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Linguifex - User contributions [en]
2024-03-28T11:49:28Z
User contributions
MediaWiki 1.39.1
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=B%C5%BAatga/Culture&diff=365249
Bźatga/Culture
2024-03-18T20:59:46Z
<p>Psammead: Created page with "===History=== According to their semi-legendary history, the origins of the Bźatan people lie with the exile of Venģa, king of the Bźaţi people, from Prêńa (Great Britain) by the Romans ''c''.80 AD. Setting sail from the west coast of Prêńa in one of seven ships, the king and his allies sailed westward into the Atlantic Ocean in search of an island believed to lie beyond the horizon. After three weeks of hard sailing they eventually landed on the shores of ''Ǎĺ..."</p>
<hr />
<div>===History===<br />
According to their semi-legendary history, the origins of the Bźatan people lie with the exile of Venģa, king of the Bźaţi people, from Prêńa (Great Britain) by the Romans ''c''.80 AD. Setting sail from the west coast of Prêńa in one of seven ships, the king and his allies sailed westward into the Atlantic Ocean in search of an island believed to lie beyond the horizon. After three weeks of hard sailing they eventually landed on the shores of ''Ǎĺêsa'', the main eastern isle of the ''Ensva Veśru''. Here the exiles settled under Venģa's leadership. <br />
<br />
While this story contains literary imagery, the origin of the Bźaţi people within mainland Britain aligns with the origins of their language within Common Brittonic, which was spoken across mainland Britain prior to the arrival of the Romans. <br />
<br />
===Religion===</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bzatga&diff=360568
Bzatga
2024-02-24T10:33:29Z
<p>Psammead: Redirected page to Bźatga</p>
<hr />
<div>#REDIRECT [[B%C5%BAatga]]</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Proto-Rathmosian/Later_Developments&diff=360156
Proto-Rathmosian/Later Developments
2024-02-19T11:41:19Z
<p>Psammead: /* Summary of Vowel Changes */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Common Changes===<br />
* unstressed ''eC'' > ''iC'' and ''eyC'' > ''iyC''<br />
* word-final, short ''a, e'' lost in words of 3 or more syllables: ''negara'' > ''negar''<br />
* loss of word-final nasals ''-n'', ''-m'' with nasalisation or preceding vowel, creating new ''ą, ę, į, ų, ɚ'' and ''ąą, ęę, įį, ųų''<br />
* loss of word-final ''-t'' <br />
* raising of ''e'' > ''i'', ''ew > iw'' and ''ey'' > ''iy'' before ''i'' or ''y'' in the next syllable<br />
* loss of ''y'' between vowels and contraction of remaining vowels<br />
* loss of word-final short, non-nasal vowels in words of 3 or more syllables: ''negani'' > ''negan''<br />
* raising of ''a(a)'' > ''ä(ä)'', ''u(u)'' > ''ü(ü)'' before ''i, y'' in the following syllable<br />
* lowering of ''u(u)'' > new vowel ''o(o)'' before ''a(a), ä(ä), ą(ą)'' in the next syllable: ''kukad'' "he eats" > ''kokad''.<br />
* unstressed diphthongs become long vowels: ''aw > oo, ay > ee, ew > oo, ey > ee''<br />
* final-syllable long vowels shortened<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! Pr-Rs!! Stressed !! Unstressed !! Word-Final !! i-mutated || -n/-m <br />
|-<br />
! a <br />
| colspan="2;" | a || a / - || ä || ą <br />
|-<br />
! e<br />
| e || i || e / - || i || į <br />
|- <br />
! i<br />
| colspan="2;" | i || i / - || || į <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" | u<br />
| colspan="2;" | u || u / - || ü || ų <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2;" | o (bef. ''a'') || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! ə<br />
| colspan="2;" | ə || || || ę <br />
|-<br />
! aa <br />
| colspan="2;" | aa || a || ää || ą <br />
|-<br />
! ee<br />
| colspan="2;" | ee || e || ii || ę<br />
|- <br />
! ii<br />
| colspan="2;" | ii || i || || į <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" | uu<br />
| colspan="2;" | uu || u || üü || ų <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2;" | oo || o || ||<br />
|-<br />
! aw<br />
| aw || oo || o || äw || -ǫ<br />
|-<br />
! ew<br />
| ew || öö || e || iw || -ę<br />
|-<br />
! iw<br />
| iw || üü || i || iw || -į<br />
|-<br />
! uw<br />
| uw || uu || u || üw || -ų<br />
|-<br />
! ay<br />
| ay || ää || e || äy || -ę<br />
|-<br />
! ey<br />
| ey || ee || e || iy || -ę<br />
|-<br />
! iy<br />
| iy || ii || i || || -į<br />
|-<br />
! uy<br />
| uy || üü || i || uy || -ų<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The changes described above resulted in the following vowel inventory for the late common period:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" | !! colspan="2;" | Front !! Central !! Back<br />
|-<br />
! -Round !! +Round !! -Round !! +Round<br />
|-<br />
! Close <br />
|| ''i'' /i/ <br>''ii'' /iː/ <br> ''į'' /ĩ/ || ''ü'' /y/ <br> ''üü'' /yː/ || || ''u'' /u/ <br> ''uu'' /uː/ <br> ''ų'' /ũ/<br />
|-<br />
! Mid<br />
|| ''e'' /e/ <br> ''ee'' /eː/ <br> ''ę'' /ẽ/ || ''ö'' /ø/ <br> ''öö'' /øː/ || ''ə'' /ə/ || ''o'' /o/ <br> ''oo'' /oː/ <br> ''ǫ'' /õ/<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| ''ä'' /æ/ <br> ''ää'' /æː/ || || ''a'' /a/ <br> ''aa'' /aː/ <br> ''ą'' /ã/ ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Rathmos Changes===<br />
* ''ə(ə)'' > ''e(e)'', ''ɚ > a''<br />
* nasals followed by fricatives are lost, leading to compensatory lengthening and nasalisation of preceding vowel: ''negans'' > ''negąąs''<br />
* ''Cy'' > ''CC'', except ''ry''<br />
* ''g'' > /ɣ/ in most positions, except ''ng, gg''<br />
* ''ts > ''ss''<br />
* ''p, t, k'' > ''f, þ, h'' and ''b, d > v, ð'' before ''n, m, l, r''<br />
* ''a(a)'' and ''ay'' raised to ''ä(ä), äy'' except before ''-n, -m'' or before a back vowel (''a(a), o(o), u(u)'') in the next syllable<br />
** unstressed ''äC'' > ''eC''<br />
* word-final ''-a'' lost<br />
* nasal vowels merge with non-nasal counterparts<br />
* stressed ''ä, e, i'' > ''äw, ew, iw'' before ''-w, -lC, rC''<br />
* changes to diphthongs: ''ay > ae, aw > ao, äy > äe, äw > äo > ea, ey > ee, ew > eo, iy > ii, iw > iü, uw > uu, uy > uü. <br />
* ''k, g, sk'' palatalised to ''ch'' /t͡ʃ/, ''ȝ'' /ʝ/, ''sh'' /ʃ/ (a) before a front vowel (''ä, e, i, ü'') or ''y'', or (b) after ''e, i'' except when followed by a back vowel: ''negara > neger > neȝer'' but ''neganta > negan''<br />
* i-mutation: ''a(a) > ä(ä), e(e) > i(i), o(o) > ö(ö), u(u) > ü(ü)'' before ''i, y'' in next syllable<br />
* word-final ''-i, -u'' lost, except after light monosyllable<br />
* unstressed vowel reduction:<br />
** medial syllable: ''a, ä, e'' lost, ''i, u'' lost after heavy syllable, > ''e'' after light syllable, ''oo'' > ''o'', other long vowels > short<br />
** final syllable: ''ä, i'' > ''e'', ''uC'' > ''oC'', ''oo > u'', other long vowels > short<br />
* medial ''h'' lost before vowels and consonants with compensatory lengthening<br />
* medial ''f, s'' > ''v, z'', ''ss > s''<br />
<br />
===Carrick Changes===<br />
* ''ə(ə), ɚ > a''<br />
* nasal vowels merge with non-nasal counterparts<br />
* i-mutation: ''a(a) > ä(ä), o(o) > ö(ö), u(u) > ü(ü)'' before ''i, y'' in next syllable<br />
* stressed ''e(e)'' > ''ja(a)'', except after ''l, w''<br />
* u-mutation: ''a(a) > o(o), ja(a) > jo(o), ä(ä) > œ(œ), e(e) > ö(ö), i(i) > ü(ü)<br />
* ''y'' lost before front vowels and ''w'' before back vowels, except ''a''<br />
* devoicing of word-final consonants<br />
* ''mp, nk, nt > pp, kk, tt''<br />
<br />
===Summary of Vowel Changes===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Change !! ''kupakuren'' <br> "smell" (loc.pl.) !! ''feyhilep'' <br> "fighter" (dat.sg.) || ''gawuya'' <br> "feast" (gen.sg.) || ''reykitset'' <br> "he loves you" || ''pupurad'' <br> "it glistened"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="6;" | Common <br />
|-<br />
| unstressed ''e > i'' || ''kupakurin'' || ''feyhilip'' || ''gawuya'' || ''reykitsit'' ||<br />
|-<br />
| wf. ''-a, -e'' lost || || || ''gawuy'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
| wf. ''-n, -m'' lost || ''kupakurį'' || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| wf. ''-t'' lost || || || || ''reykitsi'' || <br />
|-<br />
| i-mutation of ''e, ey, ew'' || || ''fiyhilip'' || || ''riykitsi'' || <br />
|-<br />
| intervocalic ''y'' lost || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| wf. oral short vowels lost || || || || ''riykits'' ||<br />
|-<br />
| i-mutation of ''a, u'' || ''kupakürį'' || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| a-mutation of ''u'' || ''kopakürį'' || || || || ''puporad''<br />
|-<br />
| unstressed diphthongs > long vowels || || || ''gawüü'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
| final-syllable long vowels > short vowels || || || ''gawi'' > ''gäwi'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="6;" | Rathmos<br />
|-<br />
| ''ə(ə) > e(e)'' || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| loss of nasals before fricatives || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| gemination of Cy || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| /g/ > /ɣ/ || || || ''ġäwi'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''ts > ss'' || || || || ''riykiss''<br />
|-<br />
| ''p, t, k'' > ''f, þ, h'' and ''b, d'' > ''v, ð'' bef. ''n, m, l, r'' || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| fronting of ''a(a), ay'' || ''kopäkürį'' || || || || ''puporäd'' <br />
|-<br />
| wf. ''-a'' lost || || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| loss of nasalisation || ''kopäküri'' || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| stressed ''ä, e, i > äw, ew, iw'' || || || ''ġäuwi'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
| diphthong changes || || ''fíhilip'' || ''ġäowi'' || ''riikiss'' ||<br />
|-<br />
| palatalisation of ''k, g, sk'' || ''kopächüri'' || || ''ȝäowi'' || ''riichiss'' || <br />
|-<br />
| i-mutation of ''a(a), e(e), o(o), u(u)'' || || || || |||<br />
|-<br />
| wf. -i, -u mostly lost || ''kopächür'' || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| unstressed vowel reduction || ''kopchür'' || ''fíhelep'' || ''ȝäowe'' || ''riichess''<br />
|-<br />
| ''h'' loss || || ''fíylep'' || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| medial ''f, s > v, z'', all ''ss > s'' || || || || ''riiches'' ||<br />
|-<br />
| Rathmosian || ''copchyr'' || ''fíylep'' || ''ȝeawe'' || ''ríches'' || ''pupored''<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="6;" | Carrick<br />
|-<br />
| ə(ə) > a(a) || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| loss of medial/final ''h'' || || ''fiyilip'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
| loss of nasalisation || ''kopaküri'' || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| i-mutation of ''a, o, u' || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| stressed ''e(e) > ''ya(a)'' || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| u-mutation of ''a(a), ya(a), ä(ä), e(e), i(i) || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| loss of prevocalic ''y, w'' || || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| loss of most wf. vowels || ''kopakür'' || || ''gäw'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
| unstressed long vowels shortened || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| loss of most unstressed vowels || ''kopkür'' || ''fílp'' || || ''riyks'' || ''pupräd''<br />
|-<br />
| wf. consonants devoiced || || || || || ''puprät''<br />
|-<br />
| ''mp, nk, nt > pp, kk, tt'' || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| Carrick || ''kopkür'' || ''fílp'' || ''gew'' || ''ríks'' || ''puprät''<br />
|}</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Nor%C3%BEimris/Vocabulary&diff=350758
Norþimris/Vocabulary
2024-01-30T21:14:32Z
<p>Psammead: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Nouns==<br />
===Family===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''family''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''cinren'' (extended), ''teem'' (immediate)<br />
|-<br />
| '''father''' || ''faðer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mother'''|| ''moðer''<br />
|- <br />
| '''parent''' || ''elder''<br />
|-<br />
| '''brother'''|| ''broðer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sister''' || ''sister''<br />
|-<br />
| '''son''' || ''sun''<br />
|-<br />
| '''daughter''' || ''douter''<br />
|-<br />
| '''child''' || ''barn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''children''' || ''barn-teem'', ''childer''<br />
|- <br />
| '''husband''' || ''man''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wife''' || ''hween''<br />
|-<br />
| '''spouse, partner''' || ''meac''<br />
|-<br />
| '''grandfather''' || ''faðer-faðer'' (paternal), ''moðer-faðer'' (maternal)<br />
|-<br />
| '''grandmother''' || ''faðer-moðer'' (paternal), ''moðer-moðer'' (maternal)<br />
|-<br />
| '''grandson''' || ''sun-sun'', ''douter-sun''<br />
|-<br />
| '''granddaughter''' || ''sun-douter'', ''douter-douter''<br />
|-<br />
| '''uncle''' || ''faðer-broðer'', ''moðer-broðer'', ''eem''<br />
|-<br />
| '''aunt''' || ''faðer-sister'', ''moðer-sister'', ''modrie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''nephew''' || ''neef''<br />
|-<br />
|'''niece''' || ''nift''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===People and Occupations===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''king''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''cining''<br />
|-<br />
| '''queen''' || ''cwein''<br />
|-<br />
| '''prince''' || ''eðling''<br />
|-<br />
| '''earl''' || ''yarl''<br />
|-<br />
| '''countess''' || ''yarlen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''thane''' || ''þeyn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lord''' || ''leard''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lady''' || ''leadie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''warrior''' || ''freec'', ''cemp''<br />
|-<br />
| '''friend''' || ''freind'' (not enemy), ''win'' (mate)<br />
|-<br />
| '''enemy''' || ''feind''<br />
|-<br />
| '''smith''' || ''smiþ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''carpenter''' || ''treiwreit''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Days, Months and Seasons===<br />
====Days ~ ''Deys''====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''Monday''' || style="width: 200px;" | ''Mondey''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Tuesday''' || ''Tiwsdey''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Wednesday''' || ''Wonsdey''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Thursday''' || ''Þorsdey''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Friday''' || ''Friydey''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Saturday''' || ''Saterdey''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sunday''' || ''Sundey''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Months ~ ''Moneðs''====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 120px;" | English || style="width: 200px;" | Traditional || style="width: 200px;" | Modern<br />
|-<br />
| '''January''' || ''Efteryuyl'' || ''Yanuarie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''February''' || ''Soumoneþ'' || ''Februarie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''March''' || ''Redmoneþ'' || ''Marz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''April''' || ''Eestermoneþ'' || ''April''<br />
|-<br />
| '''May''' || ''Þrimilc'' || ''Mey''<br />
|- <br />
| '''June''' || ''Eerliyð'' || ''Yuynie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''July''' || ''Efterliyð'' || ''Yuylie''<br />
|- <br />
| '''August''' || ''Weidmoneþ'' || ''Aust'' <br />
|- <br />
