't be used with other moods: ''Zaitó Hala urakha.'' (Sun rises tomorrow as well)<br />
<br />
'''Indicative''' is the basic mood which is used for supposedly factual statements: ''Latepar urakha.'' (I'll dance tomorrow.)<br />
<br />
=====Irrealis=====<br />
<br />
'''Interrogative''' is not conjugated, but indicated through rising pitch and changing primary stress onto the first syllable. Formal register uses the particle ''shóo'' which is placed after the verb: ''¿Rotlast shóo?'' (Shall we go?)<br />
*The change in stress does not affect the apophony.<br />
<br />
'''Imperative''' is the first apophony of base form (3SG.INAN GNO). It is used for commanding and may be accompanied by vocatives: ''Rót posné!'' (Go, O servant of mine!) <br />
*The softer imperative is derived from the base with an ''r'' being added before present inceptive conjugated for person and number: ''Rótrest fo.'' (You should leave.). It is used as a hortative as well: ''Rótrlast!'' (Let's go!)<br />
**Alternatively, the ''r'' may be added after the inceptive agent prefix.<br />
<br />
'''Subjunctive''' is formed through initial left-to-right reduplication and with second apophony in the original stressed syllable: if consonant-initial, CV body is duplicated, but if vowel-initial, VC part of the first and second syllable is duplicated: '''''la'''latép'' (may dance), '''''ak'''aktæsos'' (may hear), ''rorøt'' (may go)<br />
*The first reduplicated syllable undergoes independent apophony depending on the subject.<br />
*The mood is used when something is uncertain, doubted or wished<br />
<br />
=====Particles=====<br />
<br />
Particles are placed after a verb to alter or to specify its meaning.<br />
<br />
Realis<br />
*''pai'' mirative (with soft imperative in present): ''Rótóji pai!'' (He went!?)<br />
**with adjectives or as an adverb: ''Luwi pai!'' (How beautiful!) <br />
<br />
Evidentials (with causatives)<br />
*''atasi'' hearsay: ''Rotóji tasi fope.'' (I heard from you that he went.)<br />
*''tesei'' visual: ''Rótoutóji tesei nape.'' (I didn't see him go.)<br />
<br />
Irrealis<br />
*''norka'' dubitative (with subjunctive): ''Rorøtóji norka.'' (I doubt he went.)<br />
*''gana'' volitive (with future subjunctive): ''Lalatépar gana.'' (I wish I could dance.)<br />
<br />
Conditional (with subjunctive)<br />
*''ta'' apodosis: ''Arziizeither ta'' (I will raise you...)<br />
*''-ti-'' infixed between reduplicated form for protasis: ''boutiboisen'' (if you fall)<br />
<br />
Hortatives (with soft imperative which itself works as an adhortative or dehortative with negation (unwillingness))<br />
*Cohortative: ''Latéprlast kha!'' (Let's dance now!), ''Rótrlastonget khugu.'' (Let's not go there.)<br />
*''jokæ'' exhortative (inhortative through negation): ''Rótrest jokæ.'' (You really should go.)<br />
<br />
'''Formal''' register differences:<br />
*''aktasosai'' (hears) conjugated for hearsay: ''Røtathi aiaktasosóji.'' (I heard from her that you left.)<br />
*''tesos'' (sees) conjugated for visual evidentiality: ''Rotóji tesosai.'' (I saw her go.)<br />
*''tsmaadhoré'' (doubtfully) used for dubitative<br />
*''tutaadhoré'' (wishfully) used for volitive<br />
*''alké'' permissive with dative: ''Rótest alké foki.'' (You may leave.)<br />
**prohibitive with negated (inability) imperative infinitive: ''Rótrostodi alké foki.'' (You aren't allowed to leave.)<br />
*both conditional particles are used separately and they are prefixed with the subjunctive reduplication: ''Arziizeither zaita bouboisen bouti.'' (I will raise you if you fall.)<br />
<br />
'''In literature''' to express the peaking pitch of ironical statements and lowered pitch of sarcastic expressions:<br />
*''jø'' verbal irony: ''Jótesosoi melurpi, jóbatophoi "Luwidh jø hi loi khu".'' (He saw the rain and said: "''Beautiful'' day out there")<br />
*''gæ'' sarcasm: ''Uu, eiluwikoi gæ pai.'' (Oh, ''how beautiful'' you made it.)<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Negation affixes<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"| Manner→<br />
! Inability<br />
!colspan="6"| Unwillingness<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Form→<br />
!2nd apophony +infix<br>(before patient-suffix)<br />
!colspan="3"|Intranslative<br>suffix<br />
!colspan="3"|Translative<br>infix (after agent-prefix)<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|Person→<br />
!All<br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
!1st <br />
!2nd <br />
!3rd <br />
|-<br />
!rowspan="2"|PRES<br />
!SG<br />
|ost<br />
|net<br />
|fep<br />
|set<br />
|no<br />
|fo<br />
|so<br />
|-<br />
!PL<br />
|osht<br />
|nget<br />
|vep<br />
|slet<br />
|ngo<br />
|flo<br />
|slo<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|PST<br />
|out<br />
|colspan="3"|nait<br />
|colspan="3"|me<br />
|-<br />
!colspan="2"|FUT<br />
|oz<br />
|colspan="3"|nort<br />
|colspan="3"|mor<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Examples: ''Ailat'''é'''p'''out'''óji.'' (I couldn't dance with him), ''¿Tse'''fo'''lateephar?'' (You don't want to begin dancing with me?)<br />
<br />
'''Honoring negation''' for 2nd person polite forms consists of (second person) negation affixes with root second apophony and ''saal''-particle placed after the verb: ''K'''é'''p'''oz'''athar saal.'' (You'll be unable to wash Yourself, unfortunately.)<br />
<br />
Second apophony of negation affixes with subjunctive mood: ''Rorøthórn'''ø'''rt.'' (He may not be willing to go.)<br />
<br />
====Non-finite forms====<br />
<br />
=====Gerund=====<br />
*Base nouns or their abstract variants may serve as gerunds, which describe the action of doing, but otherwise they are created with the suffix ''(o)pi'' added to a verb root. The suffic also helps to distinguish the forms.<br />
<br />
=====Infinitives=====<br />
*PRES ''-odi'', PST ''-oudi'', FUT ''ordi''<br />
*used with modal verbs<br />
*subjunctive form created with duplication<br />
<br />
=====Participles=====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian participles work as adjectives. Following table shows which "case" and suffix the verb base (or gerund in formal register) takes.<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"<br />
|+Present participle suffixes<br />
|-<br />
!<br />
!IPFV<br />
!PFV<br />
|-<br />
!Patientive (LAT)<br />
|''p''<br />
|''pi/pot''<br />
|-<br />
!Negative (LAT)<br />
|<br />
|''tip''<br />
|-<br />
!Active (INS)<br />
|rowspan="2"|''on''<br />
|''ompu''<br />
|-<br />
!Agentive (INS)<br />
|''empo''<br />
|}<br />
*Also the "requiring" (FUT) form LOC+''rt'' and "possible" (GNO) POS+''ta'' <br />
*Past forms are created by adding ''i'' to the end: ''kephoni'' (was being washed)<br />
*Future forms with ''or'': ''kephonor'' (will be washed)<br />
*Examples shown already in [[Sceptrian#Adjective|derivations]]<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary verbs====<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, auxiliary verbs are conjugated only for subject which may act as the agent of the clause. The verbs can either precede (dynamic, deontic) or come after (epistemic) different verb infinitives. Since regular object-patient conjugation can't be used, objects have to be written (no pro-drop) and they are declined into instrumental-comitative case.<br />
*''tut'' "want" (from ''tuta'' "craving, wish"): ''Tutajin kepoudi his.'' (I wanted to wash it.)<br />
**infinitive in lative case for "want something to be done": ''Tutan kepordiki his.'' (I want it to be washed.)<br />
**"be going to" (FUT): ''Tuutar latepordi.'' (I'm going to dance.)<br />
**"wish" (SBJV) mostly as the subjunctive of the absent ''to be''-verb: ''Tutitan khau fos.'' (I wish you were here) <br />
*''mép'' "can, know how to" (dynamic) (from ''mépi'' "skill"): ''Mépa latepodi'' ("I can dance"; notice gnomic-static mood)<br />
*''kuut'' "can, may" (deontic / epistemic) (from ''kuutó'' "possibility"): ''Kuutest rotordi.'' (You may leave.), ''Fendógópot kuutó pai.'' (He may unexpectedly be dead.)<br />
**particle ''nor'' added after the verb for lower possibility i.e. "could, might": ''Fendógópi kuut nor.'' (It might be dead.)<br />
**particle ''ga'' added for "should, must": ''Fendógópi kuut ga.'' (It should be dead, as we wanted.)<br />
*''khet'' "must" (deontic) (from ''kheti'' "necessity"): ''Khetan rotodi.'' (I must go now), ''Kheetar rotordi.'' (I must go soon)<br />
*''khurd'' "dare" (from ''khurdi'' "daring"): ''¿Khurde glerkékodi nas?'' (Do you dare hit me with a mace?)<br />
<br />
Mixing tenses: <br />
*''Tutitai latepordi.'' SBJV.want-PST.PFV.1SG dance-INF.FUT "I would've wanted to dance"<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
Sceptrian distinguishes between two voices, active and antipassive. Passive is very similar to active since Sceptrian is absolutive-ergative, and thus isn't considered a true change in voice. Antipassive is used to reduce the valency of the verbs by removing the object of a transitive clause.<br />
<br />
Active construction: verb-agent-object and verb-object-agent are used so that a comment (rheme) precedes the topic (theme). [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|Emphasizing clitics]] are used to mark the topic. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Ónzaiton dothee pof.<br />
|IPA = /ɔ̃zaɪ̯tə̃ dəθe: pəf/<br />
| morphemes = ón-zait-on doth-ee pof-Ø<br />
| gloss = 3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV man-ERG feather-ABS<br />
| translation = A man is lifting a feather.<br />
}} <br />
<br />
Passive construction: To demote the agent (ERG), it's either removed or inflected into causal ablative (ABL). Verb is only conjugated for the object.<br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Zaiton pof (dothpo).<br />
|IPA = /zaɪ̯tə̃ pəf (dəθpə)/<br />
| morphemes = zait-on pof-Ø (doth-po)<br />
| gloss = lift-3SG.INAN.PRES.IPFV feather-ABS (man-ABL)<br />
| translation = A feather is being lifted (by a man).<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Antipassive''' construction: Agent (ERG) transforms into subject (ABS) and object (ABS) takes the instrumental-comitative (INS) case. Word order becomes SV(O), and the verb is conjugated according to the agent only and the stressed syllable undergoes second [[Sceptrian#Apophony|apophony]]. The verb is also suffixed with the emphasizing clitic ''ma'' in the formal register. <br />
{{Gloss<br />
|phrase = Doth ónzeit(ma) (pofos).<br />
|IPA = /dəθ ɔ̃zei̯t(mä) (pəfəs)/<br />
| morphemes = doth-Ø ón-zeit-Ø(or =ma) (pof-os)<br />
| gloss = man-ABS ANTIP\3SG.AN.PRES.IPFV-lift-ANTIP(or =ANTIP.FORM) (feather-INS)<br />
| translation = The man is lifting (a feather). <br />
}}<br />
<br />
Instrument and turning it into an agent:<br />
* ''Ónzaiton dothee pof vakuhosozh.'' (...with his own hand...)<br />
**''Ónzaiton pof vakuhp dothir.'' (the feather is raised by the man's hand)<br />
**''Onzaiton pof tuph dothi'''sh''' slokli.'' (The feather is being lifted with a man's stick for them.) Inanimate agent conjugation, and dative of possession is inflected to avoid misinterpretation!<br />
* ''Vakuh ónzeit pofos.'' (The hand lifts something, which happens to be a feather)/(someone intentionally lifts a feather with their hand) Notice animate conjugation!<br />
**''Tup onzeit dothpo pofos.'' (The stick, which is being held by a man, lifts something, which happens to be a feather) ABL as causative since inanimate ''tup''.<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
<br />
Decimal base was adopted due to commerce, but traces of the former octal base remain. <br />
<br />
Numerals are placed before their head. Last part of a cardinal determiner agrees with case through matching declension: ''op'''l''' tupl'' (two sticks)<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|+Numeral system<br />
|-<br />
! Number <br />
! Number !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Fractional !! Multiplicative adverb !! Multiplicative adjective !! Group !! Polygon<br />
|-<br />
!Zero<br />
| ozi || oz || ozhi || - || zeng (never) || - || ze (no) || -<br />
|-<br />
!One<br />
| ipi || ip || iphi || liku (whole) || ohu (once) || ipitse (onefold) || ipisi (singular) || ipirt (dot) <br />
|-<br />
!Two <br />
| opi || op || ophi || lopu (half) || ophu (twice) || opitse (twofold) || opisi (pair) || opart (line)<br />
|-<br />
!Three<br />
| oki || ok || okhi || loku || okhu || okitse || okisi || okart (triangle)<br />
|-<br />
!Four<br />
| óppi || óp || óphi || lóppu || óphu || óphitse || óphisi || ópart <br />
|-<br />
!Five<br />
| ofi || of || offi || lofu || offu || ofitse || ofisi || ofart<br />
|-<br />
!Six<br />
| ókki || ók || ókhi || lókku || ókhu || ókhitse || ókhisi || ókart<br />
|-<br />
!Seven<br />
| omi || om || ongi || lomu || ongu || omitse || omisi || omart<br />
|-<br />
!Eight<br />
| ngovi || ngov || ngovvi || longovu || ngovvu || ngovitse || ngovisi || jart<br />
|-<br />
!Nine<br />
| ngoipi || ngoip || ngoiphi || longoipu || ngoiphu || ngoipitse || ngoipisi || ngoipart<br />
|-<br />
!Ten<br />
| jopi || jop || jophi || lojopu || jophu || jopitse || jopisi || jopart<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{|class="bluetable lightbluebg"<br />
|-<br />
!Eleven<br />
!Twelve<br />
!Thirteen<br />
!Fourteen<br />
!Fifteen<br />
!Sixteen<br />
!Seventeen<br />
!Eighteen<br />
!Nineteen<br />
!Twenty<br />
|-<br />
| ngoki <br />
| ngópi <br />
| ngofi<br />
| ngóki<br />
| ngomi <br />
| ophungovi <br />
| jopomi<br />
| jopingovi<br />
| jopingoipi<br />
| ophujopi<br />
|-<br />
!Twenty-one<br />
!Thirty<br />
!Fourty<br />
!Fifty<br />
!Sixty<br />
!Sixty-four<br />
!Sixty-five<br />
!Seventy<br />
!Eighty<br />
!Ninety<br />
|-<br />
| ophujopipi <br />
| okhujopi<br />
| offungovi <br />
| offujopi <br />
|ókhujopi<br />
| mouti<br />
| moutipi<br />
|ongujopi<br />
|ngowopi<br />
|ngoiphujopi<br />
|-<br />
!One hundred<br />
!One hundred<br/>and twenty-two<br />
!One hundred<br/>and sixty-six<br />
!Two hundred<br />
!Thousand<br />
!Three thousand<br/>four hundred<br />
!Ten thousand<br />
!Hundred thousand<br />
!Million<br />
!Billion<br />
|-<br />
| toti <br />
|toti(s)<br>ophujopopi<br />
|toti(s)<br>moutókki<br />
|ophutoti<br />
| mopi<br />
|okhumopi(s)<br>óphutoti<br />
|tothutoti<br />
|tothumopi<br />
|hamisi<br />
|mowisi<br />
|}<br />
<br />
*Multiplicative adverb form is used in front of the powers of ten (tens, hundreds, ...)<br />
*Digits are annexed into the tens by using the cardinal or determiner form depending whether the digit begins with a vowel or not.<br />
*Fractions are constructed by placing the ''l(o)''-prefixed form after the multiplicative number: ''okhu lóppu'' ("thrice one quarter" = three quarters). The noun is in ablative case and only the fraction is inflected: ''lopu'''ji''' tuppo'' (for one half of a stick)<br />
*Large numbers (from hundred) are written separately from smaller, but in formal register ''s''-letter is added between each power of ten.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
<br />
===Word order===<br />
<br />
* VAO usually, VOA also very common, SV(O) in antipassive<br />
* often a comment precedes the topic<br />
* numerals precede nouns<br />
* possessives follow nouns<br />
* predicative adjectives precede and attributive ones come after nouns<br />
* demonstratives come last<br />
<br />
===Emphasizing clitics===<br />
<br />
Suffixes ''ma'' (for ABS) and ''noh'' (for ERG) are used to emphasize either the object or the agent: ''Ónzaiton pof dothee'''noh'''.'' (It is the man who's lifting the feather) vs. ''Ónzaiton dothee pof'''ma'''.'' (It is the feather that the man is lifting.). They are also used in nominalized relative clauses and with verbs in antipassive constructions.<br />
<br />
When both are used, information conveyed by the verb becomes veritable: ''Józaitoi dotheenoh pofma.'' (I can swear that the man lifted the feather.) <br />
<br />
The suffixes are also used with alienable possessive forms to separate the possessor from indirect objects. Chosen depending on the ergativity of the possessum: ''Jóvakuhoi suu pof swi'''ma''' swi.'' (He gave her feather to him.)<br />
<br />
===Clauses===<br />
<br />
====Independent====<br />
<br />
Independent clauses make sense by themselves so that they may form their own sentence.<br />
<br />
In Sceptrian, the subject is not necessarily a separate word since the verb can convey both the agent and the object. Thus a single verb can be a complete sentence: ''Ainamoi.'' (It was eaten by me.) However, a full clause may a verbless one as well when the gnomic-static aspect is used or because the languages lacks the verbs "to be" and "to have": ''Ksaru lutu(ma).'' (The woman is a guard.), ''Lutugu ksarushos.'' (Lady has their own guards.)<br />
<br />
Traditional Sceptrian language theorists have used the term ''qópó'' (act) when referring to the verb phrase: the main verb, its auxiliaries and particles which wouldn't appear without the verb. It may also refer to the predicative determiners of a verbless clause subject (possibly bearing the emphasizing clitic): e.g. ''ksaru'' (guard) is ''qópó hetson'' ("still" act) of the above example ''Ksaru lutu.''. This may be called predicate in Westlang grammar. <br />
<br />
''Betsloi'ó'' (affectee), that is, the absolutive subject-object may be: <br />
*Noun: ''Lehkotón '''kuth'''.'' ('''A dog''' is running.)<br />
*Pronoun: ''Aiteshóji '''slo'''.'' ('''They''' were seen by me.)<br />
*Gerund: ''Apekingvó '''lateppi'''.'' (I enjoy '''dancing'''.)<br />
*Another clause: ''Aitésoutóji, '''skugu rorøtóji'''.'' (I couldn't see, '''where he went'''.) <br />
*Note that the main verb conjugation is for the abstract subject. In the indirect question, the verb is in subjunctive.<br />
<br />
''Betslaató'' (affecter) refers to the agent which is declined into the ergative case. <br />
*A gerung will be declined if necessary, but an entire clause remains the same. <br />
<br />
Interrogative clauses begin with either the verb or the interrogative. Interrogative mood is indicated by the moving the primary stress onto the first syllable and adding a rising or dipping pitch. Questions are placed between question marks "¿" and "?". See below in the [[Sceptrian#Noun_clauses|noun clauses]] for more of indirect questions.<br />
*In written language, requests often use only the final question mark: ''Tsemaakor nai?'' (Will you give it to me?)<br />
<br />
====Conjunction====<br />
<br />
coordinating, correlative (and subordinate?)<br />
*and, but, for, so, or<br />
*...<br />
<br />
Demonstratives will take the case ending, if the entire <br />
<br />
====Noun clauses====<br />
<br />
WIP ... to be redone<br />
*Infinitive.tense + ... + causatives: ''Tesosan kepó vakuhos supe.'' (I see that he washes his hands) vs. ''Onluvakan kep'''óo''' vakuhos supe.'' (The washing of his hands brings me pleasure.)<br />
<br />
====Relative clauses====<br />
<br />
Nominalizing relative clauses with participles is common.<br />
<br />