| '''September''' || ''Harfestmoneþ'' || ''September''<br />
|-<br />
| '''October''' || ''Winterfuy'' || ''Octoober''<br />
|-<br />
| '''November''' || ''Bleutmoneþ'' || ''Nofember''<br />
|-<br />
| '''December''' || ''Eeryuyl'' || ''Dezember''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Seasons ~ ''Tiyds''====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''spring''' || style="width: 200px;" | ''lenten''<br />
|-<br />
| '''summer''' || ''sumer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''autumn''' || ''harfesttiyd''<br />
|-<br />
| '''winter''' || ''winter''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Animals===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''animal'''|| style="width: 400px;" | ''deir''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bat''' || ''bac''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bear''' || ''beer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bee''' || ''bei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bull''' || ''beul, þeur''<br />
|-<br />
| '''butterfly''' || ''fiffaud''<br />
|-<br />
| '''calf''' || ''cauff''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cat''' || ''cat''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cow''' || ''cuy''<br />
|-<br />
| '''dog''' || ''hund''<br />
|-<br />
| '''elephant''' || ''elpend''<br />
|-<br />
| '''fly''' || ''flei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''fox''' || ''fox, tod''<br />
|-<br />
| '''goat''' || ''geyt''<br />
|-<br />
| '''horse''' || ''ross''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lion''' || ''lein''<br />
|-<br />
| '''monkey''' || ''eap''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mouse''' || ''muyṡ'' (pl. ''miyṡ'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''rabbit''' || ''coning''<br />
|-<br />
| '''rat''' || ''rat''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sheep''' || ''scheip, souþ'' (pl. ''souðer'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''snake''' || ''sneac, orm''<br />
|-<br />
| '''spider''' || ''atercop''<br />
|-<br />
| '''squirrel''' || ''icern''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wolf''' || ''uyff''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Birds===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''bird'''|| style="width: 400px;" | ''fuyl''<br />
|-<br />
| '''blackbird''' || ''eusel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''chicken''' || ''chicen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''crow''' || ''crau''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cuckoo''' || ''gouc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''dove''' || ''cuschet''<br />
|-<br />
| '''duck''' || ''duyc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''arn''' || ''eagle''<br />
|-<br />
| '''falcon''' || ''fauc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''gannet''' || ''ganet''<br />
|-<br />
| '''goose''' || ''geuṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''grouse''' || ''weurhen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''gull''' || ''mew''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hawk''' || ''houc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''heron''' || ''raur''<br />
|-<br />
| '''kingfisher''' || ''fischer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lapwing''' || ''lapwinc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''magpie''' || ''heir, sceur''<br />
|-<br />
| '''nightingale''' || ''neitgeal''<br />
|-<br />
| '''owl''' || ''uyl''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pheasant''' || ''fesaunt''<br />
|-<br />
| '''quail''' || ''weudhen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''raven''' || ''rafen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''robin''' || ''ruðuc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''skylark''' || ''laferuc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sparrow''' || ''sparu''<br />
|-<br />
| '''starling''' || ''star''<br />
|-<br />
| '''swallow''' || ''swalu''<br />
|-<br />
| '''swan''' || ''elter, swan''<br />
|-<br />
| '''thrush''' || ''þrossel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wren''' || ''rinel''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Sealife===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''crab''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''crab''<br />
|-<br />
| '''dolphin''' || ''waun, delffin''<br />
|-<br />
| '''eel''' || ''eal''<br />
|-<br />
| '''fish''' || ''fisch''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lobster''' || ''humer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mussel''' || ''mussel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''octopus''' || ''blacffisch, octopus''<br />
|-<br />
| '''oyster''' || ''oster''<br />
|-<br />
| '''prawn, shrimp''' || ''scrimp''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sea lion''' || ''seelein''<br />
|-<br />
| '''seal''' || ''seel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''seaweed''' || ''tangel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''squid''' || ''blacffisch, cudel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''starfish''' || ''sterffisch''<br />
|-<br />
| '''turtle''' || ''scheeldrig''<br />
|-<br />
| '''walrus''' || ''hwauroṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''whale''' || ''hwau''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Plants and Trees===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''alder'''|| style="width: 400px;" | ''eler''<br />
|-<br />
| '''apple tree''' || ''apelder''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ash''' || ''esch''<br />
|-<br />
| '''aspen''' || ''esp''<br />
|-<br />
| '''beech''' || ''beic''<br />
|-<br />
| '''birch''' || ''birc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''blackthorn''' || ''sleaðorn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''box''' || ''box''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bramble''' || ''bramel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''buckthorn''' || ''hertþorn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cherry tree''' || ''cirstrei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''clover''' || ''clafer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cowslip''' || ''cuyslip''<br />
|-<br />
| '''daffodil''' || ''affodel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''daisy''' || ''golen, deysie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''dandelion''' || ''golen, egwurt''<br />
|-<br />
| '''dogrose''' || ''heipbramel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''elder''' || ''elen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''elm''' || ''elm''<br />
|-<br />
| '''foxglove''' || ''foxcloof''<br />
|-<br />
| '''gorse, furze''' || ''hwin''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hawthorn''' || ''hauðorn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hazel''' || ''hesel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''heather''' || ''ling''<br />
|-<br />
| '''holly''' || ''holen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''juniper''' || ''eyn'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''lime tree''' || ''lind''<br />
|-<br />
| '''maple''' || ''mapeltrei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''marsh marigold''' || ''golen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''oak''' || ''eac''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pear tree''' || ''peertrei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pine''' || ''piyn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''poppy''' || ''popie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''rose''' || ''roos''<br />
|-<br />
| '''rowan''' || ''roun''<br />
|-<br />
| '''spindle tree''' || ''luysðorn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''teasel''' || ''wuyfsceam''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wild garlic''' || ''rams''<br />
|-<br />
| '''willow''' || ''wiðie, sauh, seel''<br />
|- <br />
| '''yarrow''' || ''yaru''<br />
|-<br />
| '''yew''' || ''ew''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Buildings===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''house'''|| style="width: 400px;" | ''huyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''flat, apartment''' || ''weuning''<br />
|-<br />
| '''castle''' || ''cassel, fassen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''palace''' || ''palaz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mansion''' || ''seal''<br />
|-<br />
| '''church''' || ''circ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cathedral''' || ''heedcirc'', ''minster''<br />
|-<br />
| '''temple''' || ''tempel'', ''hoff'' (pagan)<br />
|-<br />
| '''mosque''' || ''moscie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''synagogue''' || ''sinagog''<br />
|-<br />
| '''school''' || ''scool''<br />
|-<br />
| '''university''' || ''univerṡitie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hospital''' || ''seichuyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''café''' || ''cafiehuyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''restaurant''' || ''restaurant''<br />
|-<br />
| '''shop''' || ''buyþ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bakery''' || ''baxters''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bank''' || ''banc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bookshop''' || ''beucmangers''<br />
|-<br />
| '''butchers''' || ''fleeschmangers''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cinema''' || ''sinema'', ''bilþhuyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''town hall''' || ''meuthau''<br />
|-<br />
| '''dentists'''|| ''teuðleichis''<br />
|-<br />
| '''doctors''' || ''leichis''<br />
|-<br />
| '''farm''' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''fishmongers''' || ''fischmangers''<br />
|-<br />
| '''gallery''' || ''galerie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''garage''' || ''garacg''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hotel''' || ''hootel'', ''gesthuyṡ''<br />
|- <br />
| '''hostel''' || ''spitel''<br />
|- <br />
| '''library''' || ''beuchuyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''museum''' || ''museium''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pharmacy''' || ''libmangers''<br />
|-<br />
| '''police station''' || ''polizhuyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''post Office''' || ''posthuyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pub''' || ''ealhuyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''inn''' || ''gesthuyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''train station''' || ''yarngeatsteed''<br />
|-<br />
| '''airport''' || ''loftport'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Food and Drink===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Cereals, Bakery<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''bread'''|| style="width: 400px;" | ''breed''<br />
|-<br />
| '''barley''' || ''big''<br />
|-<br />
| '''oats''' || ''hafer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wheat''' || ''hweet''<br />
|-<br />
| '''rye''' || ''rei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''flour, meal''' || ''meel'', ''smedum'' (fine flour)<br />
|- <br />
| '''flatbread''' || ''banuc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''loaf''' || ''leaff''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cake''' || ''ceac''<br />
|-<br />
| '''unleavened bread''' || ''þerff''<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Meat<br />
|-<br />
| '''meat''' || ''fleschmeet'', ''flesch''<br />
|-<br />
| '''roast meat''' || ''breid''<br />
|-<br />
| '''beef''' || ''ox''<br />
|-<br />
| '''chicken''' || ''chicen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''turkey''' || ''greetpee''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mutton''' || ''souter''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lamb''' || ''lam''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pork''' || ''swiyn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bacon''' || ''spic''<br />
|-<br />
| '''fat, grease''' || ''smeer, flot''<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Dairy<br />
|-<br />
| '''butter''' || ''buter''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cheese''' || ''ceis''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cream''' || ''reem''<br />
|-<br />
| '''egg''' || ''eg''<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Fruit and Vegetables<br />
|-<br />
| '''apple''' || ''apel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pear''' || ''peer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''orange''' || ''orancg''<br />
|-<br />
| '''berries''' || ''beries''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cabbage''' || ''ceal''<br />
|-<br />
| '''beans''' || ''beens''<br />
|-<br />
| '''peas''' || ''peisen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''potato''' || ''pateat''<br />
|- <br />
| '''nut''' || ''neut''<br />
|-<br />
| '''carrot''' || ''moor''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mushroom''' || ''swam''<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Seafood<br />
|-<br />
| '''fish''' || ''fisch''<br />
|-<br />
| '''oyster''' || ''oster''<br />
|-<br />
| '''shrimp, prawn''' || ''scrimp''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lobster''' || ''lopster''<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Miscellaneous<br />
|-<br />
| '''broth''' || ''broþ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''honey''' || ''hunie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''curry''' || ''curie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''salt''' || ''saut''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pepper''' || ''piper''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mustard''' || ''senep''<br />
|-<br />
| '''vinegar''' || ''eched''<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Drinks<br />
|-<br />
| '''water'''|| ''water''<br />
|-<br />
| '''milk''' || ''milc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''juice''' || ''sew''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ale''' || ''eal''<br />
|-<br />
| '''beer''' || ''beir''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wine''' || ''wiyn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tea''' || ''chau''<br />
|-<br />
| '''coffee''' || ''caffei''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Religion===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''Christianity''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''Cristendem''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Christian''' || ''Cristen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Islam''' || ''Islam''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Muslim''' || ''Muslim''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Hinduism''' || ''Hinduism''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Hindu''' || ''Hindu''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Buddhism''' || ''Buddism''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Buddhist''' || ''Buddist''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Taoism''' || ''Taoism''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Shinto''' || ''Schinto''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sikhism''' || ''Sicism''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Judaism''' || ''Yuydedem''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Jew''' || ''Yuyde''<br />
|-<br />
| '''god''' || ''god''<br />
|-<br />
| '''goddess''' || ''giden''<br />
|-<br />
| '''prayer''' || ''beun, beed''<br />
|-<br />
| '''priest''' || ''preist''<br />
|-<br />
| '''meditation''' || ''smeeing''<br />
|-<br />
| '''heaven''' || ''hefen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hell''' || ''hel''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===The Body===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
! English !! Norþimris<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''head''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''heed''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hair''' || ''fax''<br />
|-<br />
| '''eyebrow''' || ''brey''<br />
|-<br />
| '''eye''' || ''ei'' (pl. ''ein'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''ear''' || ''lug''<br />
|-<br />
| '''nose''' || ''neb''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cheek''' || ''wang''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mouth''' || ''muyþ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tooth''' || ''teuþ'' (pl. ''teiþ'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''tongue''' || ''tung''<br />
|-<br />
| '''chin''' || ''chin''<br />
|-<br />
| '''face''' || ''anlit'', ''leir''<br />
|-<br />
| '''neck''' || ''haus''<br />
|-<br />
| '''shoulder''' || ''schuyder'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''arm''' || ''arm''<br />
|-<br />
| '''elbow''' || ''elbou''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wrist''' || ''rist''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hand''' || ''hand''<br />
|-<br />
| '''finger''' || ''finger''<br />
|-<br />
| '''thumb''' || ''þuym''<br />
|-<br />
| '''chest''' || ''breist''<br />
|-<br />
| '''breast''' || ''breist''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lung''' || ''lung'' (pl. ''lungen'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''heart''' || ''hert'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''stomach''' || ''mau''<br />
|-<br />
| '''belly''' || ''buyc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''back''' || ''bac, rig''<br />
|-<br />
| '''spine''' || ''rigbean''<br />
|-<br />
| '''liver''' || ''lifer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''kidney''' || ''neir''<br />
|- <br />
| '''womb, uterus''' || ''weam''<br />
|-<br />
| '''intestine''' || ''þarm''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bladder''' || ''bleðer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''penis''' || ''terṡ'' (''penis'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''vagina''' || ''scheeþ'' (''vagina'')<br />
|- <br />
| '''buttocks''' || ''arṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''anus''' || ''arṡþrel'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''hip''' || ''hip''<br />
|-<br />
| '''waist''' || ''midel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''leg''' || ''leg''<br />
|-<br />
| '''knee''' || ''hnei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''testicle''' || ''bauluc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''scrotum''' || ''cod, pung''<br />
|-<br />
| '''calf''' || ''sparliyr'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''ankle''' || ''anclew''<br />
|-<br />
| '''foot''' || ''feut'' (pl. ''feit'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''toe''' || ''tea''<br />
|-<br />
| '''nail''' || ''neyl''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Clothes===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''belt''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''belt, girdel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''blouse''' || ''serc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''boot''' || ''buscin'' (half-boot), ''brodcin'' (high boot)<br />
|-<br />
| '''cap''' || ''cap''<br />
|-<br />
| '''clothes''' || ''cleaðs, hater''<br />
|-<br />
| '''coat''' || ''pee, chac''<br />
|-<br />
| '''dress''' || ''schruyd''<br />
|-<br />
| '''glove''' || ''gleuff''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hat''' || ''hat''<br />
|-<br />
| '''scarf''' || ''wreeþ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''shirt''' || ''serc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''shoe''' || ''scheu'' (pl. ''scheun'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''skirt''' || ''scirt''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sock''' || ''soc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tie''' || ''crafat''<br />
|-<br />
| '''trousers''' || ''breic''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Transport===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''aeroplane''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''loftcraft''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ambulance''' || ''ambulanz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bicycle''' || ''siycel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''boat''' || ''beat''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bus''' || ''buss''<br />
|-<br />
| '''car''' || ''car''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cart''' || ''weyn, cart''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ferry''' || ''cubel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''motorcycle''' || ''mootorsiycel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ship''' || ''scip''<br />
|-<br />
| '''submarine''' || ''ceafbeat''<br />
|-<br />
| '''taxi''' || ''taxie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''train''' || ''treyn''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Common Objects===<br />
===In The House===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''attic''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''loft''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bathroom''' || ''stoof''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bedroom''' || ''bedbuyr, cleef''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ceiling''' || ''loft''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cellar, basement''' || ''seler''<br />
|-<br />
| '''dining room''' || ''bordbuyr''<br />
|-<br />
| '''door''' || ''deur''<br />
|-<br />
| '''driveway''' || ''ingang''<br />
|-<br />
| '''floor''' || ''fleur''<br />
|-<br />
| '''garage''' || ''garacg''<br />
|-<br />
| '''garden''' || ''garþ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hallway''' || ''gang''<br />
|-<br />
| '''house''' || ''huyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''kitchen''' || ''cichen, duynhuyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''landing''' || ''brig'' (between flights of stairs)<br />
|-<br />
| '''living room''' || ''fiyrhuyṡ, uphuyṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''porch''' || ''portie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''room''' || ''buyr''<br />
|-<br />
| '''stairs''' || ''steyr''<br />
|-<br />
| '''study, office''' || ''studie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wall''' || ''wau''<br />
|-<br />
| '''window''' || ''windau''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Landscape===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''bay, creek, inlet''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''wiyc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''beach, shore''' || ''strand''<br />
|-<br />
| '''canal''' || ''canal''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cave''' || ''hou''<br />
|-<br />
| '''city''' || ''buru''<br />
|-<br />
| '''estuary''' || ''firþ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''field''' || ''feeld''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ford''' || ''waþ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''headland, promontory''' || ''ness''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hill''' || ''hil, hou''<br />
|-<br />
| '''island''' || ''ey, houm''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lake''' || ''meer, water, luh''<br />
|-<br />
| '''marsh''' || ''moss, miyr''<br />
|-<br />
| '''moor''' || ''meur''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mountain''' || ''fel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ocean''' || ''haff''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pool, pond''' || ''tarn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''river''' || ''ee''<br />
|-<br />
| '''road''' || ''geat''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sea''' || ''see''<br />
|-<br />
| '''stream''' || ''bec''<br />
|-<br />
| '''town''' || ''buru, tuyn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''valley''' || ''deal''<br />
|-<br />
| '''village''' || ''tuyn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''waterfall''' || ''forṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wood''' || ''weud, sceuh, wiþ''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Space and Sky===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''space''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''rimet''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sky''' || ''sciy''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sun''' || ''sun''<br />
|-<br />
| '''moon''' || ''meun''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cloud''' || ''sciy, woucen''<br />
|-<br />
| '''star''' || ''ster''<br />
|-<br />
| '''planet''' || ''planeit''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Mercury''' || ''Mercurie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Venus''' || ''Feenus''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Earth''' || ''Erþ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Mars''' || ''Mars''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Jupiter''' || ''Yuypiter''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Saturn''' || ''Saturn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Uranus''' || ''Uyranus''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Neptune''' || ''Neptuyn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''comet''' || ''faxster''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Countries and Languages===<br />
====Continents and Seas ~ ''Continents an Sees''====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 150px;" | '''Antarctic Ocean''' || style="width: 370px;" | ''Antarctishaff'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Arctic Ocean''' || ''Arctishaff''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Atlantic Ocean''' || ''Atlantishaff''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Baltic Sea''' || ''Eestsee''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English Channel''' || ''Suyþsee''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Indian Ocean''' || ''Indishaff''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Irish Sea''' || ''Iyrissee''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Mediterranean Sea''' || ''Midelsee''<br />
|-<br />
| '''North Sea''' || ''Norþsee''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Pacific Ocean''' || ''Stilhaff''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Africa''' || ''Africa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Antarctica''' || ''Antarctica'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''Asia''' || ''Asia''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Australia''' || ''Austrealia''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Europe''' || ''Europa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''North America''' || ''Norðamerica''<br />
|-<br />
| '''South America''' || ''Suyðamerica''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Countries ~ ''Lands''====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Country !! style="width: 180px;" | Adjective<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 150px;" | '''Northumbria''' || style="width: 180px;" | ''Norþimer'' || ''Norþimriṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''England''' || ''Ingland'' || ''Ingliṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Northern Ireland''' || ''Norðiyrland'' || ''Norðiyriṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Scotland''' || ''Scotland'' || ''Scotiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''The United Kingdom''' || '''T Sament Cinric'' || ''Britiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Wales''' || ''Weels'' || ''Weliṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3;" | <br />
|-<br />
| '''Australia''' || ''Austrealie'' || ''Austrealiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Austria''' || ''Eestric'' || ''Eestriciṡ''<br />
|- <br />
| '''Belgium''' || ''Belgie'' || ''Belgiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Brazil''' || ''Brasil'' || ''Brasilianiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Canada''' || ''Canada'' || ''Canadiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''China''' || ''Chiyna'' || ''Chiyniṡ''<br />
|- <br />
| '''Denmark''' || ''Danmarc'' || ''Deaniṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''France''' || ''Francland'' || ''Frenciṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Germany''' || ''Germanie'' || ''Duych''<br />
|- <br />
| '''Greece''' || ''Creicland'' || ''Creiciṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Iceland''' || ''Iysland'' || ''Iyslandiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''India''' || ''Indie'' || ''Indis''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Iraq''' || ''Irac'' || ''Iraciṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Ireland''' || ''Iyrland'' || ''Iyriṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Israel''' || ''Israel'' || ''Israeliṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Italy''' || ''Italie'' || ''Italiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Japan''' || ''Japan'' || ''Japanis''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Korea''' || ''Coreea'' || ''Coreenis''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Mexico''' || ''Mexico'' || ''Mexicaniṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Netherlands''' || ''Neðerland'' || ''Neðerlandiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Norway''' || ''Norwey'' || ''Norðiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Poland''' || ''Poolland'' || ''Pooliṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Portugal''' || ''Portugal'' || ''Portugiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Russia''' || ''Russland'' || ''Russiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Spain''' || ''Speanie'' || ''Speaniṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sweden''' || ''Sweiland'' || ''Sweniṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''United States''' || '''T Sament Steats'' || ''Americaniṡ''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Languages ~ ''Leeds''====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 150px;" | '''Arabic''' || style="width: 200px;" | ''Arabiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Chinese''' || ''Chiyniṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || ''Ingliṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''French''' || ''Frenciṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''German''' || ''Duychiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Hindi''' || ''Hindie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Italian''' || ''Italiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Japanese''' || ''Cgapaniṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Korean''' || ''Coreeniṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Portuguese''' || ''Portugis''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Russian''' || ''Russiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Scots''' || ''Scotiṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Spanish || ''Speaniṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Welsh''' || ''Weliṡ''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and Adverbs==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | d'''''able''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''canie, handie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bad''' || ''ill''<br />