Using [[Sceptrian#Emphasizing_clitics|an emphasizing clitic]] to mark the antecedent for the class-appropriate proximal demonstrative pronoun (thaka/saitu/ka declined for number) which works as a relative pronoun - case chosen according to the embedded clause: <br />
*''Rotóji dothma saituh latepai.'' (leave-PST.PFV.3SG man.ABS-EMPH.ABS P.PROX.AN-COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The man, with whom I danced, left.") <br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahul dothelenos saitush latepai.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS man-PL.ERG-EMPH.ERG P.PROX.AN-PL.COM dance-PST.PFV.1SG "The men with whom I danced are starting to drink beer.")<br />
*''Tsóvangosor sahulma dothele ka tutitai vangosordi.'' (AGENT.PRES.INCEP.3PL.AN-is_drunk-FUT.3SG.INAN beer.ABS-EMPH.ABS man-PL.ERG P.PROX.INAN SBJV-want-PST.PFV.1SG drink-INF.FUT "Men are starting to drink the beer which I would've wanted to drink."<br />
<br />
====Adverbial clauses====<br />
<br />
non-finite forms + possessive suffixes to indicate subject<br />
<br />
====Conditional clauses====<br />
<br />
subjunctive as explained in verb particle section<br />
<br />
====Indirect speech====<br />
<br />
==Register==<br />
<br />
Different endings which reflect the conversation situation: speakers, familiarity, formality, location... <br />
<br />
===Intimate===<br />
<br />
Agent prefixes aren't used. No ''t'' in inceptive. Due to apophony, subject suffix can be dropped from FUT/INCEP if 1st or 2nd person distinction is clear.<br />
<br />
===Casual===<br />
<br />
In casual register, verb forms are chosen differently when the subject is agent-like (he dances) or patient-like (he fell): ''latepóji'' (he danced AN) vs. ''bousoi'' (he fell INAN)<br />
<br />
===Formal===<br />
<br />
Mandatory use of pronouns and agent prefixes.<br />
<br />
One may use inanimate verb forms as anti-honorific? ''Ondakon næ ka Nithki.'' (I humbly offer this to You)<br />
<br />
Apophony of basic prepositions with root ''oi'': ''Oisti Hala, óosti vakuhanga, ousti qorel'' (under the Sun, under my hand, under the earth)<br />
<br />
In formal register, it is preferred to use only animate nouns as agents while abstract and inanimate are as antipassive subjects: ''luwi... nas'' ("beauty-of.yours it-un-eye-ful-makes me-with", your beauty makes me blind) vs. ''en fø na'' (you are making me blind)<br />
<br />
Distinction between abstract and animate in some categories, such as verb conjugation (''wa'')<br />
<br />
Can people with higher status be abstract or do they occupy a special animate category? (æ inside?)<br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
<br />
See the [[Sceptrian/Dictionary|dictionary page]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Languages]]</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Template:Front/picture&diff=231618Template:Front/picture2021-07-19T09:08:24Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Flag of Avendonia square 2.png|thumb|right|Flag of Avendonia]]<br />
<br />
'''Avendonian''' ([[w:endonym|autoglossonym]]: ''avendoniano''; <small>Avendonian:&nbsp;</small><span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" style="font-family:Gentium,'DejaVu Sans','Segoe UI',sans-serif">[[IPA for Avendonian|[avendoˈni̯ano&#93;]]</span>) is a [[w:West Germanic language|West Germanic language]], with strong influence of [[w:Vulgar Latin|Vulgar Latin]]. It is the result of a prolonged contact among members of both regions, after West Germanic merchants began travelling to and from the [[w:Western Roman Empire|Western Roman Empire]]. These connections—and the conquest by the Germanic tribes of the northern skirts of the Roman Empire—slowly formed a [[w:creole language|creole]] for mutual communication. Eventually, permanent settlements were established in what would become modern-day Avendonia, where Avendonian is primarily spoken, with official status.<br />
<br />
''See more:'' '''[[Avendonian]]'''<br />
<br />
<noinclude>[[Category:Templates]][[Category:Main page]][[Category:Meta]]</noinclude></div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/De_Bello_In_Perpetuo&diff=227444User:Chrysophylax/De Bello In Perpetuo2021-04-29T00:38:13Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Background==<br />
{{quote|text=There are some common themes in all of Man's faiths and fears. The visions of a heavenly host, the earthly association of man, the assistance of man to the heavens, the perennial battle between a sky deity and a dragon, the importance of a name everlasting. These similarities are not accidental.<br />
They are but a reflection of the eternal truth: the war of the heavens continues. We, chosen of our time, give our devotion to the just struggle for the sake of those that remained, those that are, and those that will come. The vault of the heavens stands and we are its keepers.|sign=Rúfronáu Imrátannas pripáti si Lunno|source=Captain's log of the Redship ''Undefeat''}}<br />
<br />
<br />
* rufro < h1reudh- ''bright''<br />
* náu < néh2u- ''ship''<br />
* mrát < melH2- ''pound, grind, defeat''<br />
* i- < n- ''a-''<br />
* Lunno < leuk- + -h3n(?)-<br />
* pri < peri<br />
* páti < potis(?)<br />
* si < so<br />
<br />
<br />
idea: humans from diverse cultures are regularly uplifted historically by the heavenly host to become troops in the war against the foe, represented by the dragon. Consider the Germanic choosing of slain warriors or the Aztec sacrifices to power the struggle of the Good in heaven against the myriad Evil stars<br />
<br />
setting: grimdark space sci-fi but allows the use of extinct languages and cultures to coexist as diverse factions in a stalemated war. Expect: Space PIE, Space Hunnic, Space Sino-Tibetan, Space Northwest Germanic, Space Balto-Slavic, Space Indo-Aryan, Space Uto-Aztec, Space Ugaritic... you get it.</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/De_Bello_In_Perpetuo&diff=227443User:Chrysophylax/De Bello In Perpetuo2021-04-29T00:37:37Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Background==<br />
{{quote|text=There are some common themes in all of Man's faiths and fears. The visions of a heavenly host, the earthly association of man, the assistance of man to the heavens, the perennial battle between a sky deity and a dragon, the importance of a name everlasting. These similarities are not accidental.<br />
They are but a reflection of the eternal truth: the war of the heavens continues. We, chosen of our time, give our devotion to the just struggle for the sake of those that remained, those that are, and those that will come. The vault of the heavens stands and we are its keepers.|sign=Rúfronáu Imrátannas pripáti si Lunno|source=Captain's log of the Redship ''Undefeat''}}<br />
<br />
<br />
* rufro < h1reudh- ''bright''<br />
* náu < néh2u- ''ship''<br />
* mrát < melH2- ''pound, grind, defeat''<br />
* i- < n- ''a-''<br />
* Lunno < leuk- + -h3n(?)-<br />
* pri < peri<br />
* páti < potis(?)<br />
* si < so<br />
<br />
<br />
idea: humans from diverse cultures are regularly uplifted historically by the heavenly host to become troops in the war against the foe, represented by the dragon. Consider the Germanic choosing of slain warriors or the Aztec sacrifices to power the struggle of the Good in heaven against the myriad Evil stars<br />
setting: grimdark space sci-fi but allows the use of extinct languages and cultures to coexist as diverse factions in a stalemated war. Expect: Space PIE, Space Hunnic, Space Sino-Tibetan, Space Northwest Germanic, Space Balto-Slavic, Space Indo-Aryan, Space Uto-Aztec, Space Ugaritic... you get it.</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/De_Bello_In_Perpetuo&diff=227442User:Chrysophylax/De Bello In Perpetuo2021-04-29T00:34:24Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Background==<br />
{{quote|text=There are some common themes in all of Man's faiths and fears. The visions of a heavenly host, the earthly association of man, the assistance of man to the heavens, the perennial battle between a sky deity and a dragon, the importance of a name everlasting. These similarities are not accidental.<br />
They are but a reflection of the eternal truth: the war of the heavens continues. We, chosen of our time, give our devotion to the just struggle for the sake of those that remained, those that are, and those that will come. The vault of the heavens stands and we are its keepers.|sign=Rúfronáu Imrátannas pripáti si Lunno|source=Captain's log of the Redship ''Undefeat''}}<br />
<br />
<br />
* rufro < h1reudh- ''bright''<br />
* náu < néh2u- ''ship''<br />
* mrát < melH2- ''pound, grind, defeat''<br />
* i- < n- ''a-''<br />
* Lunno < leuk- + -h3n(?)-<br />
* pri < peri<br />
* páti < potis(?)<br />
* si < so<br />
<br />
<br />
idea: humans from diverse cultures are regularly uplifted historically by the heavenly host to become troops in the war against the foe, represented by the dragon. Consider the Germanic choosing of slain warriors or the Aztec sacrifices to power the struggle of the Good in heaven against the myriad Evil stars</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/De_Bello_In_Perpetuo&diff=227441User:Chrysophylax/De Bello In Perpetuo2021-04-29T00:32:33Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Background==<br />
{{quote|text=There are some common themes in all of Man's faiths and fears. The visions of a heavenly host, the earthly association of man, the assistance of man to the heavens, the perennial battle between a sky deity and a dragon, the importance of a name everlasting. These similarities are not accidental.<br />
They are but a reflection of the eternal truth: the war of the heavens continues. We, chosen of our time, give our devotion to the just struggle for the sake of those that remained, those that are, and those that will come. The vault of the heavens stands and we are its keepers.|sign=Rúfronáu Imrátannas pripáti si Lunno|source=Captain's log of the Redship ''Undefeat''}}<br />
<br />
<br />
* rufro < h1reudh- ''bright''<br />
* náu < néh2u- ''ship''<br />
* mrát < melH2- ''pound, grind, defeat''<br />
* i- < n- ''a-''<br />
* Lunno < leuk- + -h3n(?)-<br />
* pri < peri<br />
* páti < potis(?)<br />
* si < so</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/De_Bello_In_Perpetuo&diff=227440User:Chrysophylax/De Bello In Perpetuo2021-04-29T00:31:52Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Background==<br />
{{quote|text=There are some common themes in all of Man's faiths and fears. The visions of a heavenly host, the earthly association of man, the assistance of man to the heavens, the perennial battle between a sky deity and a dragon, the importance of a name everlasting. These similarities are not accidental.<br />
They are but a reflection of the eternal truth: the war of the heavens continues. We, chosen of our time, give our devotion to the just struggle for those that remained, those that are, and those that will come. The vault of the heavens stands and we are its keepers.|sign=Rúfronáu Imrátannas pripáti si Lunno|source=Captain's log of the Redship ''Undefeat''}}<br />
<br />
<br />
* rufro < h1reudh- ''bright''<br />
* náu < néh2u- ''ship''<br />
* mrát < melH2- ''pound, grind, defeat''<br />
* i- < n- ''a-''<br />
* Lunno < leuk- + -h3n(?)-<br />
* pri < peri<br />
* páti < potis(?)<br />
* si < so</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/De_Bello_In_Perpetuo&diff=227439User:Chrysophylax/De Bello In Perpetuo2021-04-29T00:28:52Z<p>Chrysophylax: Created page with "==Background== {{quote|text=There are some common themes in all of Man's faiths and fears. The visions of a heavenly host, the earthly association of man, the assistance of ma..."</p>
<hr />
<div>==Background==<br />
{{quote|text=There are some common themes in all of Man's faiths and fears. The visions of a heavenly host, the earthly association of man, the assistance of man to the heavens, the perennial battle between a sky deity and a dragon, the importance of a name everlasting. These similarities are not accidental.<br />
They are but a reflection of the eternal truth: the war of the heavens continues. We, chosen of our time, give our devotion to the just struggle for those that remained, those that are, and those that will come. The vault of the heavens stands and we are its keepers.|sign=Rúfronáu Imrátannas pripáti si Lunno|source=Captain's log of the Redship ''Undefeat''}}</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Chrysophylax&diff=227437User talk:Chrysophylax2021-04-29T00:02:27Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* Safety on the Website */</p>
<hr />
<div>And welcome to my talk page! I Welcome you, who has come to my talk page! Everything is possible at my talk page! The only limit is your imagination! {{archive}}<br />
<div style="width: 350px; border: 2px solid white; background: white; padding: 1em; -moz-box-shadow: 0 0 5px 5px #; -webkit-box-shadow: 0 0 3px 3px #; box-shadow: 0 0 3px 3px #;"><br />
* Please add a new topic when posting a comment. <br />
* Forget not to sign with <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki> (yes, that's four tildes.)<br />
* Keep it concise. <br />
* And for the love of me, indent when replying or commenting on a post!<br />
</div><br />
<br />
== Language infobox color ==<br />
<br />
Hello. I seem to be unable to change the color of my conlang's [[Riagi|infobox]], is there a trick to it?<br />
<br />
== Ooops! Misplaced Page==<br />
<br />
Hi Chrysophylax,<br />
<br />
Apologies, I goofed when I was making an IPA template for the vowels in Nankôre. Now when I go to the Templates page I see "Nankôre" but I don't see the name for the template, which is "Nankore_Vowels_IPA". Could you please help me and remove "Nankôre" from the Templates page and replace it with "Nankore_Vowels_IPA"? I know I successfully created the template, because it appears on my conlang's page when I call the template.<br />
<br />
Thanks!!<br />
<br />
~~Anyar~~<br />
<br />
== Subcategory for Czecklish ==<br />
<br />
Can you make a subcategory for my conlang Czecklish? I have three separate articles for it, and it's getting hard to manage them. There will likely be three or four more articles concerning Czecklish in the future. I believe it would be more convenient for Linguifex visitors and users to view Czecklish and its various articles if it had a subcategory, like Khaz or Valian.<br />
<br />
== Tagchen ==<br />
Can you delete my [[Netagin]] page and all its associated pages? Many thanks, [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 21:50, 29 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
::- Sure! If you don't mind me asking, any particular reason why? --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 22:02, 29 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
:::I decided to discontinue Netagin... it struck me as too much an ad-hoc hodgepodge. Though features from it will be absorbed into my other languages. In passing, what do you think about partaking in Linguifex Relay the Fourth (prematurely)? [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 01:17, 30 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
::::Ah, I know that feeling. I would be okay with that! --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 01:42, 30 October 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== How does one even ==<br />
... make an a priori conlang they feel confident about? <span style="background:#006400">[[User:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">'''CEIGE'''</span>]][[User talk:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">⟨TAWK⟩</span>]]</span> 14:01, 7 December 2014 (CET)<br />
<br />
== <strike>Ixnay'ed on the Acebookfay Accountway? </strike> ==<br />
<strike>It's coming up as a removed account for spam/abuse - you've got my email (somewhere maybe...? :P ) so feel free to email me mate <span style="background:#006400">[[User:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">'''CEIGE'''</span>]][[User talk:Ceige|<span style="color:#FFFFFF">⟨TAWK⟩</span>]]</span> 13:12, 10 March 2015 (CET)</strike><br />
<br />
==Concerning the Fourth Linguifex Relay==<br />
<br />
Since Dē Graut Bʉr hasn't shown any signs of activity, I'm passing the relay to you.<br />
<br />
===Fo hoinga fatipu===<br />
<br />
''Rótrest léhkodé [[Fourth_Linguifex_Relay/Sceptrian|khugu]], lateeprlest roi bapu!'' (You should go there quickly and dance above the words!)<br />
<br />
[[User:Juhhmi|Juhhmi]] ([[User talk:Juhhmi|talk]]) 21:57, 12 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
===Wååhlis===<br />
It seems Waahlis has not completed his whisper in time. Will you pass the relay to the next person? [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 15:59, 16 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
One å is enough. I got sick while translating the relay. But please, do pass it on. [[File:Waahlis.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Waahlis|<span style="color: Orange;">Waahlis</span>]]''' 16:17, 16 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
:Done --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 16:23, 16 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== Can you do me a favor? ==<br />
<br />
Could you delete every subpage and their talks listed here: [[User:Ílchőfti Lēmáthīd]]? You can leave a redirect from [[User:Ílchőfti Lēmáthīd]] to my current username. I've moved beyond that ugly name. [[User:IlL|IlL]] ([[User talk:IlL|talk]]) 04:14, 13 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
:Done --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 15:13, 13 July 2015 (CEST)<br />
<br />
== How do I tag? ==<br />
I want to get my conlang, [[Latirdo]], on the list of languages, but I can't add the category to the article. What do I do?<br />
Thanks.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Sihithe Avralte|Sihithe Avralte]] ([[User talk:Sihithe Avralte|talk]]) 17:49, 22 March 2016 (CET)<br />
:You add the category by writing <nowiki>[[Category:blahblah]]</nowiki> anywhere in the document. I usually recommend at the end. I have added the relevant tags to your article for you for now. If you have any other questions, I'lll gladly answer them. --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 20:01, 22 March 2016 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Dėkujå ==<br />
Just wanted to say thank you for fixing the page. Didn't know, where to do it though, so I'm just leaving it here. (Raistas)<br />
<br />
== Delete ==<br />
<br />
If I make a mistake and create a page that is clearly stupid, how do I tag it for deletion? I don't have the power and it doesn't seem right to bug specific people to delete a specific page. Is there something <nowiki>[[:Category:Delete me]]</nowiki>? --[[User:Aquatiki|Aquatiki]] ([[User talk:Aquatiki|talk]]) 03:39, 1 December 2018 (CET)<br />
<br />
::You should tag it with <nowiki>{{speedy|reason}}</nowiki>. Check [[Template:Speedy]] out. [[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 11:07, 2 December 2018 (CET)<br />
<br />
== Infobox language ==<br />
<br />
So, I recently noticed that I'm prevented from editing templates that're transcluded on the main page, specifically [[Template:Infobox language]] and its subpages, and I was wondering either 1. if there's a way to work around this, 2. if you could turn-off cascading for the main page, or 3. if I could be given permission to edit these pages? If you just don't want non-admins editing these pages, that's completely fine too, but please let me know. -[[User:Учхљёная]] <sup>([[User_talk:Учхљёная|talk]],[[:Category:Conlangs by Elliott Wheeler|conlangs]],[[Special:Contributions/Учхљёная|edits]])</sup>. 18:20, 19 January 2019 (CET).<br />
:: Hi, that sounds perfectly reasonable. I will investigate this weekend if there's something we can do technically to allow safe users to edit high-frequency templates --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 14:35, 22 January 2019 (CET)<br />
:: I've disabled cascading protection for now. Hopefully it won't bite the wiki in its bum. --[[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 00:03, 24 February 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Deletion of Template:LangAbb ==<br />
<br />
<del>[[Template:LangAbb]] was deleted, breaking functionality of [[Template:Etym]], which is used in various Contionary entries. I do not ask it be reinstated, but I would like to have access to its history so that I can view its interface and update Etym to use [[Template:ISO]].</del> Nevermind, I figured it out, the template is back in working order<br />
<br />
--[[User:MIGUELbM|MIGUELbM]] ([[User talk:MIGUELbM|talk]]) 09:10, 8 February 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Deletion of an image and changing of a page title ==<br />
<br />
Hello,<br />
<br />
</del>I'm quite new here in Linguifex and I did a (or two) mistake(s).<br />
1. At updating a image which shows ,,Zimâna Ħāwārî (translates to ,,Hawari language")" in my newly invented Ṭoňżeĝâyî script, it always shows the former version of the image where I set the direction so: top to bottom, right to left, even if it should be left to right. To fix that issue, I would like to let it be deleted, and I don't know how one does it.<br />
2. This mistake is less important to fix: Instead of giving my article title the name ,,Hawari language" I just wrote ,,Hawari". If possible, would you be able to change it?</del><br />
<br />
Thank you and have a good day👋🏼<br />
<br />
Update (01.05.2020, 17:29 UTC): Thank you for fixing these two issues.😀<br />
<br />
Yours sincerely, [[User:MansenBk|MansenBk]] ([[User talk:MansenBk|talk]]) 16:27, 1 May 2020 (UTC).<br />
<br />
== Lost Conlangs ==<br />
<br />
Hi. A while ago a user on Frathwiki started a project to try and rescue info about conlangs that had been stored on Langmaker in the 2000s, gone down with it but was retrievable via the Web Archive copies of Langmaker. They got so far then drifted off. I'm volunteering to start it again, and I also want to make my own (privately run but publicly accessible) list of the world's conlangs (probably in spreadsheet and searchable database form). I want to combine the jobs to reduce work time; I also think it would be good to have the same info in different places (as what was so unfortunate about Langmaker going down was so much of its info was not stored elsewhere). So I was wondering, would you be interested in allowing similar records of such langs here? I'm guessing not on account of your "non-sufficient content/long inactivity" deletion rule plus high style standards etc. However even if not how about a single page (/multiple if running over) with a name and barest details? I'd be prepared to do all the work, although help would certainly be appreciated. :)<br />
[[User:Matthew McVeagh|Matthew McVeagh]] ([[User talk:Matthew McVeagh|talk]]) 04:32, 22 July 2020 (UTC)<br />
:: If you keep it on one page that'd be fine [[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 07:32, 22 July 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Safety on the Website ==<br />
<br />
Dear Chrysophylax,<br />
I have a quite important question about the website itself. Well, whenever I (it is also not only me) open the site from Discord, I get a warning saying that this website may steal personal or financial information and thus should be closed. Do you know why the warning appears? <br />
<br />
Yours sincerely,<br />
MansenBk [[User:MansenBk|MansenBk]] ([[User talk:MansenBk|talk]]) 15:40, 2 February 2021 (UTC)<br />
<br />
::Nope, no idea. We use TLS 1.3 and don't take any personal and financial data beyond your email and username when you register. [[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 00:02, 29 April 2021 (UTC)</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/Arha&diff=225447User:Chrysophylax/Arha2021-03-26T13:52:14Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Arha''' (Lit. ''ordered, structured'') is a constructed language spoken in the [[Verse:Void Demesne|Void Demesne]], a dim, stellar region between the galaxies in our local cluster. It is a rigorously standardised language based on the dominant speech of the region 4000 years ago as recorded by the Information Cubes. Knowingly structured by conscious planners to achieve a more mellifluous speech, ''Arha'' in its current form has accumulated a divergence of over 200 features from the ancient linguistic soup it is based on. It is a moderately fusional language encoding 2-3 categories on average per grammatical affix, with the rare affix encoding up to five.<br />
<br />
Arha uses a duodecimal counting system (''nakarh safa'', lit. 'long count') as the standard but an alternate senary system is in use in vast, largely desolate areas (''nakarh resha'' lit. 'trade count' ).<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
== Word classes ==<br />
Arha divides the large, independent semantic units into ideophones, verbo-nominals, and adjectives. Adjectives pattern completely differently from other forms of words, a feature introduced by conscious planning in the language's history.<br />
<br />
Verbo-nominal stems are distinctly identified by terminating in consonants without a known exception<sup>1</sup>, unlike ideophones or adjectives who permit a larger variance in phonetic shape, cf. '''arh''' (''order, to put in order'').<br />
== Derivational morphology ==<br />
<br />
Adjectives end in ''-a'' /a/ [ɒ] and can be formed from both ideophones and verbo-nominals, cf. '''renna''' ''heavily metallic sounding'' ( < '''renn''' ''dull clang of metal struck'') and '''arha''' ''ordered, structured'' (< '''arh''' ''to put in order, an order'').<br />
<br />
== Inflectional morphology ==<br />
<br />
=== Verbal morphology ===<br />
The verbal variants of a verbo-nominal stem are identified by various affixes that modify the categories of tense, person, telicity, definiteness, and mood.<br />
<br />
==== Telicity ====<br />
<br />
Telicity is marked by a pre-verbal component that can be split from the verb by other categorical affixes. However, this component can never carry accentuation and can only exist disjunct in a clause from its verbal parent, it cannot be displaced further, wherefore it's linked more intensely with the verb.<br />
<br />
==== Definiteness ====<br />
The verb can ''optionally'' be marked for definiteness with the infix ''-y-'' which is inserted to the right of the vocalic nucleus in the stressed syttibas before sandhi effects, e.g. ''//ayrh//'' → ''erh'' [æi̯rχ].<br />
This leads to a situation of vocalic alternation patterns for the indefinite-definite axis. Note that when the verb is not accompanied by a telic pre-verb, the definiteness marker is obligatory.<br />
<br />
===== The non-future tense =====<br />
The non-future tense {{sc|nfut}} affix //Ø// is unmarked but will be noted with the empty-set symbol for the remainder of this article.<br />
<br />
This tense is used for past and present events with reference to the speaker.<br />
<br />
====== The future tense ======<br />
This tense is used for non-past-non-present events.<br />
''d-'', e.g. '''darh''' {{IPA|[dɒrχ]}} ''will be ordered''</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits&diff=220755User:Chrysophylax/amaits2021-02-21T03:34:06Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language|familycolor=Indo-European|fam1=Indo-European|fam2=Gelonian?|creator=Chrysophylax|name=Amessian|altname=''amaits''|nativename=''amaitsen tann''|pronunciation={{IPA|[ˈaˌmai̯t͡s]}}|script=Latin <br/> Cyrillic|minority=Ukraine|iso3=none|speakers=?|ethnicity=Dalans|setting=[[Verse:EIF|EIF]]|notice=IPA}}<br />
<br />
Amessian (''amaits'' {{IPA|[ˈaˌmai̯t͡s]}} or ''amaitsen tann'' {{IPA|[ˈaˌmai̯t͡sn̩ tæ̃ɲ]}}, Ukr. ''мацкая мова'') is an [[wikipedia:Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] spoken by the Dalans along the [[wikipedia:Vorskla|Vorskla river]] in [[wikipedia:Sumy Oblast|Sumy Oblast]], [[wikipedia:Ukraine|Ukraine]].<br />
<br />
The language was only attested in the early 20th century and is an extreme late-comer in the field of Indo-European linguistics. First scientifically studied by Soviet linguists and cartographers in the mid 1920s, the language almost went extinct when its community was forcefully resettled and scattered across the Soviet Union as part of pro-Russianization policies.<br />
<br />
Having been largely forgotten throughout history, the exact placement of the language in the Indo-European language remains heavily debated to this day. It is occasionally identified on historical and geographical reasons to be either a descendant of the language of [[wikipedia:Gelonians|Gelonians]] or of the nearby nomadic [[wikipedia:Budini|Budini]], two tribes described by [[wikipedia:Herodotus|Herodotus]] in the 5th century BC. Not enough is known about either of these ancient languages to draw any conclusions regarding the ancestry of Amessian.<br />
<br />
The language is moribund and spoken only by older speakers with newer generations having completely switched to either Russian or Ukrainian.<br />
There is a small diaspora of speakers present in Siberia, Russia and there are various efforts to catalogue and study the possible varieties of Amessian spoken.<br />
<br />
= Geographic distribution =<br />
A long and unfortunate existence in what once was referred to as the [[wikipedia:Wild Fields|Wild Fields]] led to Amessian being distributed rather sporadically in pockets along the Vorskla river, on the [[wikipedia:Pontic steppe|Pontic steppe]] in the territory of present-day Ukraine.<br />
<br />
= Classification =<br />
The Amessian language is an independent branch of the Indo-European language tree. It has been compared to Balto-Slavic, Iranian, Germanic, Latin and Armenian but no definite links have been proven.<br />
<br />
= History =<br />
== Linguistic affinities ==<br />
Amessian is considered an isolate within the Indo-European language family; the only other languages that are sole surviving members of a branch of Indo-European are Albanian, Armenian and Greek.<br />
<br />
== Historical presence and location ==<br />
= Writing system =<br />
== Alphabet ==<br />
A Latin version of the alphabet was introduced in 1931 but was officially replaced in 1938 by Cyrillic. The Latin alphabet has seen a resurgence with the rise of information technology.<br />
== Orthography ==<br />
= Phonology =<br />
== Consonants ==<br />
== Vowels ==<br />
= Grammar =<br />
== Morphology ==<br />
=== Nominal ===<br />
==== Nouns ====<br />
==== Adjectives ====<br />
==== Pronouns ====<br />
<br />
==== Numerals ====<br />
<br />
=== Verbs ===<br />
==== Active voice ====<br />
==== Mediopassive voice ====<br />
==== Deobjective voice ====<br />
==== Athematic verbs ====</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/put&diff=220492User:Chrysophylax/put2021-02-18T21:42:37Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* Number */</p>
<hr />
<div>This is a re-typed version of “On the Structure of Proto-Uralic” found at https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10224/4083/janhunen23-42.pdf?sequence=1<br />
<br />
<center><big>On the Structure of Proto-Uralic</big></center><br />
<br />
Uralic (U), with its two main branches Finno-Ugrian (FU) and Samoyed, is one of the most thoroughly investigated language families. Moreover, the Proto-Uralic (PU) that can be reconstructed on the basis of Common Uralic (CU) comparative material is probably the most ancient unambiguously established parent language in Eurasia. While Proto-Finno-Ugrian (PFU) seems to have existed contemporaneously with some of the early forms of Indo-European. Proto-Uralic must lie considerably farther back in time. Therefore, a condensed review of the basic structural characteristics of Proto-Uralic should be of interest even outside the field of Uralistics. <sup>1</sup><br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
===Paradigmatic structure===<br />
====Consonants====<br />
PU possessed at least 16 distinctive consonant units:<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|<br />
|labial<br />
|dental<br />
|cacuminal<br />
|palatal<br />
|velar<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|plain stops<br />
|p<br />
|t<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|k<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|affricates<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|c<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|sibilants<br />
|<br />
|s<br />
|<br />
|ś<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|nasals<br />
|m<br />
|n<br />
|<br />
|ń<br />
|ŋ<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|spirants<br />
|<br />
|ð<br />
|<br />
|ð’<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|laterals<br />
|<br />
|l<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|vibrants<br />
|<br />
|r<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|glides<br />
|w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|j<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
labial<br />
dental<br />
cacuminal<br />
palatal<br />
velar<br />
-<br />
plain stops<br />
affricates<br />
sibilants<br />
nasals<br />
spirants<br />
laterals<br />
vibrants<br />
glides<br />
<br />
<br />
<sup>1</sup>For the impetus for writing this article I am obliged to the Indologist, Dr. Asko Parpola.<br />
<br />
<br />
Additional units have been proposed on the basis of uncertain etymologies. Indeed, the reconstructed paradigm of 16 phonemes is a minimum comprising only the high and medium frequency consonants of theproto-language, a number of low frequency units remaining technically unreconstructable because of the scarcity of etymological material. Some of the main problems in further elaboration of the reconstruction concern the status of the affricate (''*c''), the palatal series (''*ś'', ''*ń'', ''*ð’'') and the spirants (''*ð'', ''*ð’'').<br />
<br />
The affricate ''*c'' probably differed from the dental stop ''*t'' both in release (affrication) and in place of articulation (cacuminal). It is not clear which of these two phonetic features was phonologically more important, and didalectal differences may also have complicated the picture. If, however, it was cacuminality that was the distinctive characteristic, then it would be plausible to postulate other cacuminal phonemes as well. A cacuminal (retroflex) sibilant ''*š'', at least, was a distinctive unit in PFU, but it cannot be reliably traced using CU etymological material.<br />
<br />
Similarly, for the sake of system symmetry, additional phonemes could be proposed in the palatal series. A couple of uncertain etymologies suggest the reconstruction of a palatal lateral ''*l’'' but even other palatal phonemes (stop, affricate) may well have existed in PU, though they must have been of low frequency.<br />
<br />
Synchronically the status of the “spirants” ''*ð'' and *''ð’'' appears to be problematic. These phonemes may have originally been related to either the dental stop or the liquids.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
The maximal (first syllable) vowel paradigm most probably comprised 8 qualitative units:<br />
<br />
back<br />
front<br />
labial<br />
illabial<br />
labial<br />
illabial<br />
high<br />
middle<br />
low<br />
<br />
Only minor problems arise in the qualitative reconstruction, first and foremost the status of the low back vowel (labial ''*å'' or illabial ''*a'') and of the illabial back vowel (high ''*i̮'') or middle ''*e'' or low ''*a''). The possibility of dialectal differences cannot be eliminated.<br />
<br />
The traditional cause of uncertainty and dispute in reconstructing the PU vowel system has been the question of quantitative correlation. Two different phenomena seem to be related to the problem of quantity. First, in Finnic there is a systematic non-combinatory quantitative correlation that can be traced back (as a quantity phenomenon) to Proto-Finno-Permic. Second, Proto-Samoyed had in addition to ordinary single vowels a system of vowel sequences which consisted of any full vowel of the paradigm followed by an invariable reduced vowel segment. A few reliable etymologies, at least, support the hypothesis that there is indeed a systematic correspondence between these two vowel phenomena: Finno-Permian quantity vs. Samoyed vowel sequences. How this correspondence should be interpreted from the point of view of PU is not clear. It seems however, that quantity, as such, was not a distinctive feature of the U proto-language; the question is linked with both the vowel and consonant systems.<br />
<br />
Another problem related to both quantity and quality is the question of reduced vowels. In Proto-Samoyed, a reduced vowel ''*ə̑'' was a distinctive unit of the vowel paradigm, and it is possible that it should be derived from an independent PU phoneme. The problem is complicated, however, by the fact that some of the occurences of the Proto-Samoyed vowel seem to be explainable in terms of combinatory phenomena.<br />
<br />
===Syntagmatic structure===<br />
====Syllable structure====<br />
The PU syllable was simple in structure, consisting of a vowel nucleus and optional surrounding consonants: (C)V(C). The glides probably had a special status and could join the vowel nucleus without affecting the syllable structure (V = V, V''j'', V''w''). A word root (free morpheme) consisted of either one or two syllables and always ended in vowel: (C)V, (C)V(C)CV. Derivative elements and grammatical morphemes could be added to the roots by means of suffixation. These suffix elements (bound morphemes) consisted syntagmatically of either a single consonant, -C, or a whole syllable, -CV(C). Suffixes of a more complex structure also occurred: -CCV; these were originally mainly combinations of suffixes.<br />
<br />
====Consonant distribution====<br />