|-<br />
| '''better''' || ''beter''<br />
|-<br />
| '''big''' || ''steur, micel, greet''<br />
|-<br />
| '''black''' || ''blea, swart''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''certain''' || 1. (sure) ''sicer, wiss''<br />
|-<br />
| 2. (some) ''sum''<br />
|-<br />
| '''clear''' || ''sceer, leyt''<br />
|-<br />
| '''different''' || ''seir, uneliyc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''early''' || ''eerlie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''easy''' || ''beyn, eeð''<br />
|- <br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''free''' || 1. (at liberty etc.) ''frei''<br />
|-<br />
| 2. (gratis) ''costleeṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''full''' || ''fou''<br />
|-<br />
| '''good''' || ''geud''<br />
|-<br />
| '''great''' || ''greet''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hard''' || ''hard''<br />
|-<br />
| '''high''' || ''hei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''human''' || ''meniṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''important''' || ''heefie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''international''' || ''internazional''<br />
|-<br />
| '''large''' || ''micel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''late''' || ''lat, siyð''<br />
|-<br />
| '''little''' || ''liyl, litel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''local''' || ''stpeeedlie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''long''' || ''lang''<br />
|-<br />
| '''low''' || ''lauh''<br />
|-<br />
| '''national''' || ''nazional''<br />
|-<br />
| '''new''' || ''niw''<br />
|-<br />
| '''old''' || ''aud''<br />
|-<br />
| '''only''' || ''eanlie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''other''' || ''oðer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''possible''' || ''meitie''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''public''' || 1. (communal) ''meen''<br />
|-<br />
| 2. (not private) ''open''<br />
|-<br />
| '''real''' || ''seuþ, reel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''recent''' || ''niw''<br />
|-<br />
| '''right''' || ''reit''<br />
|-<br />
| '''small''' || ''smau''<br />
|-<br />
| '''social''' || ''meenschip''<br />
|-<br />
| '''special''' || ''encer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''strong''' || ''strang''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sure''' || ''sicer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''true''' || ''seuþ, triw''<br />
|-<br />
| '''white''' || ''hwiyt''<br />
|- <br />
| '''whole''' || ''heal''<br />
|-<br />
| '''young''' || ''yong''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''able''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''canie, handie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bad''' || ''ill''<br />
|-<br />
| '''better''' || ''beter''<br />
|-<br />
| '''big''' || ''steur, micel, greet''<br />
|-<br />
| '''black''' || ''blea, swart''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''certain''' || 1. (sure) ''sicer, wiss''<br />
|-<br />
| 2. (some) ''sum''<br />
|-<br />
| '''clear''' || ''sceer, leyt''<br />
|-<br />
| '''different''' || ''seir, uneliyc''<br />
|-<br />
| '''early''' || ''eerlie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''easy''' || ''beyn, eeð''<br />
|- <br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''free''' || 1. (at liberty etc.) ''frei''<br />
|-<br />
| 2. (gratis) ''costleeṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''full''' || ''fou''<br />
|-<br />
| '''good''' || ''geud''<br />
|-<br />
| '''great''' || ''greet''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hard''' || ''hard''<br />
|-<br />
| '''high''' || ''hei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''human''' || ''meniṡ''<br />
|-<br />
| '''important''' || ''heefie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''international''' || ''internazional''<br />
|-<br />
| '''large''' || ''micel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''late''' || ''lat, siyð''<br />
|-<br />
| '''little''' || ''liyl, litel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''local''' || ''stpeeedlie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''long''' || ''lang''<br />
|-<br />
| '''low''' || ''lauh''<br />
|-<br />
| '''national''' || ''nazional''<br />
|-<br />
| '''new''' || ''niw''<br />
|-<br />
| '''old''' || ''aud''<br />
|-<br />
| '''only''' || ''eanlie''<br />
|-<br />
| '''other''' || ''oðer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''possible''' || ''meitie''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''public''' || 1. (communal) ''meen''<br />
|-<br />
| 2. (not private) ''open''<br />
|-<br />
| '''real''' || ''seuþ, reel''<br />
|-<br />
| '''recent''' || ''niw''<br />
|-<br />
| '''right''' || ''reit''<br />
|-<br />
| '''small''' || ''smau''<br />
|-<br />
| '''social''' || ''meenschip''<br />
|-<br />
| '''special''' || ''encer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''strong''' || ''strang''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sure''' || ''sicer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''true''' || ''seuþ, triw''<br />
|-<br />
| '''white''' || ''hwiyt''<br />
|- <br />
| '''whole''' || ''heal''<br />
|-<br />
| '''young''' || ''yong''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
===Colours===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''colour''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''hiw''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: red;" | '''red''' || ''reed''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: orange;" | '''orange''' || ''orancg''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: yellow;" | '''yellow''' || ''fau'', ''gul''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: green;" |'''green''' || ''grein''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: blue;" | <span style="color:white">'''blue'''</span> || ''blea'' (dark), ''hew'' (bright)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #6600cc;" | '''purple''' || ''beas''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #663300;" |'''brown''' || ''bruyn'', ''dun''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: black;" | <span style="color:white">'''black'''</span> || ''blac''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: white;" |'''white''' || ''hwiyt''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: gray;" |'''grey''' || ''grey'', ''hear''<br />
|-<br />
| '''variegated''' || ''fauh''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adverbs of Time===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''yesterday''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''yestren''<br />
|-<br />
| '''today''' || ''todey''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tonight''' || ''toneit''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tomorrow''' || ''tomorn''<br />
|-<br />
| '''now''' || ''nuy''<br />
|-<br />
| '''then''' || ''ðan''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Adverbs of Quantity===<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''do''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''deu'' (<small>irreg: past</small> ''didd'', <small>pres ptc.</small> ''deund'', <small>past ptc.</small> ''deun'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''work''' || ''wirc'' (<small>past & past ptc.</small> ''wrout'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''make''' || ''mac'' (<small>past & past ptc.</small> ''mead'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''bend''' || ''buy'' (<small>past ptc.</small> ''boun''), ''luyt'', ''creuc'', ''held''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bind''' || ''bind'' (<small>3</small>)<br />
|- <br />
| '''fold''' || ''faud'' (<small>7</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| '''hit''' || ''hit'' (<small>past</small> ''hitt'', <small>past ptc.</small> ''hiten''), ''slog'', ''bang'', ''scelp'', ''beer''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cut''' || ''sniyð'' (<small>6</small>), ''hew'', ''clip''<br />
|-<br />
| '''break''' || ''breec'' (<small>4</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| '''split''' || ''cleif'' (<small>2</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| '''tear''' || ''rend'', ''riyf'' (<small>1</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| '''skin''' || ''flea'' (<small>6</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| '''rub''' || ''rub'', ''striyc'' (<small>1</small>), ''niyd'' (<small>1</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''stretch''' || (<small>trans.</small>) ''breed'', ''þen''<br />
|-<br />
| (<small>intrans.</small>)<br />
|-<br />
| '''pull''' ||<br />
|-<br />
| '''spread''' ||<br />
|-<br />
| '''press'''|| ''þring'' (<small>3</small>)<br />
|- <br />
| '''pour''' || ''teum''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wash''' || ''wesch'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''sweep''' || ''seup''<br />
|-<br />
| '''use''' || ''bruyc'' (<small>past ptc.</small> ''brocen'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''build''' || ''big'' (<small>past ptc.</small> ''bigen'')<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''bore''' || «perforate» ''boor''<br />
|-<br />
| «weary, annoy» ''grest''<br />
|-<br />
| '''throw''' || ''werp'' (<small>3</small>), ''cest'' (past ptc. ''cessen'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''cast''' || ''ren'', ''cest'' (past ptc. ''cessen'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''weave''' || ''weef'' (<small>5</small>), ''web''<br />
|-<br />
| '''paint''' || ''meit''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Pronouns==<br />
==Numbers==</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Nor%C3%BEimris&diff=350747
Norþimris
2024-01-30T21:13:53Z
<p>Psammead: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Private}}<br />
{{Construction}}<br />
<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name = Norþimris<br />
|altname = Northimris, Northumbrian<br />
|nativename = Norþimris<br />
|pronunciation = nɔɹˈθɪmɾɪs<br />
|creator = Neil Whalley<br />
|setting = Great Britain<br />
|states = Norþimer<br />
|nation = Norþimer<br />
|speakers = 13 million<br />
|date = 2011<br />
|familycolor = Indo-European<br />
|fam2=[[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]]<br />
|fam3=[[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]<br />
|fam4=[[w:Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]<br />
|fam5=[[w:Anglic languages|Anglic]]<br />
|ancestor=[[w:Old English|Old English]]<br />
|ancestor2=[[Early Norþimris]]<br />
|script1 = Latn<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Norþimris''' [nɔɹˈθɪmrɪs] (also Northimris or Northumbrian in English) is a Germanic language spoken by the people of ''Norþimer'', one of the four states of Great Britain alongside Scotland, England and Wales. Physically situated between Scotland and England, Norþimris shares much in common with Scots and English, all of which descend from Old English, and may be seen as part of a dialect continuum with those two languages. However, unlike its neighbours, Norþimris has very little influence from French and retains a much stronger Anglo-Norse vocabulary. <br />
<br />
==History==<br />
===Internal===<br />
Norþimris has its origins in the Northumbrian dialect of Old English, once spoken across central Britain between the River Humber and the Firth of Forth. Though already somewhat distinct from the dialects of Old English spoken further south due to the heavy Norse influence and the substantial reduction in inflexions, it would be the political changes of the late 11th century that ensured Norþimer developed as a language different from its neighbours to the north and south. Following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, William the Conqueror (''Wilem Bastard'') was faced with strong opposition to his rule, not least from the fiercely independent Anglo-Norse nobles of the north. Despite repeated attempts to subdue them William was never able to conquer the north and, as the Normans consolidated their hold over southern England, the old earldom of Northumbria developed into a self-governing rebel state, eventually declaring itself an independent kingdom in <small>AD</small> 1100. <br />
<br />
The period ''c.''1100-1600 is called Early Norþimris. At the start of this period the language was really indistinguishable from the Anglian dialects of late Old and early Middle English, but as English (and Scots) became increasingly influenced by French and Medieval Latin the differences increased. During this period, Norþimris lost most of its remaining inflexions and underwent important phonological changes culminating in the Great Vowel Shift. As a language of government, law and literature it became increasingly flexible and sophisticated. <br />
<br />
Modern Norþimris is said to begin ''c.''1600 when the Protestant Reformation and the Renaissance encouraged efforts to standardise and describe the language, and simultaneously increased borrowing from Classical and Romance sources. During this period Norþimris became the language of religion alongside government and literature, and from the late 18th century it increasingly became a 'popular' language with written forms more representative of the spoken language. The spelling system of Þoruyff Þorsteynsun, published in 1877, was adopted as the official written form in 1884 and has remained in use ever since. <br />
<br />
===External===<br />
Norþimris is an ''a posteriori'' language based on Northumbrian Old English and Northern Middle English and influenced by the various modern dialects of northern England as well as Scots (and to some degree Dutch). It was developed as an answer to the hypothetical question "What would English sound like if William the Conqueror had never conquered the north?". Since French and Latin have so heavily influenced English vocabulary, grammar and orthography, I expected the result to be considerably different from Modern English. However, Modern English has also been heavily influenced by northern forms with many of the innovations of Middle and Early Modern English originating in the north (e.g. spread of plural ''-s'', spread of 3rd person verb ''-s'', use of ''they, them, their', use of ''hers, yours'' etc.).<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
===Dialects===<br />
There is a great deal of dialect variation across Norþimer, but there are generally considered to be four main dialects: <br />
* Southern, which is the closest to a 'standard' dialect, found in ''Yorucschir''<br />
* Northern, extending north from ''Weer Ey'' (River Wear) to the Scottish border<br />
* Western, the dialect west of the moors<br />
* South-western, the dialect of the ''Þreeplands'', sometimes called ''Þreeplandris''<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
The consonant inventory of Norþimris is very similar to that of English and has changed little since the Old English period. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 68px; "|<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Labio-dental<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Dental<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Post-alveolar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Nasal<br />