The occurence of of consonant phonemes in the syllable and within the word was restricted by only a few syntagmatic rules. The velar nasal *''ŋ'' and, in view of the lack of relevant etymological material also the vibrant ''*r'' and the spirant ''*ð'' never occured word-initially. The spirants ''*ð'' and ''*ð’'', as well as the palatal nasal ''*ń'' have not been attested in syllable-final position. At the boundary of two, syllables, the most typical consonant combinations were those of obstruent + obstruent and nasal + obstruent, but many other types of combinations also occured. Among the unrecorded and probably syntagmatically impossible combinations were those of the type obstruent + sonorant. Also, no reliable evidence exists for combinations of two identical segments (geminates).<br />
====Vowel distribution====<br />
Two important phonotactic restrictions governed the occurence of vowels in non-first syllables. First, vowel harmony - one of the typological features of many of the present-day U languages - allowed a vowel to contain either back vowels or front vowels. Second, the actual paradigm of vowels in non-first syllables was limited to three units: the two low vowels ''*å'' and ''*ä'' and a higher vowel. A major problem in reconstruction concerns the paradigmatic identity of the non-first syllable high vowel. According to Finno-Permian evidence this vowel seems to have been identical with ''*i'' of the first syllable (though traditionally written as ''*e'') but the eastern groups, the Samoyed languages in particular, suggest the reconstruction of a more neutral phoneme. Indeed, it seems preferable to avoid identifying the unit with any of the qualitative units in the maximal paradigm and to use instead a distinct, ''*ə'' (neutral reduced vowel) for the segment in PU. As a result, the rules for vowel occurence bring the number of possible vowel combinations in the first two syllables down to 16:<br />
<br />
first syllable<br />
u, o å, i̮<br />
ŭ, e ä, i<br />
<br />
second syllable<br />
å }<br />
ä }<br />
ə<br />
<br />
A consequence of the phonotactic restrictions is that only two distinctive stem types could occur in the word roots: å/ä-stems and ə-stems. A characteristic of the latter is that the stem final high (reduced) vowel ''ə'' could alternate with zero before suffixes comprising a whole syllable provided the restrictions on consonant distribution were not violated. The phenomenon (the so called consonant stem) is actually one of the very few morphophonemic alternations that can be reconstructed in PU.<br />
<br />
Another consequence of the restrictions in vowel distributions is that in suffixes containing a low vowel in the lexicon, the vowel segment could be realized either as a back vowe (''*å'') or as a front vowel (''*ä'') depending on the vocalism of the root.<br />
<br />
====Accent====<br />
Vowel distribution is interrelated with a non-distinctive suprasegmental characteristic of the U languages: the initial stress. The PU stress pattern divided the word in two-syllable sections with initial stress, with the main stress on the first section of the word: (C)V́(C)CV/CV̀(C)CV(C)/.<br />
This phenomenon is best preserved on the periphery of the language family (Finnic-Lapp, Samoyed), where it has convergently led to important phonotactic and morphophonemic developments (esp. so called “consonant gradation”).<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Parts of speech===<br />
The most obvious material characteristic dividing words into functional classes in PU seems to have been the distinction according to the number of syllables in the word root. Basic deictic elements, used in pronominal and auxiliary functions, formed a class of monosyllables, whereas the bulk of the lexicon, the so called ”notation words” were disyllabic. In grammatical behaviour, however, no basic difference existed between two groups, except that in the paradigms of some pronouns there was suppletion.<br />
<br />
Using morphological and syntactical criteria, two parts of speech, the noun and the verb, can be distinguished in PU. it is true that rather abundant evidence suggests that the distinction had been somewhat less strict in Pre-U. In fact, several PU derivative and inflectional suffixes could be affixed to both nominal and verbal stems. Also, there existed a small group of word roots, the so called nomenverba, which could morphologically and syntactically act both as nouns and verbs, in semantically closely related functions. However, in PU most of the lexicon was already unambiguously divided into nouns and verbs, and both parts of speech did have a range of morphological and syntactic characteristics of their own.<br />
<br />
As for further classification, morphological criteria are not sufficient to serve as a basis for distinguishing any subclasses (such as “adjectives” and “numerals”). Also, no evidence exists of any separable group of indeclinable words (“adverbs”). For instance, space relationships were expressed by regularly declined spatial nouns, used both independently and in postposition constructions (as nominal postpositions). Undoubtedly, however, there existed in PU some kind of extra-grammatical group of utterances (“interjections” and the like).<br />
<br />
===Nominal categories===<br />
====Derived stems====<br />
Practically all possible phonological shapes were used in the large stock of PU denominal and deverbal nominal suffixes. The most common and most reliably reconstructable types comprise such as : stop, stop+vowel, stop+stop+vowel (possibly incl. geminate stop+vowel), nasal, nasal+vowel, nasal+stop+vowel, sibiliant+vowel, liquid+vowel, glide. However, except for some of the verbal noun suffixes, the exact function of the derivative elements remain largely obscure. For most of the denominal suffixes only a vague "diminutive meaning" can be reconstructed. Among the few functionally clear cases are: ''*-mpå/-mpä'' for denoting local contrast (later becoming the comparative suffix in Finnic-Lapp and Hungarian), ''*-mtV'' for order (ordinal numbers and pronouns), and the complex caritive suffix ''-*ktåmå/-ktämä''.<br />
<br />
The suffixes for intensification of deixis in pronouns, such as ''*-m, *-n, *-mV, *-nV'', are a special case, since these may have had an additional function. By adding a syllable to the monosyllabic pronoun stem, it was possible to remove the structural difference between the deictic elements and the rest of the lexicon.<br />
<br />
Grammatically the derived stems did not differ in any way from the stems without derivative elements.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
The absolute form of the noun could probably be used collectively for indefinite number. The use of a suffix for denoting non-singular number may in Pre-U have originally had an additional defining or individualizing function. However, in PU, at least the plural suffixes were obviously often used without regard to this limiting condition.<br />
<br />
Plural was expressed by two alternative suffixes: ''*-t''for the absolute form and ''*-j'' for the conjunctive form. The absolute form was used independently in the sentence, mainly as the subject, while the conjunctive form was used in subordinate position, both adnominally as an attribute (corresponding to the function of a plural genitive case) and adverbally as an object (in the function of plural accusative). The conjunctive form was also used before further suffix morphemes (such as the possessive suffixes).<br />
<br />
The dual also existed as a separate category in Pu, marked by the suffix ''*-kɘ(-)''. However, the dual nowadays only exists on the peripheries of the language family (Lapp, Ob-Ugrian, Samoyed), and the PU dual suffix has been materially preserved only in the eastern groups (Ugric, Samoyed). THese facts sugges that the use of the dual in PU was dialectally restricted. Furthermore, the individualizing function of the number morpheme was probably more distinct in the dual, and the ose of the suffix may have tended to be restricted to nouns semantically marked +animate or +human.<br />
<br />
Number in personal pronouns was expressed irregularly: cf. sg. 1. ''*mun'', 2. ''*tun'' vs. pl. 1. ''*me-'', 2. ''*te-'' (probably combined with the ordinary plural suffixes). Whether dual pronouns existed at all, is not known for certain, but some evidence points to the possibility that these may have been formed by adding to the plural stems specific pronominal dual formatives (cf. the possessive suffixes).<br />
<br />
====Case====</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/put&diff=220491User:Chrysophylax/put2021-02-18T21:38:20Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* Derived stems */</p>
<hr />
<div>This is a re-typed version of “On the Structure of Proto-Uralic” found at https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10224/4083/janhunen23-42.pdf?sequence=1<br />
<br />
<center><big>On the Structure of Proto-Uralic</big></center><br />
<br />
Uralic (U), with its two main branches Finno-Ugrian (FU) and Samoyed, is one of the most thoroughly investigated language families. Moreover, the Proto-Uralic (PU) that can be reconstructed on the basis of Common Uralic (CU) comparative material is probably the most ancient unambiguously established parent language in Eurasia. While Proto-Finno-Ugrian (PFU) seems to have existed contemporaneously with some of the early forms of Indo-European. Proto-Uralic must lie considerably farther back in time. Therefore, a condensed review of the basic structural characteristics of Proto-Uralic should be of interest even outside the field of Uralistics. <sup>1</sup><br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
===Paradigmatic structure===<br />
====Consonants====<br />
PU possessed at least 16 distinctive consonant units:<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|<br />
|labial<br />
|dental<br />
|cacuminal<br />
|palatal<br />
|velar<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|plain stops<br />
|p<br />
|t<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|k<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|affricates<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|c<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|sibilants<br />
|<br />
|s<br />
|<br />
|ś<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|nasals<br />
|m<br />
|n<br />
|<br />
|ń<br />
|ŋ<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|spirants<br />
|<br />
|ð<br />
|<br />
|ð’<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|laterals<br />
|<br />
|l<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|vibrants<br />
|<br />
|r<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|glides<br />
|w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|j<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
labial<br />
dental<br />
cacuminal<br />
palatal<br />
velar<br />
-<br />
plain stops<br />
affricates<br />
sibilants<br />
nasals<br />
spirants<br />
laterals<br />
vibrants<br />
glides<br />
<br />
<br />
<sup>1</sup>For the impetus for writing this article I am obliged to the Indologist, Dr. Asko Parpola.<br />
<br />
<br />
Additional units have been proposed on the basis of uncertain etymologies. Indeed, the reconstructed paradigm of 16 phonemes is a minimum comprising only the high and medium frequency consonants of theproto-language, a number of low frequency units remaining technically unreconstructable because of the scarcity of etymological material. Some of the main problems in further elaboration of the reconstruction concern the status of the affricate (''*c''), the palatal series (''*ś'', ''*ń'', ''*ð’'') and the spirants (''*ð'', ''*ð’'').<br />
<br />
The affricate ''*c'' probably differed from the dental stop ''*t'' both in release (affrication) and in place of articulation (cacuminal). It is not clear which of these two phonetic features was phonologically more important, and didalectal differences may also have complicated the picture. If, however, it was cacuminality that was the distinctive characteristic, then it would be plausible to postulate other cacuminal phonemes as well. A cacuminal (retroflex) sibilant ''*š'', at least, was a distinctive unit in PFU, but it cannot be reliably traced using CU etymological material.<br />
<br />
Similarly, for the sake of system symmetry, additional phonemes could be proposed in the palatal series. A couple of uncertain etymologies suggest the reconstruction of a palatal lateral ''*l’'' but even other palatal phonemes (stop, affricate) may well have existed in PU, though they must have been of low frequency.<br />
<br />
Synchronically the status of the “spirants” ''*ð'' and *''ð’'' appears to be problematic. These phonemes may have originally been related to either the dental stop or the liquids.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
The maximal (first syllable) vowel paradigm most probably comprised 8 qualitative units:<br />
<br />
back<br />
front<br />
labial<br />
illabial<br />
labial<br />
illabial<br />
high<br />
middle<br />
low<br />
<br />
Only minor problems arise in the qualitative reconstruction, first and foremost the status of the low back vowel (labial ''*å'' or illabial ''*a'') and of the illabial back vowel (high ''*i̮'') or middle ''*e'' or low ''*a''). The possibility of dialectal differences cannot be eliminated.<br />
<br />
The traditional cause of uncertainty and dispute in reconstructing the PU vowel system has been the question of quantitative correlation. Two different phenomena seem to be related to the problem of quantity. First, in Finnic there is a systematic non-combinatory quantitative correlation that can be traced back (as a quantity phenomenon) to Proto-Finno-Permic. Second, Proto-Samoyed had in addition to ordinary single vowels a system of vowel sequences which consisted of any full vowel of the paradigm followed by an invariable reduced vowel segment. A few reliable etymologies, at least, support the hypothesis that there is indeed a systematic correspondence between these two vowel phenomena: Finno-Permian quantity vs. Samoyed vowel sequences. How this correspondence should be interpreted from the point of view of PU is not clear. It seems however, that quantity, as such, was not a distinctive feature of the U proto-language; the question is linked with both the vowel and consonant systems.<br />
<br />
Another problem related to both quantity and quality is the question of reduced vowels. In Proto-Samoyed, a reduced vowel ''*ə̑'' was a distinctive unit of the vowel paradigm, and it is possible that it should be derived from an independent PU phoneme. The problem is complicated, however, by the fact that some of the occurences of the Proto-Samoyed vowel seem to be explainable in terms of combinatory phenomena.<br />
<br />
===Syntagmatic structure===<br />
====Syllable structure====<br />
The PU syllable was simple in structure, consisting of a vowel nucleus and optional surrounding consonants: (C)V(C). The glides probably had a special status and could join the vowel nucleus without affecting the syllable structure (V = V, V''j'', V''w''). A word root (free morpheme) consisted of either one or two syllables and always ended in vowel: (C)V, (C)V(C)CV. Derivative elements and grammatical morphemes could be added to the roots by means of suffixation. These suffix elements (bound morphemes) consisted syntagmatically of either a single consonant, -C, or a whole syllable, -CV(C). Suffixes of a more complex structure also occurred: -CCV; these were originally mainly combinations of suffixes.<br />
<br />
====Consonant distribution====<br />
The occurence of of consonant phonemes in the syllable and within the word was restricted by only a few syntagmatic rules. The velar nasal *''ŋ'' and, in view of the lack of relevant etymological material also the vibrant ''*r'' and the spirant ''*ð'' never occured word-initially. The spirants ''*ð'' and ''*ð’'', as well as the palatal nasal ''*ń'' have not been attested in syllable-final position. At the boundary of two, syllables, the most typical consonant combinations were those of obstruent + obstruent and nasal + obstruent, but many other types of combinations also occured. Among the unrecorded and probably syntagmatically impossible combinations were those of the type obstruent + sonorant. Also, no reliable evidence exists for combinations of two identical segments (geminates).<br />
====Vowel distribution====<br />
Two important phonotactic restrictions governed the occurence of vowels in non-first syllables. First, vowel harmony - one of the typological features of many of the present-day U languages - allowed a vowel to contain either back vowels or front vowels. Second, the actual paradigm of vowels in non-first syllables was limited to three units: the two low vowels ''*å'' and ''*ä'' and a higher vowel. A major problem in reconstruction concerns the paradigmatic identity of the non-first syllable high vowel. According to Finno-Permian evidence this vowel seems to have been identical with ''*i'' of the first syllable (though traditionally written as ''*e'') but the eastern groups, the Samoyed languages in particular, suggest the reconstruction of a more neutral phoneme. Indeed, it seems preferable to avoid identifying the unit with any of the qualitative units in the maximal paradigm and to use instead a distinct, ''*ə'' (neutral reduced vowel) for the segment in PU. As a result, the rules for vowel occurence bring the number of possible vowel combinations in the first two syllables down to 16:<br />
<br />
first syllable<br />
u, o å, i̮<br />
ŭ, e ä, i<br />
<br />
second syllable<br />
å }<br />
ä }<br />
ə<br />
<br />
A consequence of the phonotactic restrictions is that only two distinctive stem types could occur in the word roots: å/ä-stems and ə-stems. A characteristic of the latter is that the stem final high (reduced) vowel ''ə'' could alternate with zero before suffixes comprising a whole syllable provided the restrictions on consonant distribution were not violated. The phenomenon (the so called consonant stem) is actually one of the very few morphophonemic alternations that can be reconstructed in PU.<br />
<br />
Another consequence of the restrictions in vowel distributions is that in suffixes containing a low vowel in the lexicon, the vowel segment could be realized either as a back vowe (''*å'') or as a front vowel (''*ä'') depending on the vocalism of the root.<br />
<br />
====Accent====<br />
Vowel distribution is interrelated with a non-distinctive suprasegmental characteristic of the U languages: the initial stress. The PU stress pattern divided the word in two-syllable sections with initial stress, with the main stress on the first section of the word: (C)V́(C)CV/CV̀(C)CV(C)/.<br />
This phenomenon is best preserved on the periphery of the language family (Finnic-Lapp, Samoyed), where it has convergently led to important phonotactic and morphophonemic developments (esp. so called “consonant gradation”).<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Parts of speech===<br />
The most obvious material characteristic dividing words into functional classes in PU seems to have been the distinction according to the number of syllables in the word root. Basic deictic elements, used in pronominal and auxiliary functions, formed a class of monosyllables, whereas the bulk of the lexicon, the so called ”notation words” were disyllabic. In grammatical behaviour, however, no basic difference existed between two groups, except that in the paradigms of some pronouns there was suppletion.<br />
<br />
Using morphological and syntactical criteria, two parts of speech, the noun and the verb, can be distinguished in PU. it is true that rather abundant evidence suggests that the distinction had been somewhat less strict in Pre-U. In fact, several PU derivative and inflectional suffixes could be affixed to both nominal and verbal stems. Also, there existed a small group of word roots, the so called nomenverba, which could morphologically and syntactically act both as nouns and verbs, in semantically closely related functions. However, in PU most of the lexicon was already unambiguously divided into nouns and verbs, and both parts of speech did have a range of morphological and syntactic characteristics of their own.<br />
<br />
As for further classification, morphological criteria are not sufficient to serve as a basis for distinguishing any subclasses (such as “adjectives” and “numerals”). Also, no evidence exists of any separable group of indeclinable words (“adverbs”). For instance, space relationships were expressed by regularly declined spatial nouns, used both independently and in postposition constructions (as nominal postpositions). Undoubtedly, however, there existed in PU some kind of extra-grammatical group of utterances (“interjections” and the like).<br />
<br />
===Nominal categories===<br />
====Derived stems====<br />
Practically all possible phonological shapes were used in the large stock of PU denominal and deverbal nominal suffixes. The most common and most reliably reconstructable types comprise such as : stop, stop+vowel, stop+stop+vowel (possibly incl. geminate stop+vowel), nasal, nasal+vowel, nasal+stop+vowel, sibiliant+vowel, liquid+vowel, glide. However, except for some of the verbal noun suffixes, the exact function of the derivative elements remain largely obscure. For most of the denominal suffixes only a vague "diminutive meaning" can be reconstructed. Among the few functionally clear cases are: ''*-mpå/-mpä'' for denoting local contrast (later becoming the comparative suffix in Finnic-Lapp and Hungarian), ''*-mtV'' for order (ordinal numbers and pronouns), and the complex caritive suffix ''-*ktåmå/-ktämä''.<br />
<br />
The suffixes for intensification of deixis in pronouns, such as ''*-m, *-n, *-mV, *-nV'', are a special case, since these may have had an additional function. By adding a syllable to the monosyllabic pronoun stem, it was possible to remove the structural difference between the deictic elements and the rest of the lexicon.<br />
<br />
Grammatically the derived stems did not differ in any way from the stems without derivative elements.<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
The absolute form of the noun could probably be used collectively for indefinite number. The use of a suffix for denoting non-singular number may in Pre-U have originally had an additional defining or individualizing function. However, in PU, at least the plural suffixes were obviously often used without regard to this limiting condition.</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/put&diff=220490User:Chrysophylax/put2021-02-18T21:38:01Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* Morphology */</p>
<hr />
<div>This is a re-typed version of “On the Structure of Proto-Uralic” found at https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10224/4083/janhunen23-42.pdf?sequence=1<br />
<br />
<center><big>On the Structure of Proto-Uralic</big></center><br />
<br />
Uralic (U), with its two main branches Finno-Ugrian (FU) and Samoyed, is one of the most thoroughly investigated language families. Moreover, the Proto-Uralic (PU) that can be reconstructed on the basis of Common Uralic (CU) comparative material is probably the most ancient unambiguously established parent language in Eurasia. While Proto-Finno-Ugrian (PFU) seems to have existed contemporaneously with some of the early forms of Indo-European. Proto-Uralic must lie considerably farther back in time. Therefore, a condensed review of the basic structural characteristics of Proto-Uralic should be of interest even outside the field of Uralistics. <sup>1</sup><br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
===Paradigmatic structure===<br />
====Consonants====<br />
PU possessed at least 16 distinctive consonant units:<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|<br />
|labial<br />
|dental<br />
|cacuminal<br />
|palatal<br />
|velar<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|plain stops<br />
|p<br />
|t<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|k<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|affricates<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|c<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|sibilants<br />
|<br />
|s<br />
|<br />
|ś<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|nasals<br />
|m<br />
|n<br />
|<br />
|ń<br />
|ŋ<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|spirants<br />
|<br />
|ð<br />
|<br />
|ð’<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|laterals<br />
|<br />
|l<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|vibrants<br />
|<br />
|r<br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"|glides<br />
|w<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|j<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
labial<br />
dental<br />
cacuminal<br />
palatal<br />
velar<br />
-<br />
plain stops<br />
affricates<br />
sibilants<br />
nasals<br />
spirants<br />
laterals<br />
vibrants<br />
glides<br />
<br />
<br />
<sup>1</sup>For the impetus for writing this article I am obliged to the Indologist, Dr. Asko Parpola.<br />
<br />
<br />
Additional units have been proposed on the basis of uncertain etymologies. Indeed, the reconstructed paradigm of 16 phonemes is a minimum comprising only the high and medium frequency consonants of theproto-language, a number of low frequency units remaining technically unreconstructable because of the scarcity of etymological material. Some of the main problems in further elaboration of the reconstruction concern the status of the affricate (''*c''), the palatal series (''*ś'', ''*ń'', ''*ð’'') and the spirants (''*ð'', ''*ð’'').<br />
<br />
The affricate ''*c'' probably differed from the dental stop ''*t'' both in release (affrication) and in place of articulation (cacuminal). It is not clear which of these two phonetic features was phonologically more important, and didalectal differences may also have complicated the picture. If, however, it was cacuminality that was the distinctive characteristic, then it would be plausible to postulate other cacuminal phonemes as well. A cacuminal (retroflex) sibilant ''*š'', at least, was a distinctive unit in PFU, but it cannot be reliably traced using CU etymological material.<br />
<br />
Similarly, for the sake of system symmetry, additional phonemes could be proposed in the palatal series. A couple of uncertain etymologies suggest the reconstruction of a palatal lateral ''*l’'' but even other palatal phonemes (stop, affricate) may well have existed in PU, though they must have been of low frequency.<br />
<br />
Synchronically the status of the “spirants” ''*ð'' and *''ð’'' appears to be problematic. These phonemes may have originally been related to either the dental stop or the liquids.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
The maximal (first syllable) vowel paradigm most probably comprised 8 qualitative units:<br />
<br />
back<br />
front<br />
labial<br />
illabial<br />
labial<br />
illabial<br />
high<br />
middle<br />
low<br />
<br />
Only minor problems arise in the qualitative reconstruction, first and foremost the status of the low back vowel (labial ''*å'' or illabial ''*a'') and of the illabial back vowel (high ''*i̮'') or middle ''*e'' or low ''*a''). The possibility of dialectal differences cannot be eliminated.<br />
<br />
The traditional cause of uncertainty and dispute in reconstructing the PU vowel system has been the question of quantitative correlation. Two different phenomena seem to be related to the problem of quantity. First, in Finnic there is a systematic non-combinatory quantitative correlation that can be traced back (as a quantity phenomenon) to Proto-Finno-Permic. Second, Proto-Samoyed had in addition to ordinary single vowels a system of vowel sequences which consisted of any full vowel of the paradigm followed by an invariable reduced vowel segment. A few reliable etymologies, at least, support the hypothesis that there is indeed a systematic correspondence between these two vowel phenomena: Finno-Permian quantity vs. Samoyed vowel sequences. How this correspondence should be interpreted from the point of view of PU is not clear. It seems however, that quantity, as such, was not a distinctive feature of the U proto-language; the question is linked with both the vowel and consonant systems.<br />
<br />
Another problem related to both quantity and quality is the question of reduced vowels. In Proto-Samoyed, a reduced vowel ''*ə̑'' was a distinctive unit of the vowel paradigm, and it is possible that it should be derived from an independent PU phoneme. The problem is complicated, however, by the fact that some of the occurences of the Proto-Samoyed vowel seem to be explainable in terms of combinatory phenomena.<br />
<br />
===Syntagmatic structure===<br />
====Syllable structure====<br />
The PU syllable was simple in structure, consisting of a vowel nucleus and optional surrounding consonants: (C)V(C). The glides probably had a special status and could join the vowel nucleus without affecting the syllable structure (V = V, V''j'', V''w''). A word root (free morpheme) consisted of either one or two syllables and always ended in vowel: (C)V, (C)V(C)CV. Derivative elements and grammatical morphemes could be added to the roots by means of suffixation. These suffix elements (bound morphemes) consisted syntagmatically of either a single consonant, -C, or a whole syllable, -CV(C). Suffixes of a more complex structure also occurred: -CCV; these were originally mainly combinations of suffixes.<br />
<br />
====Consonant distribution====<br />
The occurence of of consonant phonemes in the syllable and within the word was restricted by only a few syntagmatic rules. The velar nasal *''ŋ'' and, in view of the lack of relevant etymological material also the vibrant ''*r'' and the spirant ''*ð'' never occured word-initially. The spirants ''*ð'' and ''*ð’'', as well as the palatal nasal ''*ń'' have not been attested in syllable-final position. At the boundary of two, syllables, the most typical consonant combinations were those of obstruent + obstruent and nasal + obstruent, but many other types of combinations also occured. Among the unrecorded and probably syntagmatically impossible combinations were those of the type obstruent + sonorant. Also, no reliable evidence exists for combinations of two identical segments (geminates).<br />
====Vowel distribution====<br />
Two important phonotactic restrictions governed the occurence of vowels in non-first syllables. First, vowel harmony - one of the typological features of many of the present-day U languages - allowed a vowel to contain either back vowels or front vowels. Second, the actual paradigm of vowels in non-first syllables was limited to three units: the two low vowels ''*å'' and ''*ä'' and a higher vowel. A major problem in reconstruction concerns the paradigmatic identity of the non-first syllable high vowel. According to Finno-Permian evidence this vowel seems to have been identical with ''*i'' of the first syllable (though traditionally written as ''*e'') but the eastern groups, the Samoyed languages in particular, suggest the reconstruction of a more neutral phoneme. Indeed, it seems preferable to avoid identifying the unit with any of the qualitative units in the maximal paradigm and to use instead a distinct, ''*ə'' (neutral reduced vowel) for the segment in PU. As a result, the rules for vowel occurence bring the number of possible vowel combinations in the first two syllables down to 16:<br />
<br />
first syllable<br />
u, o å, i̮<br />
ŭ, e ä, i<br />
<br />
second syllable<br />
å }<br />
ä }<br />
ə<br />
<br />
A consequence of the phonotactic restrictions is that only two distinctive stem types could occur in the word roots: å/ä-stems and ə-stems. A characteristic of the latter is that the stem final high (reduced) vowel ''ə'' could alternate with zero before suffixes comprising a whole syllable provided the restrictions on consonant distribution were not violated. The phenomenon (the so called consonant stem) is actually one of the very few morphophonemic alternations that can be reconstructed in PU.<br />
<br />
Another consequence of the restrictions in vowel distributions is that in suffixes containing a low vowel in the lexicon, the vowel segment could be realized either as a back vowe (''*å'') or as a front vowel (''*ä'') depending on the vocalism of the root.<br />
<br />
====Accent====<br />
Vowel distribution is interrelated with a non-distinctive suprasegmental characteristic of the U languages: the initial stress. The PU stress pattern divided the word in two-syllable sections with initial stress, with the main stress on the first section of the word: (C)V́(C)CV/CV̀(C)CV(C)/.<br />
This phenomenon is best preserved on the periphery of the language family (Finnic-Lapp, Samoyed), where it has convergently led to important phonotactic and morphophonemic developments (esp. so called “consonant gradation”).<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Parts of speech===<br />
The most obvious material characteristic dividing words into functional classes in PU seems to have been the distinction according to the number of syllables in the word root. Basic deictic elements, used in pronominal and auxiliary functions, formed a class of monosyllables, whereas the bulk of the lexicon, the so called ”notation words” were disyllabic. In grammatical behaviour, however, no basic difference existed between two groups, except that in the paradigms of some pronouns there was suppletion.<br />
<br />
Using morphological and syntactical criteria, two parts of speech, the noun and the verb, can be distinguished in PU. it is true that rather abundant evidence suggests that the distinction had been somewhat less strict in Pre-U. In fact, several PU derivative and inflectional suffixes could be affixed to both nominal and verbal stems. Also, there existed a small group of word roots, the so called nomenverba, which could morphologically and syntactically act both as nouns and verbs, in semantically closely related functions. However, in PU most of the lexicon was already unambiguously divided into nouns and verbs, and both parts of speech did have a range of morphological and syntactic characteristics of their own.<br />
<br />
As for further classification, morphological criteria are not sufficient to serve as a basis for distinguishing any subclasses (such as “adjectives” and “numerals”). Also, no evidence exists of any separable group of indeclinable words (“adverbs”). For instance, space relationships were expressed by regularly declined spatial nouns, used both independently and in postposition constructions (as nominal postpositions). Undoubtedly, however, there existed in PU some kind of extra-grammatical group of utterances (“interjections” and the like).<br />
<br />
===Nominal categories===<br />
====Derived stems====<br />
Practically all possible phonological shapes were used in the large stock of PU denominal and deverbal nominal suffixes. The most common and most reliably reconstructable types comprise such as : stop, stop+vowel, stop+stop+vowel (possibly incl. geminate stop+vowel), nasal, nasal+vowel, nasal+stop+vowel, sibiliant+vowel, liquid+vowel, glide. However, except for some of the verbal noun suffixes, the exact function of the derivative elements remain largely obscure. For most of the denominal suffixes only a vague "diminutive meaning" can be reconstructed. Among the few functionally clear cases are: ''*-mpå/-mpä'' for denoting local contrast (later becoming the comparative suffix in Finnic-Lapp and Hungarian), ''*-mtV''for order (ordinal numbers and pronouns), and the complex caritive suffix ''-*ktåmå/-ktämä''.<br />
<br />
The suffixes for intensification of deixis in pronouns, such as ''*-m, *-n, *-mV, *-nV'', are a special case, since these may have had an additional function. By adding a syllable to the monosyllabic pronoun stem, it was possible to remove the structural difference between the deictic elements and the rest of the lexicon.<br />
<br />
Grammatically the derived stems did not differ in any way from the stems without derivative elements.<br />
====Number====<br />
The absolute form of the noun could probably be used collectively for indefinite number. The use of a suffix for denoting non-singular number may in Pre-U have originally had an additional defining or individualizing function. However, in PU, at least the plural suffixes were obviously often used without regard to this limiting condition.</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Ahakqau&diff=220046Ahakqau2021-02-14T15:49:28Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>==INTRODUCTION==<br />
Trying to create a phonologically and morphologically less complex conlang.<br />
<br />
==PHONOLOGY==<br />
===Phoneme Inventory===<br />
====Consonants====<br />
Ahakqau has a total of fourteen consonants which according to WALS (the World Atlas of Language Structures) is a small inventory. The consonant inventory is notable for the presence of a lateral obstruent and an initial velar nasal.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! ||Bilabial||Central Alveolar||Lateral Alveolar ||Palato-Alveolar ||Plain Velar||Labialised Velar<br />
|-<br />
| '''Voiceless Obstruent'''|| /p/|| /t/||/ɬ/||/ʃ/||/k/||<br />
|-<br />
| '''Voiced Obstruent'''|| /b/|| /d/||/l/||/ʒ/||/ɡ/||/w/<br />
|-<br />
| '''Nasal''' || /m/|| /n/||||||/ŋ/||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
NOTE: While /l, w/ are not phonetically obstruents, phonologically they pattern as voiced obstruents.<br />
<br />
====Vowels====<br />
Ahakqau has a total of three monophthongs and two diphthongs making a total of five vowels. According to WALS this is a small vowel quality inventory.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]]</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User_talk:MansenBk&diff=218021User talk:MansenBk2021-02-03T13:43:52Z<p>Chrysophylax: Created page with "== Re: Safety on the Website == That's really weird! We don't take credit card information (or any financial information) and we have a secure certificate recognised by all ma..."</p>