| m<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| ŋ<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Plosive<br />
| p &nbsp; &nbsp; b<br />
| <br />
| colspan="3" | t &nbsp; &nbsp; d<br />
|<br />
| k &nbsp; &nbsp; g<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Fricative<br />
| <br />
| f &nbsp; &nbsp; v<br />
| θ &nbsp; &nbsp; ð<br />
| s &nbsp; &nbsp; z<br />
| ʃ &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| h &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Affricate<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| t͡ʃ &nbsp; &nbsp; d͡ʒ<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Approximant<br />
| ʍ &nbsp; &nbsp; w<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| (ɹ)<br />
| <br />
| j<br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Flap or tap<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| ɾ<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Lateral app.<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| l<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes:<br />
* /ɹ/ is an allophone of /ɾ/ found before consonants. <br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
The Norþimris vowel system is probably best understood as consisting of 6 short vowels, 7 historically 'long' vowels (which are more commonly pronounced as diphthongs) and 4 true diphthongs. <br />
<br />
====Short Vowels====<br />
The short vowels are shown in the table below. They include the reduced vowel /ə/, which may be an allophonic variant of any other short vowel in an unstressed syllable.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Central<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-close<br />
| ɪ<br />
| <br />
| ʊ<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close-mid<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Mid<br />
| <br />
| ə<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| ɛ<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Near-open<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| a<br />
| <br />
| ɒ<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====The 'Long' Vowels and Diphthongs====<br />
The distribution of Norþimris long vowels and diphthongs is complicated. In general there is a tendency to pronounce historically long vowels as diphthongs in most environments.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|Dipthong<br />
! style="width: 100px;" |Spellings<br />
! style="width: 400px;" |Comments<br />
|-<br />
| /æː/<br />
| ''iy''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| /eə/<br />
| ''ea''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| /ei̯/<br />
| ''ey''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| (/i̯a/)<br />
| ''ea''<br />
| an allophone of /eə/ in initial position<br />
|-<br />
| /iə/<br />
| ''ee, eu''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| /ii̯/<br />
| ''ei''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| (/ɪu̯/)<br />
| ''eu''<br />
| dialectally<br />
|-<br />
| /oː/<br />
| ''au, oo''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| (/oə/)<br />
| ''oo''<br />
| an occasional allophone of /oː/ dialectally<br />
|-<br />
| /ɔu̯/<br />
| ''ou''<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| /ʊu̯/<br />
| ''uy''<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Stress===<br />
Primary stress is usually on the first syllable of a word (e.g. ''ápel, átermot, héfenlie''). The prefixes ''a-, be-'' and ''fer-'' do not usually bear stress, so the following element takes it (e.g. ''ahínt, fersétand''). <br />
<br />
===Orthography===<br />
Norþimris is written with a Latin alphabet consisting of the following letters:<br />
<br />
''a b c d ð e f g h i l m n o p r s t þ u w x y z''<br />
<br />
The letters ''j, k, q'' and ''v'' do not occur, except in unassimilated borrowings. The letters ''ð'' (called ''eð'') and ''þ'' (''þorn'') are retained from the runic alphabet. <br />
<br />
The orthography is almost entirely phonemic, except notably in the case of ''s'', the pronunciation of which is not always predictable in final position. The following table gives all the relevant values of the letters and digraphs.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 70px; "|Graph<br />
! style="width: 70px;" |IPA<br />
! style="width: 700px;" |Comments<br />
|-<br />
| ''a''<br />
| /a/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''au''<br />
| /oː/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| /a/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | before word-final ''h''<br />
|-<br />
| ''b''<br />
| /b/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''c''<br />
| /k/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''ch''<br />
| /t͡ʃ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''cg''<br />
| /d͡ʒ/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | traditionally not permitted to occur word initially, but now used in borrowings such as ''cgin'' 'engine'<br />
|-<br />
| ''d''<br />
| /d/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | word-final ''nd'' tends to become /nt/ or /nː/ (e.g. ''Ingland'' /ɪŋlənː/)<br />
|-<br />
| ''ð''<br />
| /ð/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| ''e''<br />
| /ɛ/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''ea''<br />
| /eə/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" |<br />
|-<br />
| /ja/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | often word initially or after initial /h/ (e.g. ''ean'' 'one' /jan/, ''heam'' /hjam/)<br />
|-<br />
| ''ee''<br />
| /iə/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" |<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei''<br />
| /ij/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | <br />
|-<br />
| ''eu''<br />
| /iə/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | /ɪu̯/ in areas bordering Scotland<br />
|-<br />
| ''ey''<br />
| /ei̯/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''f''<br />
| /f/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | initially or before a voiceless plosive<br />
|-<br />
| /v/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | medially and finally<br />
|-<br />
| ''ff''<br />
| /f/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''g''<br />
| /g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''h''<br />
| /h/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | initially<br />
|-<br />
| /f/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | finally following ''u''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i''<br />
| /ɪ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''ie''<br />
| /ɪ/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | word-finally in unstressed syllables, notably the endings ''-ie, -lie'' (e.g. ''nouhtie'' 'poor'). <br />
|-<br />
| ''iy''<br />
| /æː/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''l''<br />
| /l/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''m''<br />
| /m/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| ''n''<br />
| /n/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| ''ng''<br />
| /ŋ/<br />
|<br />
|- <br />
| ''o''<br />
| /ɒ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''oo''<br />
| /oː/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''ou''<br />
| /ɔu̯/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| /ʊ/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | before word-final ''h''<br />
|-<br />
| ''p''<br />
| /p/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''r''<br />
| /ɾ/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | before a vowel<br />
|-<br />
| /ɹ/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | before a consonant<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''s''<br />
| /s/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | initially, adjacent to a voiceless consonant and sometimes finally after a vowel<br />
|-<br />
| /z/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | between vowels or adjacent to a voiced sound, sometimes finally after a vowel<br />
|-<br />
| ''sc''<br />
| /sk/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''sch''<br />
| /ʃ/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| ''ss''<br />
| /s/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | only occurs following short vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ''t''<br />
| /t/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''þ''<br />
| /θ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''u''<br />
| /ʊ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| /ə/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | in final, unstressed syllables<br />
|-<br />
| ''uy''<br />
| /ʊw/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''w''<br />
| /w/<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
| ''hw''<br />
| /ʍ/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | in some dialects, tending to become /h/ before round vowels and /w/ elsewhere<br />
|-<br />
| ''x''<br />
| /ks/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''z''<br />
| /t͡s/<br />
| style="text-align:left;" | rare, used mostly in borrowed words<br />
|}<br />
<br><br />
Notes:<br />
* the pronunciation of <''s''> is not always predictable from its environment. In this article, voiceless /s/ will be written <''ṡ''> where confusion may arise (e.g. ''huyṡ'' 'house', ''riyṡ'' 'rice').<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
===Articles===<br />
The indefinite article is identical to English: ''a'' before a consonant and ''an'' before a vowel (e.g. ''a man'', ''an apel'').<br />
<br />
The definite article is '''t'' in all cases (e.g.'' 't man'','' 't apel'').<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns have no grammatical gender and case is limited to the genitive.<br />
<br />
====Plurals====<br />
The plural of most nouns ends in ''-s'', or ''-is'' after a sibilant (e.g. ''apels'', ''huysis''). <br />
<br />
A few nouns have a rare plural in ''-(e)n'' or ''-er'':<br />
* ''ein'' 'eyes', ''ousen'' 'oxen', ''sceun'' 'shoes'<br />
* ''lamer'' 'lambs', ''caufer'' 'calves' (sg. ''cauff''), ''souter'' 'sheep', ''childer'' 'children' (no sg.). <br />
<br />
There is also a small number of nouns with a change of vowel in the plural: <br />
* ''man'' 'man' → ''men'', ''wiman'' 'woman' → ''wimen'', ''hand'' 'hand' → ''hend''<br />
* ''teuþ'' 'tooth' → ''teiþ'', ''feut'' 'foot' → ''feit'', ''geuṡ'' 'goose' → ''geiṡ''<br />
* ''muyṡ'' 'mouse' → ''miys'', ''cuy'' 'cow' → ''ciy'', ''luyṡ'' 'louse' → ''liyṡ''. <br />
<br />
====Genitive====<br />
The genitive has two forms: <br />
* the '''dependent''' genitive is used directly before a noun or noun phrase and is unmarked (e.g.'' 't man huyṡ'' 'the man's house', ''his faðer sun'' 'his father's son').<br />
* the '''independent''' genitive usually occurs as the complement in a copular construction and is marked with ''-s'' (''-is'' after a sibilant; e.g.'' 't huyṡ is Cetels'' 'the house is Cetel's', ''ðat 's his faðers'' 'that's his fathers').<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives precede the noun they qualify and are generally immutable, regardless of number or case (e.g. ''a micel hund'' 'a big dog', '''t hwiyt deors'' 'the white doors'). <br />
<br />
All regular adjectives may form a comparative with the addition of ''-er'' and a superlative with ''-est'' (e.g. ''aud'' 'old' → ''auder, audest'', ''healie'' 'holy' → ''healier, healiest'').<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "|<br />
! style="width: 100px;" |Positive<br />
! style="width: 100px;" |Comparative<br />
! style="width: 100px;" |Superlative<br />
|-<br />
| bad || ''il'' || ''wer, werṡ'' || ''werst''<br />
|-<br />
| good || ''geud, weel'' || ''beter'' || ''best''<br />
|-<br />
| large || ''micel'' || ''mear, mea'' || ''meast''<br />
|-<br />
| small || ''litel, liyl'' || ''less'' ||'' leest''.<br />
|-<br />
| near || ''nar'' || ''narmer'' || ''narmest''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The alternative endings ''-mer'' and ''-mest'' are also sometimes added colloquially to other adjectives, creating forms such as ''betermer, betermest''.<br />
<br />
The comparative adjective is frequently used with ''an'' 'than' (e.g. ''Cetel 's greeter an Micel'' 'Cetel's bigger than Michael'). An equative structure can be created with the adverbs ''auṡ ... auṡ'' or ''swea ... auṡ'' and the positive adjective (e.g. ''auṡ hwiyt auṡ snea'' 'as white as snow', ''swea stil auṡ a muyṡ'' 'as quiet as mouse').<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 70px; "|<br />
! style="width: 150px;" |Cardinal<br />
! style="width: 150px;" |Ordinal<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| ''ean''<br />
| ''first''<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| ''twea''<br />
| ''anar''<br />
|-<br />
| 3<br />
| ''þrei''<br />
| ''þird''<br />
|-<br />
| 4<br />
| ''four''<br />
| ''ferd''<br />
|-<br />
| 5<br />
| ''fiyf''<br />
| ''fift''<br />
|-<br />
| 6<br />
| ''sex''<br />
| ''sext''<br />
|-<br />
| 7<br />
| ''sefen''<br />
| ''sefend''<br />
|-<br />
| 8<br />
| ''auht''<br />
| ''auhted''<br />
|-<br />
| 9<br />
| ''niyn''<br />
| ''niynd''<br />
|-<br />
| 10<br />
| ''tein''<br />
| ''tend''<br />
|-<br />
| 11<br />
| ''elefen''<br />
| ''eleft''<br />
|-<br />
| 12 <br />
| ''twelf''<br />
| ''twelft''<br />
|-<br />
| 13<br />
| ''þretein''<br />
| ''þreteind''<br />
|-<br />
| 14<br />
| ''fourtein''<br />
| ''fourteind''<br />
|- <br />
| 15<br />
| ''fiftein''<br />
| ''fifteind''<br />
|-<br />
| 20<br />
| ''twentie''<br />
| ''twentiand''<br />
|-<br />
| 21<br />
| ''ean an twentie''<br />
| ''ean an twentiand''<br />
|-<br />
| 30<br />
| ''þritie''<br />
| ''þritiand''<br />
|-<br />
| 40<br />
| ''fourtie''<br />
| ''fourtiand''<br />
|-<br />
| 50<br />
| ''fiftie''<br />
| ''fiftiand''<br />
|- <br />
| 100<br />
| ''hunreþ''<br />
| ''hunreþt''<br />
|-<br />
| 1000<br />
| ''þuysan''<br />
| ''þuysand''<br />
|-<br />
| 1,000,000<br />
| ''milyoon''<br />
| ''milyoond''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! rowspan="2" style="width: 70px; "|<br />
! colspan="2" |Subject<br />
! colspan="2" |Object<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 100px" | Unstressed <br />
! style="width: 100px" | Stressed<br />
! style="width: 100px" | Unstressed<br />
! style="width: 100px" | Stressed<br />
|-<br />
| 1sg<br />
| ''i''<br />
| ''ic''<br />
| ''mi''<br />
| ''mei''<br />
|-<br />
| 2sg<br />
| ''ðu, -tu''<br />
| ''ðuy''<br />
| ''ði''<br />
| ''ðei''<br />
|-<br />
| 3sg m.<br />
| ''hi''<br />
| ''hei''<br />
| colspan="2" | ''him''<br />
|-<br />
| 3sg f.<br />
| ''su''<br />
| ''scheu''<br />
| colspan="2" | ''her''<br />
|-<br />
| 3sg n.<br />
| colspan="4" | ''hit''<br />
|-<br />
| 1pl<br />
| ''wi''<br />
| ''wei''<br />
| ''us''<br />
| ''uys''<br />
|-<br />
| 2pl<br />
| ''yi''<br />
| ''yei''<br />
| ''yu''<br />
| ''yuy''<br />
|-<br />
| 3pl<br />
| colspan="2" | ''ðey''<br />
| colspan="2" | ''ðam''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Several of the personal pronouns have different stressed and unstressed forms. The stressed forms are only used in speech and writing when particular emphasis is put on the pronoun, such as when they occur independently (e.g. ''ic leuf him'' ''''I''' love him', ''hwea didd ðat? Yuy'' 'who did that? You') . Elsewhere, the unstressed forms are used (e.g. ''hi wuns in Yoruc'' 'he lives in York').<br />