<hr />
<div>== Re: Safety on the Website ==<br />
That's really weird! We don't take credit card information (or any financial information) and we have a secure certificate recognised by all major browsers to encrypt communication between the website and your computer. Could you take a screenshot and upload it to imgur or something? You can write us on the Facebook page / discord also. [[File:Admin.png|35px|link=Linguifex:Administrators]] '''[[User talk:Chrysophylax|<span style="color: #3366BB ;">Χρυσοφύλαξ</span>]]''' 13:43, 3 February 2021 (UTC)</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Avalonian&diff=216661Avalonian2021-01-22T18:17:24Z<p>Chrysophylax: Chrysophylax moved page Magellanican to Avalonian without leaving a redirect: Author request</p>
<hr />
<div>Magellanican (c) Rebecca Ashling 2019-2020. I assert that the Magellanican conlang presented here is my intellectual property and confirm that Linguifex may post this material on their site.<br />
<br />
<br />
Magellanican (Mag: Nawhatti Telkun) is a polysynthetic language of the affixal, scopal subtype. It has nominative-accusative morphosyntactic alignment with ergative morphology and canonical VSOX word order.<br />
<br />
It is the official language and lingua franca of Magellanica (Mag: Telku) and has approximately 300 million speakers. The Commonwealth of Magellanica (Mag: Karatti Qanakte Telkun) comprises the entirety of the fictional continent of Magellanica.<br />
<br />
Magellanica lies in the southern Pacific Ocean from 35°S to 65°S, north to south, and from 110°W to 140°W, east to west. Its nearest continental neighbour is Antarctica which is about 1100 km due south of Magellanica. <br />
<br />
<!-- <br />
<br />
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<br />
I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration, ideas, and so on).<br />
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<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
Magellanica was the last of the inhabitable continents to be colonised. It first became inhabited around 8000 BCE, very likely by accident. Genetic evidence suggests the Palaeo-Magellanicans originated from South America. They were the first and only successful colonisers of the continent.<br />
<br />
It is most likely useless to attempt to relate the languages of Magellanica to those of South America or elsewhere given the ten thousand year time gap. Although intrepid lumpers and goropists are certainly giving it a good old try.<br />
<br />
The initial group of colonisers was very small and the founder effect is evident in the modern Magellanican phenotype. Most of the population are of unusually short stature, averaging about 1.4 metres in height. It is believed early mutations in the early generations resulted in red and blonde hair occurring in a sizeable minority as well as the presence of blue, grey and green eye colours in a somewhat smaller minority.<br />
<br />
The original speakers of Magellanican, the Jamikal people, originated from the Rulheri, an island in the western part of the Liverish Sea (Mag: Irhat Jepilte). From about one thousand years ago it became the lingua franca of the entire area surrounding the Liverish Sea, and then the entire continent following the advent of smallpox in the 16th Century.<br />
<br />
Magellanican is the sole survivor of a small language family so is now an isolate. It has no traceable genealogical relation to any other language, ancient or modern outside its own extinct family.<br />
<br />
It does however form a sprachbund with neighbouring languages, sharing such features as a bisyllabic root structure, primary stress on the first syllable, , head-marking and a strong tendency for polysynthesis.<br />
<br />
The dialect described on this page is the standard variety promulgated by the Commonwealth of Magellanica and is based on the North-Western dialect.<br />
<br />
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? --><br />
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Goals<br />
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<!-- ***Phonology*** --><br />
<!-- What sounds does your language use? --><br />
<!-- Here are some example sub-/other categories:<br />
<br />
Vowel inventory<br />
Consonant inventory<br />
Syllable structure<br />
Stress<br />
Intonation<br />
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--><br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
===Orthoɡraphy===<br />
====General Remarks On Orthography====<br />
<br />
Magellanican has a variety of native scripts collectively known as (Mag: Quljekatti Telkun) which were logo-syllabic like Mesopotamian cuneiform and were largely under the control of a scribal class. When the Latin alphabet (Mag: Quljekatti Quurapan) was introduced in the 17th century, its ease of use enabled more widespread literacy and a severe decline in the influence of the scribes.<br />
<br />
Quljekatti Quurapan is currently the dominant orthography with the role of the various Quljekatti Telkun writing systems being restricted to ceremonial or artistic use.<br />
<br />
Magellanican spelling in Quljekatti Quurapan is a deep orthography which reflects etymology and phonological processes such as sandhi.<br />
<br />
====Magellanican Alphabet====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| Letter || IPA Value<br />
|-<br />
|⟨a⟩||/ɑ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨aa⟩||/aʊ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨e⟩||/ɛ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨ee⟩||/aɪ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨h⟩||/h/<br />
|-<br />
| ⟨i⟩ || /i/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨ii⟩||/eɪ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨j⟩||/j/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨jh⟩||/xʲ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨k⟩||/k/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨kh⟩||/x/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨kj⟩||/kxʲ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨kw⟩||/kxʷ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨l⟩||/l/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨lh⟩||/ɬ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨m⟩||/m/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨mh⟩||/v/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨n⟩||/n/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨nh⟩||/z/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨p⟩||/p/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨ph⟩||/f/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨q⟩||/ʔ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨r⟩||/ɹ̠/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨rh⟩||/ʃ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨t⟩||/t/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨th⟩||/s/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨tl⟩||/tɬ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨tr⟩||/tʃ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨u⟩||/u/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨uu⟩||/oʊ/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨w⟩||/w/<br />
|-<br />
|⟨wh⟩||/xʷ/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
Magellanican has a total of 24 consonants which according to the World Atlas of Lanɡuaɡe Stucture is an average inventory. The most striking features of the inventory, according to WALS, are the presence of a lateral obstruent. The consonants are displayed in the table below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| ||Labial||Central Alveolar||Lateral Alveolar||Palato-Alveolar||Palatal||Plain Velar||Labialised Velar||Glottal<br />
|-<br />
|Plosive||/p/||/t/||||||||/k/||||/ʔ/<br />
|-<br />
|Affricate||||||/tɬ/||/tʃ/||/kxʲ/||||/kxʷ/||<br />
|-<br />
|Voiceless Fricative||/f/||/s/||/ɬ/||/ʃ/||/xʲ/||/x/||/xʷ/||/h/<br />
|-<br />
|Voiced Fricative||/v/||/z/||||||||||||<br />
|-<br />
|Nasal||/m/||/n/||||||||||<br />
|-<br />
|Liquid||||||/l/||/ɹ̠/||||||||<br />
|-<br />
|Semivowel||||||||||/j/||||/w/||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
<br />
Magellanican has a total of 8 vowels, 4 monophthongs and 4 diphthongs. The diphthongs pattern phonologically as long vowels. According to the World Atlas of Lanɡuaɡe Structures Magellanican has 4 vowel qualities which is a small inventory. Magellanican has a consonant to vowel quality ratio of 6.0 which according to WALS is a moderately large ratio. The vowels are displayed in the table below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| || Front Short||Long Front ||Short Back||Long Back<br />
|-<br />
| Hiɡh || /i/||/eɪ/||/u/||/oʊ/<br />
|-<br />
| Low || /ɛ/||/aɪ/||/ɑ/||/aʊ/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Allophony===<br />
1) /p, t, k/ are realised as [pʰ, tʰ, kʰ] in word-initial position.<br />
<br />
2) /tɬ, tʃ, kxʲ, kxʷ/ are realised as [tɬʰ, tʃʰ, kxʲʰ, kxʷʰ] in word-initial position.<br />
<br />
3) /n/ is realised as [ŋ] in coda position.<br />
<br />
4) /ɹ̠/ is realised as [ʃ] in coda position before a stop.<br />
<br />
5) /ɹ̠/ is realised as [ʒ] in coda position elsewhere.<br />
<br />
6) /pp, tt, kk/ are realised as [pf, ts, kx].<br />
<br />
7) /mm, nn/ are realised as [mb, nd].<br />
<br />
8) /ll, ɹ̠ɹ̠/ are realised as [ld, ʒd].<br />
<br />
9) /ɹ̠j/ is realised as [ʒ].<br />
<br />
10) In closed syllables /i, u/ are realised as [ɪ, ʊ].<br />
<br />
===Prosody===<br />
<br />
1) Words in Magellanican bear primary stress on the initial syllable.<br />
<br />
2) Magellanican words bear secondary stress on every odd-numbered syllable following the initial syllable.<br />
<br />
3) Rhythm type is trochaic.<br />
<br />
4) To an English speaker, Magellanican would appear to be spoken with a slower tempo than English is.<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
<br />
1) The syllable template is CV(C).<br />
<br />
2) Permitted syllable coda consonants are /p, t, k, m, n, l, ɹ̠/.<br />
<br />
3) Consonant clusters may not have more than two segments.<br />
<br />
4) Consonant clusters only occur at syllable boundaries within the word.<br />
<br />
5) /ʔ/ and fricatives do not occur in consonant clusters.<br />
<br />
6) Permitted consonant clusters as per the table below:<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|P||T||K||M||N||L||R||<br />
|-<br />
|√||√||√||√||√||√||√||P<br />
|-<br />
|√||√||√||√||√||√||√||T<br />
|-<br />
|√||√||√||√||√||√||√||K<br />
|-<br />
|√||||√||√||√||√||√||TL<br />
|-<br />
|√||||√||√||√||√||√||TR<br />
|-<br />
|√||√||||√||√||√||√||KJ<br />
|-<br />
|√||√||||√||√||√||√||KW<br />
|-<br />
|√||√||√||√||√||√||√||M<br />
|-<br />
|√||√||√||√||√||√||√||N<br />
|-<br />
|||||||√||√||√||√||L<br />
|-<br />
|||||||√||√||√||√||R<br />
|-<br />
|||||||√||√||√||√||W<br />
|-<br />
|||||||√||√||√||√||J<br />
|}<br />
<br />
a) Latin orthography used for clarity.<br />
<br />
b) First consonant of consonant cluster runs along be top of table, second consonant of consonant cluster runs down riɡht of table.<br />
<br />
c) √ in a cell means the indicated consonant cluster is permitted.<br />
<br />
8) Consonant clusters are coda consonant + onset consonant in terms of syllabification.<br />
<br />
9) /i, eɪ/ may not follow /kxʲ, xʲ, j/.<br />
<br />
10) /u, oʊ/ may not follow /kxʷ, xʷ, w/.<br />
<br />
11) Within a morpheme, long vowels may not precede liquids or semivowels.<br />
<br />
12) Long vowels do not occur in closed syllables or precede consonant clusters.<br />
<br />
13) Vowel clusters do not occur.<br />
<br />
14) Canonical morpheme syllabification templates:<br />
<br />
a) Roots: CV(C)- or CV(C)CV(C)-<br />
<br />
b) Suffixes: -(C)CV(C) or -CV(C)CV(C)<br />
<br />
c) Particles: CV(C) or CV(C)CV(C)<br />
<br />
15) Monosyllabic roots are uncommon and mainly comprise pronouns and certain common nouns and verbs.<br />
<br />
16) Monosyllabic suffixes may have a word-final allomorph consisting of a single coda consonant which is employed after a short vowel.<br />
<br />
17) Roots originating through foreign borrowings may exceed two syllables.<br />
<br />
===Morphophonemics===<br />
<br />
====Internal Sandhi====<br />
<br />
1) Consonant clusters resulting from suffixation undergo sandhi as per the table below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| P||T ||K||M||N||L||R||<br />
|-<br />
|pp||tp||kp||mp||np||lp||rp||P<br />
|-<br />
|pt||tt||kt||mt||nt||lt||rt||T<br />
|-<br />
|pk||tk||kk||mk||nk||lk||rk||K<br />
|-<br />
|pp||tt||kk||mm||nn||ll||rr||Q<br />
|-<br />
|ptl||tl||ktl||mtl||ntl||ltl||rtl||TL<br />
|-<br />
|ptr||tr||ktr||mtr||ntr||ltr||rtr||TR<br />
|-<br />
|pkj||tkj||kj||mkj||nkj||lkj||rkj||KJ<br />
|-<br />
|pkw||tkw||kw||mkw||nkw||lkw||rkw||KW<br />
|-<br />
|pp||tp||kp||mp||np||lp||rp||PH<br />
|-<br />
|pt||tt||kt||mt||nt||lt||rt||TH<br />
|-<br />
|ptl||tl||ktl||mtl||ntl||lh||rtl||LH<br />
|-<br />
|ptr||tr||ktr||mtr||ntr||ltr||rh||RH<br />
|-<br />
|pkj||tkj||kj||mkj||nkj||lkj||rkj||JH<br />
|-<br />
|pkw||tkw||kw||mkw||nkw||lkw||rkw||WH<br />
|-<br />
|v̄ph||v̄th||v̄kh||v̄mh||v̄nh||v̄lh||v̄rh||H<br />
|-<br />
|pm||tm||km||mm||nm||lm||rm||MH<br />
|-<br />
|pn||tn||kn||mn||nn||ln||rn||NH<br />
|-<br />
|pm||tm||km||mm||nm||lm||rm||M<br />
|-<br />
|pn||tn||kn||mn||nn||ln||rn||N<br />
|-<br />
|-<br />
|v̄lh||v̄tl||v̄lh||ml||nl|||ll||rl||L<br />
|-<br />
|v̄rh||v̄tr||v̄rh||mr||nr||lr||rr||R<br />
|-<br />
|v̄jh||v̄jh||v̄kj||mj||nj||lj||rj||J<br />
|-<br />
|v̄wh||v̄wh||v̄kw||mw||nw||lw||rw||W<br />
|}<br />
<br />
NOTES:<br />
<br />
a) Latin script used for clarity.<br />
<br />
b) First consonant of consonant cluster runs across top of table, second consonant of consonant cluster runs down riɡht of table.<br />
<br />
c) The notation v̄ indicates the previous vowel was lengthened.<br />
<br />
2) If a three-segment consonant cluster results from suffixation then the first consonant of that cluster is deleted.<br />
<br />
3) If a long vowel occurs in a closed syllable due to suffixation then that long vowel is reduced to its corresponding short vowel.<br />
<br />
4) If /j/ occurs after a long front vowel due to suffixation then /j/ is realised as [xʲ].<br />
<br />
5) If /w/ occurs after a long back vowel due to suffixation then /w/ is realised as [xʷ].<br />
<br />
6) The effects of internal sandhi are indicated in the orthography.<br />
<br />
====External Sandhi====<br />
<br />
1) External sandhi only occurs between words within the same clause.<br />
<br />
2) Effects are identical to those of internal sandhi except:<br />
<br />
a) Vowel lengthening does not occur.<br />
<br />
b) Word-final consonants are unaffected.<br />
<br />
c) Word-initial consonants are affected as they would if they followed the word-final consonant in question across an internal morpheme boundary.<br />
<br />
d) Word-initial /ɬ, ʃ, xʲ, xʷ/ do not become affricates as the result of external sandhi.<br />
<br />
e) Word-initial /l, ɹ̠, j, w/ do not become affricates as the result of external sandhi.<br />
<br />
f) Word-initial /j/ is realised as [xʲ] when following a word-final long front vowel.<br />
<br />
g) Word-initial /w/ is realised as [xʷ] when following a word-final long back vowel. <br />
<br />
3) The effects of external sandhi are indicated in the orthography.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===General Remarks On Morpholoɡy===<br />
<br />
1) The morphological cateɡories used in Magellanican are summarised in the table below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| Category || Description|| Inflected?<br />
|-<br />
| Noun || Nouns, pronouns, numerals || Yes<br />
|-<br />
| Verb || Verbs, many adjectives, adpositions|| Yes<br />
|-<br />
|Suffix||These express adjunction, verbal modality, inflection or derivation||No<br />
|-<br />
| Particle|| Conjunctions, some adverbs, interjections|| No<br />
|}<br />
<br />
2) Magellanican is an affixal polysynthetic lanɡuaɡe and only one root per word is permitted. <br />
<br />
3) Compoundinɡ of roots does not occur.<br />
<br />
4) According to the World Atlas of Language Structures, Magellanican has a predominant preference for suffixinɡ.<br />
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. --><br />
<br />
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:<br />
<br />
Nouns<br />
Adjectives<br />
Verbs<br />
Adverbs<br />
Particles<br />
Derivational morphology<br />
<br />
--><br />
<br />
===Nominal Morphology===<br />
<br />
====General Remarks On Nominal Morphology====<br />
<br />
1) Nouns indicate distinct entities. Nouns are inflected for number, possessor, demonstration or case.<br />
<br />
2) Maximal nominal structure:<br />
<br />
nominal or verbal root + derivational suffix(es) + number suffix + possessive suffix + demonstrative suffix + case suffix<br />
<br />
====Number====<br />
<br />
1) Magellanican has a singular-plural number system<br />
<br />
2) Singular nouns are singular by default and take the paucal or plural suffixes to indicate more than one instance.<br />
<br />
3) The paucal number mark nouns that are from two to five in number.<br />
<br />
4) The plural number indicates nouns that are six or more in number.<br />
<br />
5) Number suffixes are summarised in the table below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| Number || Abbreviation||Suffix<br />
|-<br />
|Singular||SG||-∅<br />
|-<br />
| Paucal || PC||-me (-m)<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| Plural ||PL|| -hal<br />
|}<br />
<br />
NB: -m is a word-final allomorph employed after a short vowel.<br />
<br />
====Case====<br />
<br />
1) Case marks relationships between noun and noun or noun and verb.<br />
<br />
2) Magellanican cases are summarised in the table below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| Case || Abbreviation || Suffix (Allomorph)||Functions<br />
|-<br />
| Absolutive || ABS ||-∅|| a) Marks citation form of noun<br />
b) Indicates definite O argument of a transitive verb<br />
<br />
c) Marks definite S argument of an intransitive verb<br />
|-<br />
| Ergative || ERG || -nu (-n)||a) Indicates definite A argument of a transitive verb<br />
<br />
b) Indicates the possessor<br />
|-<br />
|Dative||DAT||-hee||a) Marks indefinite A argument of a transitive verb<br />
<br />
b) Indicates beneficiary of action<br />
<br />
c) Used with a gerund indicates purpose or intent<br />
|-<br />
| Instrumental || INST ||-tik||a) Marks indefinite O argument of a transitive verb<br />
<br />
b) Indicates indefinite S argument of an intransitive verb<br />
<br />
c) Marks use of tool or instrument<br />
<br />
d) Indicates proximal cause<br />
|-<br />
| Equative || EQU || -te (-t)||a) Indicates similarity in function, manner or behaviour<br />
<br />
b) Indicates similarity to, likeness to<br />
<br />
c) Made or consisting of a particular substance<br />
<br />
d) Indicates the souce of comparison.<br />
|-<br />
| Comitative || COM || -kwe||a) Marks physical proximity or social connection to someone<br />
<br />
b) Indicates collaborative effort with someone in a joint activity<br />
<br />
c) Marks reciprocicity<br />
<br />
d) Indicates possessor when copula used in 'have' construction<br />
|-<br />
| Locative || LOC || -ki (-k) ||a) Indicates place where<br />
<br />
b) Marks time when<br />
|-<br />
| Allative || ALL || -wa ||a) Marks motion towards<br />
<br />
b) Indicates time until<br />
<br />
c) Marks destination or goal<br />
|-<br />
| Ablative || ABL || -jaa||a) Indicates motion away from<br />
<br />
b) Marks time since<br />
<br />
c) Indicates the source or origin<br />
<br />
d) Marks aversion to or opposition to<br />
<br />
e) Indicates the source of comparison<br />
|-<br />
|-<br />
| Perlative || PERL || -qam||a) Marks motion across, along, through or by way of<br />
<br />
b) Indicates duration<br />
<br />
c) Marks mode or means of transport or transmission<br />
<br />
d) Indicates reason, motive or ultimate cause<br />
<br />
e) Marks topic of conversation<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
NB: Parenthesised forms are word-final allomorphs employed after a short vowel.<br />
<br />
====Pronouns====<br />
=====Personal Pronouns=====<br />
<br />
1) Magellanican personal pronouns and their associated possessive suffixes are summarised in the table below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| Person || Abbreviation ||Pronoun||Possessive Suffix<br />
|-<br />
| 1st Person Singular || 1SG||ni || -nti<br />
|-<br />
| 2nd Person Singular ||2SG||ki ||-kti<br />
|-<br />
|3rd Person Singular||3SG||ti||-tti<br />
|-<br />
|4th Person Sinɡular||4SG||pi||-pti<br />
|-<br />
|5th Person Singular||5SG||li||-lti<br />
|-<br />
|1st Person Paucal Exclusive||1PC EXCL||nuk||-ntuk<br />
|-<br />
|1st Person Paucal Inclusive||1PC INCL||nikuk||-niktuk<br />
|-<br />
| 2nd Person Paucal||2PC||kuk||-ktuk<br />
|-<br />
|3rd Person Paucal||3PC||tuk||-ttuk<br />
|-<br />
|4th Person Paucal||4PC||puk||-ptuk<br />
|-<br />
|5th Person Paucal||5PC||luk||-ltuk<br />
|-<br />
|1st Person Plural Exclusive||1PL EXCL||nat||-ntat<br />
|-<br />
|1st Person Plural Inclusive||1PL INCL||nikat||-niktat<br />
|-<br />
| 2nd Person Plural || 2PL||kat|| -ktat<br />
|-<br />
|3rd Person Plural||3PL||tat||-ttat<br />
|-<br />
|4th Person Plural||4PL||pat||-ptat<br />
|-<br />
|5th Person Plural||5PL||lat||-ltat<br />
|}<br />
<br />
2) Clusivity is a relatively recent innovation in Magellanican and thus the inclusive pronouns and their possessive suffixes differ somewhat in form from the other paucal and plural pronouns.<br />
<br />
3) Personal pronouns take case in the same manner as nouns.<br />
<br />
=====Demonstrative Pronouns=====<br />
<br />
1) Pronominal demonstratives are identical to the 3rd, 4th and 5th person pronouns.<br />
<br />
2) Adnominal demonstratives are suffixes, believed derived from compounds of the 3rd, 4th, 5th person pronouns and the sole Old Jamilhin demonstrative ken.<br />
<br />
3) Adnominal demonstrative suffixes are rarely used with core arguments except for emphasis.<br />
<br />
4) The demonstratives are displayed in the table below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|Distance||Abbreviation||Locus Of Application||Person||Demonstrative Suffix<br />
|-<br />
| Proximal|| PROX||Near speaker||3rd|| -tken<br />
|-<br />
|Medial||MED||Near hearer||4th||-pken<br />
|-<br />
|Distal||DIST||Away from speaker and hearer||5th||-lken<br />
|}<br />
<br />
=====Emphatic Pronouns=====<br />
<br />
These are no dedicated emphatic pronouns, but as verbs mark A, S and O arguments and Magellanican is pro-drop, the use of the pronouns correlating with these can be used for emphasis.<br />
<br />
=====Reflexive Pronouns=====<br />
<br />
These are no dedicated reflexive pronouns in Magellanican. Using the verbal absolutive pronominal suffix in the same number and person as the verbal ergative pronominal suffix is sufficient to convey reflexivity.<br />
<br />
=====Interrogative Pronouns=====<br />
<br />
1) There is one interroɡative pronoun: je 'who, what' which is undifferentiated for number.<br />
<br />
2) All other interrogatives are built from this by adding the appropriate case. Eɡ: jek 'where?', jep 'with whom?'<br />
<br />
3) There is an interrogative pronominal possessive suffix: -yet 'whose?'.<br />
<br />
4) Suffixing -ye to a noun gives the sense of 'which?'.<br />
<br />
5) The canonical word-order of Magellanican is VSOX. Interrogative pronouns or nouns taking an interrogative suffix violate this by being fronted to before the verb.<br />
<br />
6) When an interrogative pronoun is used with a verb, that verb takes plural agreement.<br />
<br />
=====Relative Pronouns=====<br />
<br />
Magellanican lacks relative pronouns and therefore uses a strategy of gap relativatisation.<br />
<br />
=====Indefinite Pronouns=====<br />
<br />
There is one indefinite pronoun: vahu 'somebody, something'. When placed before a noun it indicates the concept of 'any'. When used with a verb that verb uses plural agreement.<br />
<br />
=====Negative Pronouns=====<br />
<br />
There is one negative pronoun: tahu 'nobody, nothing'. When placed before a noun marks the concept of 'none'. When used with a verb that verb uses plural agreement.<br />
<br />
=====Universal Pronouns=====<br />
<br />
There is one universal pronoun: kal 'everybody, everything'. When placed before a noun in it indicates the concept of 'all' or 'each'. When used with a verb that verb uses plural agreement.<br />
<br />
====Adjectives====<br />
<br />
1) Magellanican has no true adjectives.<br />
<br />
2) There are three types of adjective-equivalents:<br />
<br />
a) Several derivational suffixes with an adjectival meaning attached to the noun.<br />
<br />
b) A noun in equative case suffix following the noun they modify.<br />
<br />
c) Relativised verbs following the noun.<br />
<br />
====Possessive Constructions====<br />
<br />
1) If only pronouns are involved as the possessor then the possessum is marked with the appropriate possessive suffix.<br />
<br />
2) If a noun is involved as the possessor then the possessum is marked with the appropriate suffix, most commonly 3rd or 4th person, and the possessor takes the ergative case.<br />
<br />
====Numerals====<br />
<br />
1) Magellanic uses a hybrid vigesimal-decimal system with a sub-base of 5..<br />
<br />
2) The numerals of Magellanican are listed in the table below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|||Numeral<br />
|-<br />
|0||rheru<br />
|-<br />
|1||in<br />
|-<br />
|2||ek<br />
|-<br />
|3||ma<br />
|-<br />
|4||tu<br />
|-<br />
|5||tam<br />
|-<br />
|6||tamin<br />
|-<br />
|7||tamek<br />
|-<br />
|8||tamma<br />
|-<br />
|9||tantu<br />
|-<br />
|10||tuqet<br />
|-<br />
|11||tuqetin<br />
|-<br />
|12||tuqetek<br />
|-<br />
|13||tuqetma<br />
|-<br />
|14||tuqettu<br />
|-<br />
|15||tuqettam<br />
|-<br />
|16||tuqettamin<br />
|-<br />
|17||tuqettamek<br />
|-<br />
|18||tuqettamma<br />
|-<br />
|19||tuqettantu<br />
|-<br />
|20||likti<br />
|-<br />
|40||ektikti<br />
|-<br />
|60||matikti<br />
|-<br />
|80||tulikti<br />
|-<br />
|100||nette<br />
|-<br />
|200||eknette<br />
|-<br />
|1.000||utkap<br />
|-<br />
|1.965||utkap tantunette matikti tam<br />
|-<br />
|3.000||maqutkap<br />
|-<br />
|10.000||paru<br />
|-<br />
|50.000||tamparu<br />
|-<br />
|100.000||avhē<br />
|-<br />
|600.000||taminavhē<br />
|-<br />
|1.000.000||jenni<br />
|-<br />
|7.000.000||tamejhenni<br />
|}<br />
<br />
3) Numeral strings precede from left to right, highest exponent numerals first.<br />
<br />
4) Numerals from 21 to 99 are formed by the appropriate vigesimal numeral plus the appropriate numeral from 1 to 19.<br />
<br />
5) The decimal numerals from 100 and over are prefixed with a number from 1-9 as a multiplier.<br />
<br />
6) Cardinal numerals precede the noun.<br />
<br />
7) Ordinal numerals follow the noun and take the equative case. They take final position in the noun modifier string.<br />
<br />
===Verbal Morphology===<br />
<br />
====General Remarks On Verbal Morphology====<br />
<br />
1) Verbs express actions, processes or states of being. Verbs are inflected for A, S and O arguments, aspect, valency and mood.<br />
<br />
2) Maximal verbal structure:<br />
<br />
verbal or nominal root + derivational suffix(es) + aspect suffix + mood suffix + ergative pronominal suffix + absolutive pronominal suffix<br />
<br />
====Verbal Pronominal Suffixes====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| Person || Absolutive Suffix (Allomorph)|| Ergative Suffix<br />
|-<br />
| 1st Person Singular || -ni (-n) || -nti<br />
|-<br />
|2nd Person Singular||-ki(-k)||-kti<br />
|-<br />
| 3rd Person Singular|| -ti(-t)||-tti<br />
|-<br />
|4th Person Sinɡular||-pi (-p)||-pti<br />
|-<br />
|5th Person Singular||-li (-l)||-lti<br />
|-<br />
| 1st Person Paucal Exclusive || -nuk|| -ntuk<br />
|-<br />
| 1st Person Paucal Inclusive || -qkuk|| -niktuk<br />
|-<br />
| 2nd Person Paucal || -kuk|| -ktuk<br />
|-<br />
| 3rd Person Paucal|| -tuk|| -ttuk<br />
|-<br />
|4th Person Paucal||-puk||-ptuk<br />
|-<br />
|5th Person Paucal ||-luk||-ltuk<br />
|-<br />
| 1st Person Plural Exclusive|| -nat || -ntat<br />
|-<br />
| 1st Person Plural Inclusive || -qkat|| -niktat<br />
|-<br />
|2nd Person Plural||-kat||-ktat<br />
|-<br />
|3rd Person Plural||-tat||-ttat<br />
|-<br />
|4th Person Plural||-pat||-ptat<br />
|-<br />
|5th Person Plural||-lat||-ltat<br />
|}<br />
<br />
NB: Parenthesised forms are word-final allomorphs employed after a short vowel.<br />
<br />
====Voice====<br />
<br />
1) Transitive verbs in Magellanican have three voices:<br />
<br />
a) Active<br />
<br />
b) Antipassive<br />
<br />
c) Passive<br />
<br />
2) These are indicated by the presence or absence of verbal pronominal suffices as per the table below:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|Voice||Abbreviation||Ergative Suffix?||Absolutive Suffix?||Promoted Argument||Case Of Demoted Argument||Function<br />
|-<br />
|Active||ACT||Yes||Yes||N/A||N/A||No topicalisation of either argument<br />
|-<br />
|Antipassive||ANTIP||Yes||No||ERG||DAT||Topicalisation of A argument<br />
|-<br />
|Passive||PAS||No||Yes||ABS||INST||Topicalisation of O argument<br />
|}<br />
<br />
3) Intransitive verbs do not indicate voice as their S argument is the only topic of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Mood and Modality====<br />
<br />
1) Magellanican has four formally marked moods. These are listed in the table below:<br />
<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|Mood||Abbrevation||Suffix||Function<br />
|-<br />
|Indicative||IND||-∅||Declarative statements<br />
|-<br />
|Interrogative||INT||-kī||Polar Questions<br />
|-<br />
|Conditional||COND||-ntu||"If" statements<br />
|-<br />
|Coordinative||COORD||-tvā||Marks an action going on at the same time as another action.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
2) Other distinctions of modality are conveyed by several derivational suffixes.<br />
<br />
====Negation====<br />
<br />
1) Negation is indicated by the particle tā. This precedes the verb.<br />
<br />
2) tā can occur independently, having the meaning 'no!' or 'don't!".<br />
<br />
====The Imperative And Prohibitive====<br />
<br />
1) The imperative indicates that an order to perform an action is made. The base form of the verb marks the imperative.<br />
<br />
2) The prohibitive marks that an order to not perform an action is made. The prohibitive is formed by placing the negative particle va before the base form of the verb.<br />
<br />
====Tense====<br />
<br />
Magellanican lacks tense as a grammatical category. However, tense-like functions are provided by several derivational suffixes.<br />
<br />
====Aspect====<br />
<br />
1) Magellanican has two aspects. These are listed in the table below:<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|Name|| Abbreviation|| Suffix||Function<br />
|-<br />
|Imperfective||IPFV||-∅||Indicates an ongoing action<br />
|-<br />
|Perfective||PFV||-lle||Marks a completed action<br />
|}<br />
<br />
2) Other aspectual distinctions can be conveyed by several derivational suffixes.<br />
<br />
====The Gerund====<br />
<br />
1) The gerund uses the suffix -ken which is adde in lieu of pronominal ergative or absolutive suffixes<br />
<br />
2) It transforms the verb into a noun which can be used much as any noun can.<br />
<br />
====Adverbs====<br />
<br />
1) Magellanican lacks true adverbs.<br />
<br />
2) Forms conveying adverbial meanings appear in three classes:<br />
<br />
a) A noun in equative case following a verb.<br />
<br />
b) Several derivational suffixes with adverbial meanings attached to the verb.<br />
<br />
====Relativisation====<br />
<br />
1) Magellanican lacks relative pronouns and uses gap relativisation.<br />
<br />
2) A relativised clause follows the noun it modifies.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Other Parts Of Speech===<br />
====Adpositions====<br />
1) Magellanican lacks true adpositions.<br />
<br />
2) It does have three classes of adposition-equivalents:<br />
<br />
a) The non-core cases which have adpositional functions but are often quite general in their application.<br />
<br />
b) Relativised stative verbs with an adpositional sense which are more specific in application than cases.<br />
<br />
c) Suffixes on the verb.<br />
<br />
====Derivational Suffixes====<br />
<br />
1) There are hundreds of derivational suffixes in Magellanican and they fall into the following types:<br />
<br />
a) Denominalisers<br />
<br />
b) Deverbalisers<br />
<br />
c) Attributive<br />
<br />
d) Adverbial<br />
<br />
e) Miscellaneous<br />
<br />
2) Denominalisers turn a noun into a verb.<br />
<br />
3) Derverbalisers turn a verb into a noun.<br />
<br />
4) Attributives add a descriptive sense to nouns and verbs.<br />
<br />
4) Adverbials impart various temporal and locative meanings to verbs<br />
<br />
5) Miscellaneous suffixes change the meaning of nouns and verbs without changing their classes.<br />
<br />
==Syntax==<br />
===Constituent order===<br />
===Noun phrase===<br />
===Verb phrase===<br />
===Sentence phrase===<br />
===Dependent clauses===<br />
<!-- etc. etc. --><br />
<br />
==Lexicon==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|English||Magellanican<br />
|-<br />
|apple||mantan<br />
|-<br />
|banana||mhanan<br />
|-<br />
|beryl||larhin<br />
|-<br />
|boat||kilja<br />
|-<br />
|borax||qitte<br />
|-<br />
|boy||tunni<br />
|-<br />
|brother||larin<br />
|-<br />
|cat (placental)||jatu<br />
|-<br />
|cheetah (marsupial)||qaltan<br />
|-<br />
|coal||munra<br />
|-<br />
|cow (marsupial)||jatke<br />
|-<br />
|cow (placental)||mhaka<br />
|-<br />
|celebration||lipta<br />
|-<br />
|child||laaphi<br />
|-<br />
|chocolate||rhuulhat<br />
|-<br />
|coffee||kappe<br />
|-<br />
|community||kara<br />
|-<br />
|copper||wēke<br />
|-<br />
|cost, price||lhitu<br />
|-<br />
|dagger||qelha<br />
|-<br />
|darkness||walru<br />
|-<br />
|dog-badger (marsupial)||wekpek<br />
|-<br />
|dog (placental)||peru, quurii<br />
|-<br />
|doll||numwak<br />
|-<br />
|domestic species of Magellanican goose||hanhi<br />
|-<br />
|leopard-bear (marsupial)||makar<br />
|-<br />
|dwarf (mythological)||takal<br />
|-<br />
|eel||ninrak<br />
|-<br />
|elf||qejak<br />
|-<br />
|face||lurti<br />
|-<br />
|father||qata<br />
|-<br />
|fellow||qithup<br />
|-<br />
|finger||karak<br />
|-<br />
|finger-ring||kerpun<br />
|-<br />
|fire||jarha<br />
|-<br />
|flower||wetta<br />
|-<br />
|football||phutpal<br />
|-<br />
|forest||nuna<br />
|-<br />
|fox (marsupial)||rewek<br />
|-<br />
|garden||rhuuha<br />
|-<br />
|giant otter-platypus (monotreme)||hirta<br />
|-<br />
|girl||lirha<br />
|-<br />
|glass||hellu<br />
|-<br />
|good fortune||qanak<br />
|-<br />
|grandfather||qanra<br />
|-<br />
|grandmother||qawha<br />
|-<br />
|heartbeat||tumtum<br />
|-<br />
|horse (placental)||kamhal<br />
|-<br />
|horse-tapir (marsupial)||tunta<br />
|-<br />
|house||qenlu<br />
|-<br />
|ice||hilku<br />
|-<br />
|idiot||nalla<br />
|-<br />
|Indian Ocean||Qinnik<br />
|-<br />
|king||tanek<br />
|-<br />
|language||nawha<br />
|-<br />
|letter||quljek<br />
|-<br />
|life||muuqe<br />
|-<br />
|liquor||traju<br />
|-<br />
|liver||jepil<br />
|-<br />
|Magellanica||Telku<br />
|-<br />
|mammoth (marsupial)||munnu<br />
|-<br />
|man||janak<br />
|-<br />
|money||qekhep<br />
|-<br />
|month||lhina<br />
|-<br />
|moon||lhina<br />
|-<br />
|mountain||kaja<br />
|-<br />
|mother||qama<br />
|-<br />
|negro||nekur<br />
|-<br />
|night||natar<br />
|-<br />
|nitre||qirkun<br />
|-<br />
|orange||naran<br />
|-<br />
|person||luuhi<br />
|-<br />
|pig (marsupial)||parkaa<br />
|-<br />
|pig (placental)||kellu, puqa<br />
|-<br />
|pillow||qajen<br />
|-<br />
|pistol||qelha jarhat<br />
|-<br />
|rabbit (marsupial)||keppa<br />
|-<br />
|rain||wakan<br />
|-<br />
|raccoon (marsupial)||willuu<br />
|-<br />
|rifle||qelhat jarhat<br />
|-<br />
|road||wiqe<br />
|-<br />
|sabre-tooth tiger (marsupial)||kaptan<br />
|-<br />
|salt||rhuune<br />
|-<br />
|sea||qirhat<br />
|-<br />
|shadow||jewet<br />
|-<br />
|sister||kaluu<br />
|-<br />
|sky||lahi<br />
|-<br />
|social group||kara<br />
|-<br />
|spear||qelhat<br />
|-<br />
|spouse||melki<br />
|-<br />
|stone (substance)|| tulke<br />
|-<br />
|sun||rhahaa<br />
|-<br />
|sword||rhiqak<br />
|-<br />
|taro||tara<br />
|-<br />
|tea||qitee<br />
|-<br />
|tavern||puuni<br />
|-<br />
|temple||turup<br />
|-<br />
|thing||latpu<br />
|-<br />
|thumb||kuptu<br />
|-<br />
|tree||rhuqee<br />
|-<br />
|vampire (European)||wamre<br />
|-<br />
|voice||nawha<br />
|-<br />
|water||ninta<br />
|-<br />
|wind||whertu<br />
|-<br />
|wolf (marsupial)||naaru<br />
|-<br />
|woman||kimet<br />
|-<br />
|world||hanra<br />
|-<br />
|word||quljek<br />
|-<br />
|zebra (marsupial)||hapa<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|English||Magellanican<br />
|-<br />
|be awake||qalwin<br />
|-<br />
|be beautiful||wata<br />
|-<br />
|be brave|| tathak<br />
|-<br />
|be cold||hekal<br />
|-<br />
|be diseased||narun<br />
|-<br />
|be free, have freedom||qelee<br />
|-<br />
|be good||qiktuu<br />
|-<br />
|be important||qaran<br />
|-<br />
|be kind||taara<br />
|-<br />
|be thirsty||arwaa<br />
|-<br />
|be wicked||marha<br />
|-<br />
|bite||kalka<br />
|-<br />
|blame||kāma<br />
|-<br />
|bully, dog, harry||nipmin<br />
|-<br />
|carouse||tijam<br />
|-<br />
|choose||kiimi<br />
|-<br />
|die||hirhu<br />
|-<br />
|discuss||kenja<br />
|-<br />
|drink||kinkat<br />
|-<br />
|eat||matu<br />