<br />
Notes:<br />
* the 2nd person singular ''-tu'' is an enclitic form used with interrogative verbs (e.g. ''censtu Cetel?'' 'do you know Cetel?').<br />
* the 3rd person singular forms ''him, her'' and ''hit'' are pronounced without the ''h'' in unstressed position, but this is not expressed in writing.<br />
* as in English, ''hi/hei'' are used for male humans, ''su/scheu'' for females and ''hit'' for inanimate objects.<br />
* Norþimris maintains a T/V distinction, in which 2nd person plural ''yei'' etc. can be used as formal 'you' when addressing a single person. Its use is generally more restricted than in many European languages, only used in particularly formal situations and not necessarily expected when speaking to elders or strangers.<br />
* there is an informal use of ''us/uys'' in place of ''mi/mie'' (e.g. ''gie us hit'' 'give me it').<br />
<br />
The '''genitive''' pronouns have dependent and independent forms, used like the nominal equivalents.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 70px; "|<br />
! style="width: 100px; |Dependent<br />
! style="width: 100px; |Independent<br />
|-<br />
| 1sg<br />
| ''miy(n)''<br />
| ''miyn''<br />
|-<br />
| 2sg<br />
| ''ðiy(n)''<br />
| ''ðiyn''<br />
|-<br />
| 3sg m.<br />
| colspan="2" | ''his''<br />
|-<br />
| 3sg f.<br />
| ''her''<br />
| ''hers''<br />
|-<br />
| 3sg n.<br />
| ''his''<br />
| &nbsp;<br />
|-<br />
| 1pl<br />
| ''uyr''<br />
| ''uyrs''<br />
|- <br />
| 2pl<br />
| ''your''<br />
| ''yours''<br />
|-<br />
| 3pl<br />
| ''ðer''<br />
| ''ðers''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
There is no independent form for the 3rd person neuter.<br />
<br />
'''Reflexive''' pronouns are formed with ''-(s)seln'', irregularly pronounced /sɛl/ or /sɛn/ according to dialect, which is added to the object pronouns (e.g. ''misseln'' 'myself', ''herṡeln'' 'herself'). These pronouns are more emphatic than their English counterparts and the object pronouns are preferred when the sense of reflexiveness is already implied (e.g. ''i sau mi in 't schewer'' 'I saw myself in the mirror'). <br />
<br />
====Demonstrative====<br />
The demonstrative pronouns are:<br />
* ''ðiss'' 'this' and ''ðir'' 'these', used for objects close at hand or abstracts metaphorically so;<br />
* ''ðat'' 'that' and ''ðea'' 'those', used for objects or abstracts at a distance or out of sight;<br />
* ''yon'' 'that, those', used only for objects in sight but at a distance.<br />
These may be employed as demonstrative adjectives, preceding the noun (e.g. ''ðat wiyff'' 'that woman', ''yon fel'' 'that mountain'). <br />
<br />
====Interrogative====<br />
The interrogatives are:<br />
* pronouns: ''hwea'' 'who', ''hwat'' 'what', ''hwilc'' 'which', referring to things already mentioned or implied, ''hweðer'' 'which of two';<br />
* adjectives: ''hwilc'' 'what, which', ''hweaṡ'' 'whose';<br />
* adverbs: ''hwiy'' 'why', ''huy'' 'how', ''hwear'' 'where', ''hwan'' 'when'.<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
====Regular Verbs====<br />
Norþimris has only two conjugated tenses: the present and the past. Beyond this, a number of moods, tenses and voices are created using auxiliary verbs and modals.<br />
<br />
'''''Present Tense'''''<br />
<br />
All regular verbs follow the same pattern in the present tense, given below with ''leuf'' 'love':<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 40px;" |<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Sg<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Pl<br />
|-<br />
! 1<br />
| ''leuf''<br />
| rowspan="3" | ''leuf''<br />
|-<br />
! 2<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''leufs''<br />
|-<br />
! 3<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Whenever the present tense verb is separated from its pronoun or is used with a noun, the ''-s'' form is used throughout (e.g. ''ic, your cining, beeds yu'' 'I, your king, command you', '''t men sings'' 'the men sing').<br />
<br />
'''''Past Tense'''''<br />
<br />
In the past tense, regular verbs may be divided into '''strong''' and '''weak''' conjugations, the former conjugating by a vowel change, the latter by the addition of a suffix. There are no distinctions of person in the past tense. <br />
<br />
Following the typical Germanic classification, there are 7 classes of strong verb, each with different changes in the past tense and the past participle:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 40px;" | Class<br />
! style="width: 200px;" | Present<br />
! style="width: 200px;" | Past <br />
! style="width: 200px;" | Past Participle<br />
|-<br />
| 1<br />
| ''biyt'' <br />
| ''beat''<br />
| ''biten''<br />
|-<br />
| 2<br />
| ''beid''<br />
| ''bead''<br />
| ''boden''<br />
|-<br />
| 3a<br />
| ''cerf''<br />
| ''carf''<br />
| ''corfen''<br />
|-<br />
| 3b<br />
| ''sing''<br />
| ''sang''<br />
| ''sungen''<br />
|-<br />
| 4<br />
| ''beer''<br />
| ''bar''<br />
| ''boren''<br />
|-<br />
| 5<br />
| ''eet''<br />
| ''eat''<br />
| ''eten''<br />
|-<br />
| 6<br />
| ''fear''<br />
| ''feur''<br />
| ''faren''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | 7<br />
| ''nau''<br />
| ''niw''<br />
| ''naun''<br />
|-<br />
| ''grou''<br />
| ''griw''<br />
| ''groun''<br />
|-<br />
| ''faud''<br />
| ''feld''<br />
| ''fauden''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Weak verbs form their past tense with a dental suffix, the form of which depends on the stem:<br />
* stems ending in ''-l, -m, -n, -nd'' or a voiceless consonant take ''-t'' (e.g. ''smelt'' 'smelled', ''fiyct'' 'fidgetted', ''lamt'' 'beat');<br />
* stems ending in ''-d'' or ''-t'' take ''-it'' (e.g. ''liltit'' 'hummed', ''bratit'' 'curdled'', ''breedit'' 'stretched');<br />
* other stems take ''-d'' (e.g. ''bleðerd'' 'talked loudly', ''ligd'' 'lay', ''hiysd'' 'hoisted').<br />
<br />
A number of verbs in <''ei''> may undergo shortening in the past. Those in ''eid, eit'' take an additional ''-d'' or ''-t'' (e.g. ''bleid'' → ''bledd'', ''meit'' → ''mett'', ''sleip'' → ''slept/sleept''). The following weak verbs are irregular in the past: ''teech'' 'show, explain' → ''taut'', ''seic'' 'seek' → ''sout'', ''þenc'' 'think' → ''þout'', ''wurc'' 'work' → ''wrout'', ''reec'' 'reach' → ''rout'', ''lach'' 'catch' → ''laut'', ''rec'' 'pay attention to' → ''rout'', ''dou'' 'be of use' → ''dout'', ''reic'' 'smell' → 'reyt''. <br />
<br />
'''''Imperative'''''<br />
<br />
The imperative of regular verbs is identical to the stem (e.g. ''leuf mi'' 'love me', ''eet ðiy meet'' 'eat your food'). <br />
<br />
'''''Participles'''''<br />
<br />
The '''present participle''' of all verbs is formed with ''-and'' (e.g. ''leufand'' 'loving', ''singand'' 'singing'). <br />
<br />
The '''past participle''' of most weak verbs is identical to the past tense form (e.g. ''leufd'' 'loved', ''ligd'' 'laid'). The strong verbs form a past participle with ''-(e)n'' and a change of vowel, as shown in the table above but a number of weak verbs ending in ''-d, -t'' also form their past participle in ''-en'' (e.g. ''breeden'' 'stretched', ''leaden'' 'loaded').<br />
<br />
====Irregular Verbs====<br />
A number of irregular verbs occur in Norþimris, the most important of which is ''bei'' 'be':<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px;" |<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Sg<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Pl<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Participle<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
| ''is, 's''<br />
| ''ar, 'r''<br />
| ''beiand''<br />
|-<br />
! Past<br />
| colspan="2" | ''wer''<br />
| ''bein''<br />
|-<br />
! Imperative<br />
| colspan="2" | ''bei''<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The contracted forms'' 's'' and'' 'r'' are very common in all but the most formal writing and stand alone in the sentence (e.g. '''t man 's singand'' 'the man's singing'). <br />
<br />
Other irregular verbs are:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px;" |<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Present<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Past<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Present Ptc<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Past Ptc<br />
|-<br />
| do<br />
| ''deu''<br />
| ''didd''<br />
| ''deund''<br />
| ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
| have<br />
| ''hea, has''<br />
| ''hadd''<br />
| ''heand''<br />
| ''hadd''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | go<br />
| ''gang/gea''<br />
| ''gangd''<br />
| ''gangand''<br />
| rowspan="2" | ''gean''<br />
|-<br />
| ''gan''<br />
| ''gand''<br />
| ''ganand''<br />
|-<br />
| give<br />
| ''gei''<br />
| ''gaf''<br />
| ''geind''<br />
| ''gein''<br />
|-<br />
| make<br />
| ''mac''<br />
| ''mead''<br />
| ''macand''<br />
| ''mead''<br />
|-<br />
| take<br />
| ''tac''<br />
| ''teac''<br />
| ''tacand''<br />
| ''tean''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Each of the present forms takes ''-s'' in the 2nd and 3rd person singular, but ''hea'' has the separate form ''has''.<br />
<br />
====Periphrastic Tenses====<br />
<br />
The majority of tenses in Norþimris are form periphrastically. <br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 100px;" | Tense<br />
! style="width: 300px;" | Structure<br />
! colspan="2" style="width: 200px;" | Example<br />
|-<br />
! Present Continuous<br />
| present of ''bei'' + present participle<br />
| ''i 's singand''<br />
| I am singing<br />
|-<br />
! Past Continuous<br />
| past of ''bei'' + present participle<br />
| ''i wer singand''<br />
| I was singing<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | Perfect<br />
| present of ''hea'' + past participle <br />
| ''i hea sungen''<br />
| I have sung<br />
|-<br />
| present of ''bei'' + past participle<br />
| ''i 's faun'' <br />
| I have fallen<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" | Pluperfect<br />
| past of ''hea'' + past particple<br />
| ''i hadd sungen''<br />
| I had sung<br />
|-<br />
| past of ''bei'' + past participle<br />
| ''i wer faun''<br />
| I had fallen<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
| auxiliary ''sal'' + stem<br />
| ''i sal sing''<br />
| I will sing<br />
|}<br />
<br />
In the perfect and pluperfect, ''bei'' is used with unaccusative verbs, i.e. verbs in which the subject is not the agent but the patient of the verb (e.g.'' 't snea 's mouten'' 'the snow has melted').<br />
<br />
===Derivation===<br />
====Prefixes====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:left;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "| Prefix<br />
! style="width: 300px; "| Use<br />
! style="width: 400px; "| Example<br />
|-<br />
| ''au-''<br />
| all-, pan-, omni-<br />
| ''augeud'' 'omnibenevolent'<br />
|-<br />
| ''be-''<br />
| makes intrans. verbs trans.<br />
| ''beþink'' 'consider'<br />
|-<br />
| ''ean-''<br />
| one, mono-, uni-, sole, only<br />
| ''eanreed'' 'unanimous, resolute'<br />
|-<br />
| ''ed-''<br />
| re-, again, <br />
| ''edgrou'' 'regrow'<br />
|-<br />
| ''eer-''<br />
| early, ancient, primary<br />
| ''eerdey'' 'ancient times'<br />
|-<br />
| ''em-''<br />
| even, equal, co-<br />
| ''emlang'' 'of equal length'<br />
|-<br />
| ''feur-''<br />
| fore-, before, pro-, pre-<br />
| ''feurgang'' 'precede'<br />
|-<br />
| ''forþ-, for-''<br />
| forward, pro-<br />
| ''forgang'' 'proceed, progress'<br />
|-<br />
| ''heed-''<br />
| head, chief, main<br />
| ''heedcirc'' 'cathedral'<br />
|-<br />
| ''hey-''<br />
| high, arch-, main<br />
| ''heystreet'' 'highstreet, main road'<br />
|-<br />
| ''lees-''<br />
| false, pseudo-<br />
| ''leesneam'' 'pseudonym'<br />
|-<br />
| ''miṡ-''<br />
| bad, wrong, fault<br />
| ''misdeu'' 'do wrongly'<br />
|-<br />
| ''un-''<br />
| un-, in-<br />
| ''uncuyþ'' 'unknown, strange'<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Suffixes====<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:left;"<br />
! style="width: 100px; "| Suffix<br />
! style="width: 300px; "| Use<br />
! style="width: 400px; "| Example<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center" | '''Adjectives & Adverbs''' <br />
|-<br />
| ''-en''<br />
| made of, like a material<br />
| ''gouden'' 'golden', ''eacen'' 'oaken'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ffast''<br />
| stuck, firm, secure<br />
| ''cragffast'' 'stuck on a crag'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ffaud''<br />
| multiplicative<br />
| ''þreiffaud'' 'threefold', ''meniffaud'' 'numerous'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ffuy''<br />
| full of<br />
| ''sacffuy'' 'quarrelsome', ''earffuy'' 'compassionate'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ie''<br />
| general adj. ending<br />
| ''dewie'' 'dewy', ''pretie'' 'cunning, sly'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-iṡ''<br />
| of, pertaining to (particularly with countries etc.)<br />
| ''Scotis'' 'Scottish', ''foucis'' 'popular'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-leṡ''<br />
| deprivative<br />
| ''neamleṡ'' 'nameless', ''frendleṡ'' 'friendless'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-lie''<br />
| like, pertaining to<br />
| ''hefenlie'' 'heavenly', ''sumerlie'' 'summerlike'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ṡum''<br />
| characterised by, having; -able<br />
| ''angṡum'' 'irritating', ''leufṡum'' 'lovable'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-wiyṡ''<br />
| like in manner<br />
| ''reitwiyṡ'' 'just', ''neidwiyṡ'' 'necessary'<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center" | '''Nouns'''<br />
|-<br />
| ''-craft''<br />
| skill, occupation<br />
| ''develcraft'' 'Satanism', ''taucraft'' 'arithmetic'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-dem''<br />
| i. domain, jurisdiction <br> ii. condition, state<br />
| ''ciningdem'' 'kingdom' <br> ''wisdem'' 'wisdom'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-en'' <br />
| feminine<br />
| ''giden'' 'goddess', ''fixen'' 'vixen'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-er''<br />
| i. male agent <br> ii. instrument <br> iii. inhabitant of<br />
| ''leufer'' 'lover' <br> ''scewer'' 'mirror' <br> ''Yorucer'' 'inhabitant of York'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ffuy''<br />
| measurement of<br />
| ''handffuy'' 'handful'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-head''<br />
| abstract, condition, quality; office, rank<br />
| ''preesthead'' 'priesthood', ''woruldhead'' 'secular world'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ing''<br />
| verbal nouns<br />
| ''geting'' 'conception'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-iṡ''<br />
| languages<br />
| ''Engliṡ'' 'English', ''Ebriṡ'' 'Hebrew'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-leyc''<br />
| condition, state<br />
| ''reifleyc'' 'robbery'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ling''<br />
| diminutive (often pejorative)<br />
| ''recling'' 'runt', ''manling'' 'little man'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-man''<br />
| agent, person<br />
| ''freeman'', ''pleuman'' 'ploughman'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-neṡ''<br />
| abstract state, quality<br />
| ''geudneṡ'' 'goodness', ''micelneṡ'' 'largeness, abundance'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-reden''<br />
| condition, state<br />
| ''sibreden'' 'relationship', ''cinreden'' 'kin'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ric''<br />
| office, dominion<br />