|-<br />
|enjoy||tajak<br />
|-<br />
|examine||nara<br />
|-<br />
|fade||miki<br />
|-<br />
|fight||jhunni<br />
|-<br />
|flee||quktee<br />
|-<br />
|go||palka<br />
|-<br />
|hate||waren<br />
|-<br />
|hear||lhaathi<br />
|-<br />
|help||qalma<br />
|-<br />
|howl||nawa<br />
|-<br />
|jump, leap||phatte<br />
|-<br />
|kill||qutkwa<br />
|-<br />
|laugh||lalha<br />
|-<br />
|learn||qitta<br />
|-<br />
|like||tajak<br />
|-<br />
|love||kimje<br />
|-<br />
|merit||qirhu<br />
|-<br />
|return||tuli<br />
|-<br />
|sleep||qikna<br />
|-<br />
|tell||penta<br />
|-<br />
|urinate||qurhuk<br />
|-<br />
|wander||wilte<br />
|-<br />
|wane||miki<br />
|-<br />
|weave||kumuu<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Suffixes===<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|English||Magellanican<br />
|-<br />
|agentive deverbaliser||-jak<br />
|-<br />
|allow, let, permit||-whim<br />
|-<br />
|always||-qutkuu<br />
|-<br />
|be big||-pkak<br />
|-<br />
|be filled with||-hawit<br />
|-<br />
|be good||-tara<br />
|-<br />
|be grey, be dressed in grey, be grey-haired, be old||-litta<br />
|-<br />
|be hungry||-karaa<br />
|-<br />
|be lean, be skinny, be underfed||-tiila<br />
|-<br />
|be red, be dressed in red, be red-haired||-rutta<br />
|-<br />
|be white, be dressed in white, be fair-haired||-karik<br />
|-<br />
|can||-nnus<br />
|-<br />
|cute, small||-tkal<br />
|-<br />
|for a time||-tpi<br />
|-<br />
|forever||-njup<br />
|-<br />
|from mud, using mud||-maru<br />
|-<br />
|group of things||-kalwe<br />
|-<br />
|have a nostalgic quality||-jaari<br />
|-<br />
|have an urge to||-kawhit<br />
|-<br />
|intend to||-nnep<br />
|-<br />
|instrumental deverbaliser||-tpet<br />
|-<br />
|just now||-tukhe<br />
|-<br />
|must||-mithu<br />
|-<br />
|need||-ljuu<br />
|-<br />
|objective deverbaliser||-pin<br />
|-<br />
|possibly||-nee<br />
|-<br />
|so it is said||-kpenta<br />
|-<br />
|still, nonetheless||-juu<br />
|-<br />
|subjective deverbaliser||-pin<br />
|-<br />
|through, piercing||-knut<br />
|-<br />
|to be||-mmek<br />
|-<br />
|to cause||-tuwa<br />
|-<br />
|to do||-tuwa<br />
|-<br />
|to have||-min<br />
|-<br />
|to make||-tuwa<br />
|-<br />
|to regret||-qewee<br />
|-<br />
|to seem||-luthi<br />
|-<br />
|tomorrow||-jerhe<br />
|-<br />
|truly||-qathan<br />
|-<br />
|under||-nnu<br />
|-<br />
|very||-pkak<br />
|-<br />
|yesterday||-lanti<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Particles===<br />
<br />
{|class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
|English||Magellanican<br />
|-<br />
|and||jam<br />
|-<br />
|but||jam<br />
|-<br />
|many (emphatic)||rim<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Example texts==<br />
==Other resources==<br />
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. --><br />
<br />
<!-- Template area --><br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:Languages]]</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215296User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-05T00:21:37Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* Late IE */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_'' ('''we follow the idea that the 'plain' velars were marked +uvulars or something of the like, so we take *k to be lowering of *e, a first in IE conlangs?''')<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# accented, stodded e breaks<br />
#: *éˀ → *ei̯<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: *oy → *ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
#: *eyː → i:<br />
# weakening of affricates, deaffrication before resonants<br />
#: ''*t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ→ *ʃ *ʒ'' / _{l r m n}<br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# glottalized syllables gain the 'broken' rising-falling accentuation<br />
# an opposition between rising, rising-falling, falling, low appears as accent system reorganizes<br />
#: neutral → falling<br />
#: accented → rising<br />
#: accented + stød → rising-falling<br />
#: breathy voice → low<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''*ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
<br />
== examples == <br />
Amess. {{IPA|/ḭ᷈ːt͡sir/}} '''и̃цьр''' 'path, trail' ← *{{IPA|ḭ᷈ːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈iːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈i̯jt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|éˀyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héytɨr}} ← PIE. *{{IPA|h₁éy-tr̥}} 'way, road'<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215295User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-05T00:06:37Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* some time later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# accented, stodded e breaks<br />
#: *éˀ → *ei̯<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: *oy → *ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
#: *eyː → i:<br />
# weakening of affricates, deaffrication before resonants<br />
#: ''*t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ→ *ʃ *ʒ'' / _{l r m n}<br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# glottalized syllables gain the 'broken' rising-falling accentuation<br />
# an opposition between rising, rising-falling, falling, low appears as accent system reorganizes<br />
#: neutral → falling<br />
#: accented → rising<br />
#: accented + stød → rising-falling<br />
#: breathy voice → low<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''*ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
<br />
== examples == <br />
Amess. {{IPA|/ḭ᷈ːt͡sir/}} '''и̃цьр''' 'path, trail' ← *{{IPA|ḭ᷈ːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈iːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈i̯jt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|éˀyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héytɨr}} ← PIE. *{{IPA|h₁éy-tr̥}} 'way, road'<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215294User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-05T00:04:06Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* some time later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# accented, stodded e breaks<br />
#: *éˀ → *ei̯<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: *oy → *ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
#: *eyː → i:<br />
# weakening of affricates, deaffrication before resonants<br />
#: ''*t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ→ *ʃ *ʒ'' / _{l r m n}<br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''*ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
<br />
== examples == <br />
Amess. {{IPA|/ḭ᷈ːt͡sir/}} '''и̃цьр''' 'path, trail' ← *{{IPA|ḭ᷈ːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈iːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈i̯jt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|éˀyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héytɨr}} ← PIE. *{{IPA|h₁éy-tr̥}} 'way, road'<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215293User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-05T00:02:16Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* some time later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# accented, stodded e breaks<br />
#: *éˀ → *ei̯<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: *oy → *ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
#: *eyː → i:<br />
# weakening before resonants<br />
#: ''t͡ʃ → *s'' / _{l r m n}<br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''*ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
<br />
== examples == <br />
Amess. {{IPA|/ḭ᷈ːt͡sir/}} '''и̃цьр''' 'path, trail' ← *{{IPA|ḭ᷈ːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈iːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈i̯jt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|éˀyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héytɨr}} ← PIE. *{{IPA|h₁éy-tr̥}} 'way, road'<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215292User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T23:12:13Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* examples */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# accented, stodded e breaks<br />
#: *éˀ → *ei̯<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: *oy → *ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
#: *eyː → i:<br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''*ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
<br />
== examples == <br />
Amess. {{IPA|/ḭ᷈ːt͡sir/}} '''и̃цьр''' 'path, trail' ← *{{IPA|ḭ᷈ːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈iːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈i̯jt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|éˀyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héytɨr}} ← PIE. *{{IPA|h₁éy-tr̥}} 'way, road'<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215291User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T23:11:51Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* even later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# accented, stodded e breaks<br />
#: *éˀ → *ei̯<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: *oy → *ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
#: *eyː → i:<br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''*ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
<br />
== examples == <br />
Amess. {{IPA|/ḭ᷈ːt͡sir/}} '''и̃цьр''' 'path, trail' ← *{{IPA|ḭ᷈ːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈iːt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|ḛ᷈i̯jt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|éˀyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héyt͡ʃɨr}} ← *{{IPA|Héytɨr}} ← *h₁éy-tr̥ 'way, road'<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215290User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T22:57:39Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* some time later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# accented, stodded e breaks<br />
#: *éˀ → *ei̯<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: *oy → *ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
#: *eyː → i:<br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''*ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215289User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T22:57:23Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* some time later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# accented, stodded e breaks<br />
#: *éˀ → *ei̯<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: *oy → *ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
#: *eiː → i:<br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''*ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215288User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T22:57:01Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* some time later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# accented, stodded e breaks<br />
#: *éˀ → *ei̯<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
#: *eiː → i:<br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215287User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T22:56:35Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* some time later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# accented, stodded e breaks<br />
#: *éˀ → *ei̯<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
#: long *ei → i:<br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215286User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T22:54:02Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* early amessian */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# accented, stodded e breaks<br />
#: *éˀ → *ei̯<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215285User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T22:41:16Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* early amessian */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215284User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T22:41:04Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* early amessian */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew, *ey in non-accented syllables<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw, *ey → *ay*''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215283User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T21:59:03Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* early amessian */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i) (?≃?'3sg-indeed-he-now')<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215282User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T21:58:28Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* early amessian */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ke-i (<? *-t-g(ʰ)i-ḱe-i)<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskei'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215281User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T21:54:32Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* early amessian */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ka-i (<? *-t-gH?-i)<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskai'', '''however''', the copula remains ''*Hessi'' for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215280User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T21:54:17Z<p>Chrysophylax: </p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# merger of present 2sg, 3sg into -si<br />
#: ''*Hest͡si 'he is' → *Hessi'' 'thou, he is'<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# innovated 3sg pres. ending in -s-ka-i (<? *-t-gH?-i)<br />
#: ''*bʰeret͡si replaced by *bʰereskai'', '''however''', the copula remains Hessi for {{sc|3sg.pres}}<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215279User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T21:46:27Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* Late IE */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
== Dialectal IE ==<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215278User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T19:31:43Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* early amessian */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# lowering of *ew<br />
#: ''*ew → *aw''<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215277User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T19:01:03Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* early amessian */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
# loss of word-final -d, -t<br />
#: ''*d *t'' → Ø / _#<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215276User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T18:57:41Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* some time later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
# accent retraction from final to mid syllables<br />
# creation of new neuter class by suffixation of existing s-neuters with -mɨn. all traces of s-neuters absorbed.<br />
#: má:kos (N). → máːkosmɨn (N.)<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215275User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T18:51:09Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* Late IE */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
# assimilation of m to s<br />
#: m -> n / _s<br />
#:: e.g. mēnsaH < *mēms-eh2<br />
<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215274User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T18:45:15Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* some time later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
# ō<sub>2</sub> (but not ō<sub>1</sub> )merges with long a<br />
#: ''ō<sub>2</sub> → *a:''<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215273User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T18:44:16Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* some time later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → ō<sub>2</sub> <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylaxhttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history&diff=215272User:Chrysophylax/amaits/history2021-01-04T18:39:13Z<p>Chrysophylax: /* even later */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European =<br />
== Late IE ==<br />
# colouring of vowels <br />
#: ''*e → *a / _[*k *h2], [*h2]_''<br />
#: ''*e → *o / _[*h3], [*h3]_''<br />
# lengthening and deletion of laryngeals<br />
#: VHC → V:C<br />
# merger of laryngeals into one except for H3 in some environments??<br />
#: ''*h1 *h2 *h3'' → ''H'' <br />
#: ''*h3 → *gʷ / C_C''<br />
#: ''*h3 → *ɦ?? / _V''<br />
# loss of intervocalic jod, leads to crasis<br />
#: ''*j → Ø / V_V''<br />
# vocalisation of syllabic resonants<br />
#: ''*R → *ɨR''<br />
# tt > ss<br />
#: *tt → *ss / V_V<br />
# dative, instrumental plural replace -bʰ- with -m- (shared NE isogloss)<br />
# *-bʰí > *-mí, -bʰos > -mos<br />
<br />
== early amessian ==<br />
# fortition of onset j <br />
#: ''*j → ʒ / #_V''<br />
# partial satemization with plain velars fronting causing chain shift of palatovelars to (af)fricates<br />
#: ''*k *g *gʰ → *k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ'' <br />
#: ''*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ → *t͡ʃ *d͡ʒ *ʑ''<br />
# assibilation of t before i<br />
#: ''*t > *t͡s / _i''<br />
# regressive velarization of sonorants <br />
#: ''*m *n *l *r → *mˠ *nˠ *lˠ *rˠ / _{u w}'' <br />
#:: e.g. *glˠubʰós (< *glewbʰ- + -ós), occurs in zero-grades commonly but also *nu → *nˠu<br />
# laryngeals resolve to chroneme, glottal elements or *a before R, C<br />
#: ''CeH → Ce:''<br />
#: ''HeC → eˀC-''<br />
#: ''ɦeC → e̤C''<br />
#: ''CHR'' → *ar''<br />
#: ''CHC'' → CaC''<br />
# shared crazy with balto-slavic: initial e vacillates between e~a<br />
#: ''*e → *a / #_'' '''(sporadic)'''<br />
# thinning of clusters<br />
#: ''VC → Vː / #_{affricate}''<br />
# develarization of *gʷ<br />
#: ''*gʷ → *b'' / _e <br />
# accented, stodded o breaks<br />
#: *óˀ → *uɘ̯i̯<br />
#:: e.g. *óˀskɨr → *uɘ̯i̯skɨr (< *Hóh₃s-k-r̥ 'ash tree (material)')<br />
# second palatalisation: fronted velars before front vowels<br />
#: ''*k̟ *g̟ *g̟ʰ → *c *ɟ *ʝ / _[+front]<br />
# delabialization of labiovelars<br />
#: ''*kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ' → *k *g *gʰ / _{+round +sonorant} '' '''nb. next syllable counts'''<br />
# merger of *ʝ and *ɟ<br />
#: *ɟ → *ʝ<br />
# rounding of front after labiovelar<br />
#: *i → *ʉ / [+velar +labial]_<br />
<br />
== some time later ==<br />
#delabialization of u after velars or velarized consonants<br />
#: ''*u'' → *ɨ / [+velarized]_<br />
#:: e.g. *nˠu → *nˠɨ<br />
# smoothing of diphthongs <br />
#: oy → o: <br />
# labiovelars merge with w <br />
#: ''*gʷ → w / _w''<br />
<br />
== even later ==<br />
# aː → ai̯ / _[+palatal]<br />
# t͡ʃ → t͡s<br />
<br />
= Morphosyntactic changes =<br />
== Loss of nominal inflections ==<br />
== Derivational innovations ==</div>Chrysophylax