| ''cinric'' 'kingdom', ''biscopric'' 'bishopric'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-schip''<br />
| condition, state<br />
| ''manschip'' 'humanity'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ster''<br />
| female agent<br />
| ''spinster'' 'spinner'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ṡum''<br />
| a group of<br />
| ''sexṡum 'group of six'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-uc''<br />
| diminutive<br />
| ''paduc'' 'toad', ''hilluc'' 'hillock'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-wiyff''<br />
| female agent, woman<br />
| ''huyṡwiyff'' 'housewife'<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="3" | '''Verbs'''<br />
|-<br />
| ''-el''<br />
| frequentative<br />
| ''hancel'' 'tangle'<br />
|-<br />
| ''-en''<br />
| causative, to make or become<br />
| ''hwiyten'' 'make white'<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Compounds====<br />
<br />
===Syntax===<br />
The basic word order of Norþimris is Subject-Verb-Object:<br />
* ''i leuf ði'' 'I love you'<br />
* ''Cetel sang 't sang'' 'Cetel sang the song''<br />
* ''Maria leers Frencis'' 'Maria teaches French'<br />
<br />
Unlike some other Germanic languages, Norþimris prefers to keep auxiliary and lexical verbs together:<br />
* ''Cetel 's singand 't sang'' 'Cetel is singing the song'<br />
* ''ðu hadd seen him'' 'you had seen him'<br />
<br />
A direct object follows an indirect object, unless both are personal pronouns, in which case the direct object comes first:<br />
* ''hi gaf Ascil 't beuc'' 'he gave Askil the book'<br />
* ''hi gaf hit him'' 'he gave it to him'<br />
<br />
Adverbial expressions are not in a fixed position and generally come at the beginning or end of the sentence:<br />
* ''yestren, gangd i til 't seichuyṡ'' 'yesterday, I went to the hospital'<br />
* ''i gangd til 't seichuyṡ yestren'' 'I went to the hospital yesterday'<br />
<br />
Adverbs of manner are placed close to the words to which they relate:<br />
* ''su leyct wel 't geamen / su leyct 't geamen wel'' 'she played the game well'<br />
* ''wi ran snel heam / wi ran heam snel'' 'we ran home fast'<br />
<br />
When an adverbial or other element is placed before the verb, the subject is moved to come after the auxiliary verb:<br />
* ''in a circ wer ðey wedit'' 'in a church they were married'<br />
* ''tomorn, sal i gang til 't sceul'' 'tomorrow I will go to school'<br />
<br />
The relative pronoun is ''at'':<br />
*'' 't wiyff at i leuf'' 'the woman who I love'<br />
* ''a barn at cens au'' 'a child that knows everything'<br />
<br />
==Sample Texts==<br />
<br />
===The Lord's Prayer===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 500px;" | Norþimris !! style="width: 500px;" | English<br />
|-<br />
| '''Þt Dreet Beid''' <br> Uyr Faðer at is in hefen <br> Halud siy ðiy neam <br> Ðiy cinric becum <br> Ðiy wil wurð deon <br> On erd auṡ in hefen <br> Gie uss uyr deylie leaff todey <br> An fergie uss uyr scilds <br> Auṡ wie fergie uyr scildiers <br> Leid not uss til costing <br> Auh free uss frea il <br> Þiyn is 't cinric an 't meyn an 't wuyder, for-ea <br> Amen<br />
| '''The Lord's Prayer''' <br> Our father who is in heaven <br> Hallowed be thy name <br> Thy kingdom come <br> Thy will be done <br> On earth as it is in heaven <br> Give us this day our daily bread <br> And forgive us our sins <br> As we forgive those who sin against us <br> Lead us not into temptation <br> But deliver us from evil <br> Thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory, forever <br> Amen<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===The Night's Watch Pledge===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 500px;" | Norþimris !! style="width: 500px;" | English<br />
|-<br />
| ''''''T Neit Ward Eaþ'''''<br /> ''Neit gaðers an nuy agins miy ward.''<br /> ''Hit sal not end oð miy deeþ.''<br /> ''Ic sal tac nea wiyff, haud nea lands, faðer nea barns.''<br /> ''Ic sal beer nea bey an adel nea reuþ.''<br /> ''Ic sal leef an dey at miy stau.''<br /> ''Ic is 't sord in 't mirc. Ic is 't weacer on 't waus.''<br /> ''Ic is 't scheild at wards 't riycs o men.''<br /> ''Ic wed miy liyff an miyn ear til 't Neit Ward, þruh ðiss neit an ilc neit heðen.''<br />
| '''The Night's Watch Pledge'''<br /> Night gathers, and now my watch begins.<br /> It shall not end until my death.<br /> I shall take no wife, hold no lands, father no children.<br /> I shall wear no crowns and win no glory.<br /> I shall live and die at my post.<br /> I am the sword in the darkness. I am the watcher on the walls.<br /> I am the shield that guards the realms of men.<br /> I pledge my life and honour to the Night's Watch, for this night and all the nights to come.<br /><br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Useful Phrases===<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 300px;" | English !! style="width: 300px;" | Norþimris<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Greetings ~ ''Heylsings''<br />
|-<br />
| Welcome <br />
| ''Wilcum''<br />
|-<br />
| Hello<br />
| ''Halo <br> Hey''<br />
|-<br />
| Good morning<br />
| ''Geud morn''<br />
|-<br />
| Good afternoon<br />
| ''Geud ourneun''<br />
|-<br />
| Good evening<br />
| ''Geud ein''<br />
|-<br />
| Good night<br />
| ''Geud neit''<br />
|-<br />
| Goodbye <br />
| ''Geud dey'' (fml) <br> ''Fearwel'' (fml) <br> ''Siðie'' (inf)<br />
|-<br />
| How are you?<br />
| ''Huy 'stu?'' (inf) <br> ''Aureit?'' (inf) <br> ''Huy 'r yi?'' (fml)<br />
|-<br />
| Fine thanks, and you?<br />
| ''Wel, þank yu, an yei?'' (fml) <br> ''Aureit''<br />
|-<br />
| What's your name?<br />
| ''Hwat heatstu?'' <br> ''Hwat heat yi?'' (fml)<br />
|-<br />
| My name is Ascil<br />
| ''I heat Ascil''<br />
|-<br />
| Where are you from?<br />
| ''Hwear 'stu frea?'' (inf) <br> ''Hwear ar yi frea?''<br />
|-<br />
| I'm from Durham<br />
| ''I 's frea Dunhoum''<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | The Basics ~ '''T Stounlies''<br />
|-<br />
| Yes<br />
| ''Ey, aie'' <br> ''Yea''<br />
|-<br />
| No<br />
| ''Ney'' <br> ''Nea''<br />
|-<br />
| Please<br />
| ''Gin yi wil''<br />
|-<br />
| Thank you<br />
| ''Þank yu'' (fml) <br> ''Ta'' (inf) <br> ''Þanks'' <br> ''Feel þanks'' 'many thanks'<br />
|- <br />
| You're welcome<br />
| ''Wilcum''<br />
|- <br />
| Sorry<br />
| ''Searie''<br />
|-<br />
| Excuse me<br />
| ''Ferleit mei''<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Et cetera ~ ''An Swea Forþ''<br />
|-<br />
| Good luck<br />
| ''Hap til ði'' (inf) <br> ''Hap til yu''<br />
|-<br />
| Cheers!<br />
| ''Washeyl''<br />
|-<br />
| Bon Appetit!<br />
| ''Meis yu wel''<br />
|-<br />
| Bon voyage!<br />
| ''Fearwel''<br />
|-<br />
| I love you<br />
| ''I leuf ði''<br />
|-<br />
| Get well soon<br />
| ''Sceut betering''<br />
|-<br />
| Happy Birthday<br />
| ''Eedie Birddey''<br />
|-<br />
| Merry Christmas<br />
| ''Glad Yuyl''<br />
|-<br />
| Happy New Year<br />
| ''Eedie Niw Yeer''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
[[Norþimris/Vocabulary|Vocabulary Page]]<br />
<br />
==Personal Names==<br />
Personal names are generally of Germanic origin, inherited from Old English and Old Norse, or have been borrowed at various periods from the Christian tradition. <br />
<br />
===Masculine Names===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 150px;" | Norþimris Name !! style="width: 150px;" | English Equivalent !! style="width: 200px;" | Alternate forms !! style="width: 250px;" | Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''Aleff'' || Olaf || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Ander'' || Andrew || ''Andreas'' (Bib.), ''Anda'' ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Arcel'' || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Arnuyff'' || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Ascel'' || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Aumund'' || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Becan'' || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Cuþbret'' || Cuthbert || ''Cubret'', ''Cuda'' ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Douffin'' || ''Dolfin'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Eyner'' || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Eyric'' || ''Eric'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Fleuc'' || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Gamel'' || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Godfriþ'' || Godfrey, Geoffrey || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Gospatric'' || Gospatrick || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Haudan'' || ''Halfdan'' || ''Haufdan'' ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Maþe'' || Matthew || ''Mateus'' (Bib.), ''Mata'' ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Oswaud'' || ''Oswald'' || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Peeter'' || Peter || ''Petrus'' (Bib.), ''Peet'' ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Rafen'' || Raven || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Rancel'' || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Roscel'' || || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Rouff'' || Rolf, Ralph || ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Yacob'' || James, Jacob || ''Yacobus'' (Bib.), ''Yaca'' ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''Yon'' || John || ''Yohanes'' (Bib.), ''Yona'' || <br />
|-<br />
| ''Zacarie'' || Zachary || ''Zacarias'' (Bib.), ''Zaca'' || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:A posteriori]] [[Category:Germanic languages]] [[Category:Languages]] [[Category:West Germanic languages]]</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bis_Burunko/Vocabulary&diff=345105
Bis Burunko/Vocabulary
2024-01-22T17:22:30Z
<p>Psammead: /* The Body • Cźizda */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Nouns==<br />
===[[Bis Burunko/Gender and Age|Gender and Age]]===<br />
===[[Bis Burunko/Kinship|Kinship]]===<br />
===Body===<br />
===The Body • ''Cźizda''===<br />
====Parts====<br />
Body parts usually found in pairs take the dual prefix ''bin/bim-'' when referring to a pair belonging to the same person.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''head''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''puru''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hair''' || ''jiki''<br />
|-<br />
| '''eye''' || ''bigi'' (du. ''bimbigi'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''eyelash''' || ''bigijiki''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ear''' || ''beyako'' (du. ''bimbeyako'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''nose''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cheek''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mouth''' || ''a''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lip''' || ''oite''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tooth (incisor)''' || ''koros''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tooth (molar)''' || ''gyosh''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tongue''' || ''bing''<br />
|-<br />
| '''chin''' || ''bes''<br />
|-<br />
| '''face''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''beard''' || ''fos''<br />
|-<br />
| '''neck''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''shoulder''' || '''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''arm''' || ''meyo'' (du. ''bimmeyo'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''elbow''' || ''meigedesh''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hand''' || ''jikyo'' (du. ''bindikyo'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''finger''' || ''higommi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''thumb''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''breast''' || ''ugáras'' (du. ''binugáras'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''chest''' || ''erish''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lung''' || ''hengi'' (du. ''binhengi'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''heart''' || ''byoros'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''stomach, belly''' || ''xambei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''back''' || ''xuni''<br />
|-<br />
| '''backbone, spine''' || ''bihaz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''liver''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''kidney''' || '''' <br />
|- <br />
| '''womb, uterus''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''intestines''' || ''budong''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bladder''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''penis''' || ''taga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''testicle''' || ''keni'' (du. ''binkeni'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''vagina''' || ''puki''<br />
|- <br />
| '''buttocks''' || ''ofuz'' (du. ''binofuz'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''anus''' || ''gawa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''waist''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hip''' || ''xupu'' (du. ''binxupu'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''leg''' || ''lunzu'' (du. ''binlunzu'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''thigh''' || ''ifez'' (du. ''binifez'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''knee''' || ''beyong'' (du. ''bimbeyong'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''testicle''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''scrotum''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ankle''' || ''yongedesh'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''foot''' || ''yong'' (du. ''bingong'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''toe''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''nail''' || ''''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Fluids & Functions====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''blood''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''xaz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''saliva''' ||<br />
|-<br />
| '''tears'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''milk'''<br />
|-<br />
| '''urine''' ||<br />
|-<br />
| '''excrement''' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''semen''' ||<br />
|-<br />
| '''menses''' || ''ilexaz''<br />
<br />
===Colours===<br />
There are few primary words for colours in Bis Burunko, the majority of colour words being derivatives of something representing that colour, often in ''-re'' (particularly when a dark colour), or ''-kye''. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''colour''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''ĺû''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #b31919;" | || ''xarre'' (blood red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #ff0000" | || '''' (bright red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #cc2900;" | || '''' (orange red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #ffcc00;" | || '''' (golden yellow)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #b38600;" | || '''' (brown yellow)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #59b300;" | || '''' (bright green)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #00664d;" | || '''' (sea green, blue)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #330066;" | || '''' (dark blue, purple)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #4d3319;" | || '''' (brown, dusky)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: black;" | || ''meus'' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background: gray;" | || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: white;" | || ''furi''<br />
|}</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bis_Burunko&diff=345104
Bis Burunko
2024-01-22T14:52:44Z
<p>Psammead: /* Vocabulary */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Bis Burunko''' (/bɨs bʉˈɾʉnkɔ/, literally 'the Burungian language'), also known as ''Burunko'' or ''Burungian'', is a language isolate spoken on the island of Burung in the north Atlantic. <br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Bis Burunko has a relatively simple phonology with 21 consonants, 5 pure vowels and 6 true diphthongs. The orthography is almost entirely regular and predictable, based on a 1:1 spelling to pronunciation system. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 68px; "|<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''n''' /n/ <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/ <br> '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''t''' /t/ <br> '''d''' /d/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /k/ <br> '''g''' /g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Sibilant<br />
| <br />
| '''s''' /s/<br />
| '''sh''' /ɕ/ <br> '''z''' /ʑ/<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Fricative<br />
| '''f''' /ɸ/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /ç/ <br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /h/ <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Affricate<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /t͡ɕ/ <br> '''j''' /d͡ʑ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Flap or tap<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /ɾ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Approximant<br />
| '''w, u''' /w/<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Lateral app.<br />
| <br />
| '''l''' /l/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Notes:'''<br />
* ''n'' is realised as /ŋ/ before ''g, k, ng''<br />
* medial ''h'' is often simply hiatus between vowels<br />
* /w/ is spelled ''u'' immediately after a consonant but ''w'' elsewhere<br />
* all consonants except fricatives and glides (''w, y'') may be doubled word-internally; note the trigraphs ''ssh, cch, nng'' <br />
For consonant clusters, see [[#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] below. <br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɨ/<br />
| '''u''' /ʉ/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in ''biitosh'' 'gender neutral person' /bɨ:'tɔɕ/. <br />
<br />
'''Note:''' word-initial sequences of ''i + i'' and ''u + uu'' are written ''yi-'', ''wu-''.<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
There are six diphthongs proper: ''ai'' /aɨ/, ''ei'' /ɛɨ/, ''oi'' /ɔɨ/, ''au'' /aʉ/, ''eu'' /ɛʉ/ and ''ou'' /ɔʉ/, which may be considered sequences of vowels in measuring syllables. In addition, any vowel is permitted to occur following the 'glides' /w/ or /j/.<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
Bis Burunko has a relatively restricted syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or part of a diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are also restrictions on the other elements. The table below shows the rules governing each position in the syllable:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 200px; " |C<sup>1</sup><br />
! style="width: 200px; " |G<br />
! style="width: 200px; " |V<sup>1</sup><br />
! style="width: 200px; " |V<sup>2</sup><br />
! style="width: 200px; " |C<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
* optional <br />
* any consonant but ''sh, r'' word-initially (''s'' and ''p'' only occur before ''u'')<br />
* any consonant word-medially<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " | <br />
* optional<br />
*only ''y'' or ''w/u''<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | <br />
* mandatory <br />
* any vowel<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | <br />
* optional <br />
* only ''i, u'' or the preceding vowel repeated<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | <br />
* optional <br />
* only ''s, sh, ng'' or ''z'' word-finally <br />
* only ''n'' or ''m'' before a consonant, except in the case of geminates<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The word-final consonants ''s, sh, ng'' and ''z'' are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:<br />
<br />
* ''-s'' is lost, the preceding vowel is doubled and a following voiced plosive or ''j'' is devoiced: <br />
:: ''gis'' 'man' + ''-do'' (collective) = ''giito'' 'group, band'<br />
* ''-sh'' becomes ''-i-'', forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel, and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: <br />
:: ''sush'' 'empty' + ''bupung'' 'person' = ''suipupung'' 'vain person'<br />
:: ''arash'' 'night' + ''-te'' (time) = ''araite'' 'night-time'<br />
* ''-ng'' becomes ''-m'' before ''p, b, f'' and ''n'' before any other consonant: <br />
:: ''gyong'' 'man' + ''-bu'' (collective) = ''gyombu'' 'warrior class'<br />
:: ''yong'' 'foot' + ''-ko'' (adjectival) = ''yonko'' 'sock'<br />
* ''-z'' is lost and causes a following consonant to double, except ''x'' which becomes ''s'' and ''h'' which is lost, while ''z'' remains: <br />
:: ''az'' 'male' + ''-chi'' (adjectival) = ''acchi'' 'masculine'<br />
:: ''haz'' 'old' + ''kora'' 'bitch' = ''hakkora'' 'hag'<br />
:: ''buaz'' 'sun' + ''xu'' 'fire' = ''buasu'' 'heat of the sun'<br />
:: ''fuz'' 'tree' + ''HUZ'' 'lack' = ''fuzuz'' 'treeless'<br />
<br />
In some cases a word ending in a vowel + ''-i'' will alter to vowel + ''-u'' when a suffix or the second element of a compound begins with a consonant:<br />
:: ''mei'' 'dark' + ''kezi'' 'stone' = ''meukézi'' 'obsidian'<br />
<br />
Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings.<br />
<br />
===Stress===<br />
Syllables may be defined as either heavy or light:<br />
* a heavy syllable being either ends in a consonant ('''''az''''', '''''gyom-'''bu'', '''''ut'''-te'') or contains a long vowel ('''''bii''''', '''''gii'''-to'') or diphthong ('''''mei''''', ''a-'''rai'''-te'')<br />
* a light syllable ends in a single vowel ('''''fa-be''''', '''''xu''''').<br />
<br />
Monosyllabic words carry stress. In polysyllables, stress is attracted to heavy syllables. In words containing more than one heavy syllable, primary stress is placed on the last such syllable, with secondary stress on the penultimate heavy syllable. In words with no heavy syllables, primary stress falls on the first syllable.<br />
<br />
In some instances, stress does not follow these rules and is marked with an acute accent (e.g. ''béyong'' "knee", ''búrus'' "iriji person", ''ugáras'' "breast").<br />
<br />
===Orthography===<br />
Bis Burunko was traditionally written in a semi-syllabary called '''''higomido''''', which was originally a rune-like system carved into stone, wood and bone but later developed a more calligraphic style used on paper-like sheets of wood. <br />
<br />
The ''higomido'' consist of five specific vowel graphs, 41 consonant-vowel combinations (plosives, fricatives and affricates) and 7 individual consonant symbols (finals ''s, sh, ng'' and the remaining nasals and liquids ''m, n, l, r''). <br />
<br />
Other sequences of sounds are formed using these 53 symbols in combination:<br />
* diphthongs and double vowels are written using either a vowel + vowel combination (e.g. ''a + i = ai''), or the relevant syllabic + vowel combination (''ba + i = bai''). <br />
* glide + vowel combinations are written using ''i/u'' + vowel (e.g. ''i + a = ya''), or ''Ci/Cu'' + vowel (e.g. ''bi + a = bya'').<br />
* sequences of ''ch''V and ''j''V are written with the symbols for ''chi'' and ''ji'' + the relevant vowel (e.g. ''chi + a = cha'').<br />
* nasals and liquids are simply followed by the relevant vowel (e.g. ''m + a = ma''). <br />
* while there is a specific symbol for ''pu'', other combinations of ''pV'' - which only occur as a result of devoicing by a preceding (former) sibilant - are formed with the b-syllabics preceded by either ''s'' or ''sh'' (e.g. )<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
===Natural Gender on Burung===<br />
Grammatical gender does not occur in Bis Burunko, but natural gender is frequently marked on nominals, either by employing different words (e.g. ''az'' 'male', ''deme'' 'female', ''biitosh'' '''iriji'' person') or by derivation (e.g. with the honorative suffixes ''-osh'' (m.) and ''-ez'' (f.), ''-ai'' (mid.)). The concept of natural gender differs somewhat from the usual Western concept.<br />
<br />
All things are considered to be either '''animate''' (''bui'') or '''inanimate''' (''nabui''), the primary distinction being whether a thing is capable of acting under its own power. This means humans, deities/spirits, most animals and some natural features, such as the sun and the sea, are considered ''bui'' while plants, rocks and most abstracts are ''nabui''.<br />
<br />
Within the category of animate nouns, all things are then considered to be '''masculine''' (''acchi''), '''feminine''' (''demechi'') or '''middle''' (''iriji''). The relevant gender is based partly on biological sex, partly on particular characteristics and partly on social roles. All children are considered ''iriji'' until puberty when they will be assigned one of the three genders.<br />
<br />
Each of the four categories has a complex series of associations and is considered an equal part of a harmonious whole.<br />
<br />
===Case===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | <big>'''ba'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Topicaliser || colspan="2;" | marks a subject or object as the focus of the utterance<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''ze'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Nominative || colspan="2;" | marks the subject of a verb (where it is not the topic)<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''ke'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Accusative || colspan="2;" | marks the direct object of a verb (where it is not the topic)<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''na'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Possessive || colspan="2;" | marks the (animate) possessor of an (inanimate) object. Used only for alienable possession.<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''le'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Genitive || colspan="2;" | marks the possessor of an inalienable object, or marks an object related to another. <br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''i'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Dative || colspan="2;" | marks the indirect object of a verb (where it is not the topic)<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''la'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Allative || colspan="2;" | marks motion towards 'to'<br />
|- <br />
! <big>'''chi'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Ablative || colspan="2;" | marks movement away 'from, of, through'<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''ang'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Locative || colspan="2;" | marks location 'in, on, at'<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''mi'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Instrumental || colspan="2;" | marks use of, 'with, by'.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns are non-inflecting and do not mark grammatical gender, number or definiteness, so e.g. ''puz'' can mean 'dog/dogs/a dog/(some) dogs/the dog/the dogs' etc. Grammatical case is indicated by the particles above after the noun.<br />
<br />
Though grammatical number is not marked, nouns may take the following affixes to show a collective sense:<br />
* ''-do'' indicates a discrete group of things, usually located together, e.g. ''binjido'' 'mountain ridge' (''binji'' 'mountain'), ''fuddo'' 'copse, small wood' (''fuz'' 'tree'), ''gyondo'' 'band' (''gyong'' 'man').<br />
* ''-bu'' indicates a totality of things, a class, and also the absract state of being a member of that class, e.g. ''binjibu'' 'mountains; mountain-hood', ''fubbu'' 'trees; treehood', ''gyombu'' 'men; manhood, masculinity'.<br />
* ''i-'' indicates a mass of things, ''ibinji'' 'mountain range', ''ifuz'' 'forest', ''igyong'' 'population'. <br />
<br />
Reduplication is used to indicate intensity and in some cases can take on a collective meaning, e.g. ''gyongyong'' 'crowd, throng', ''yaiyai'' 'storm' (''yai'' 'wind').<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives are of two types. Verbal adjectives are the participles in ''-ng/na'' or ''-i'' (e.g. ''ekonna'' "growing", ''ewai'' "tired, exhausted, spent"). Nominal adjectives are either primary adjectives (e.g. ''haz'' "old", ''ong'' "good") or derived from a noun, other adjective or a verb (e.g. ''acchi'' "masculine", ''ukko'' "watery, aquatic", ''eyiking'' "pessimistic, defeatist" < ''exi'' "despair"). <br />
<br />
Any of these adjectives may occur attributively by preceding the noun they qualify unmodified, e.g. ''haz gyong to'' "that old man", ''ekonna fuz'' "a growing tree", ''eyiking heni chiri'' "three pessimistic guards".<br />
<br />
When used predicatively, both types of adjective follow the entire noun phrase and precede the relevant form of ''yita'' "to be". Verbal adjectives are unmodified in this usage and, as often with English, the adjectival function of the participle is indistinguishable from the verbal function, e.g. ''fuz tong ba ekonna xiniteng'' "this tree wasn't growing", ''haz gyong to ba ewai jaite'' "that old man is tired".<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Cardinal Numbers<br />
|-<br />
| width="25px;" | '''1''' || width="100px;" | ''su(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''11''' || width="100px;" | ''xassu(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''21''' || width="100px;" | ''hatorunsu''<br />
|-<br />
| '''2''' || ''hai'' || '''12''' || ''xazai'' || '''22''' || ''hatorunhai''<br />
|-<br />
| '''3''' || ''gi'' || '''13''' || ''xaggi''|| '''30''' || ''gyauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''4''' || ''xa'' || '''14''' || ''xasa'' || '''40''' || ''xauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''5''' || ''maka'' || '''15''' || ''xammaka'' || '''50''' || ''makauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''6''' || ''ute'' || '''16''' || ''xazute'' || '''60''' || ''utauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''7''' || ''gyeng'' || '''17''' || ''xaggyeng'' || '''70''' || ''gyengauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''8''' || ''eileng'' || '''18''' || ''xazeileng'' || '''80''' || ''eilengauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''9''' || ''suneng'' || '''19''' || ''xassuneng'' || '''90''' || ''sunengauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''10''' || ''haz'' || '''20''' || ''hatrung'' || '''100''' || ''inung''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Numbers are based on a decimal system, though numbers above 10 are, in reality, rarely used. The word ''inung'', translated here as '100', is generally used for any large number. Higher numbers can be created, somewhat artificially, in the form ''su le inung'' '101', ''xaggyeng le inung'' '117'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Ordinal Numbers<br />
|-<br />
| width="25px;" | '''1st''' || width="100px;" | ''sus'' || '''11th''' || ''xassus''<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd''' || ''haus'' || '''12th''' || ''xazaush''<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd''' || ''gish'' || '''13th''' || ''xaggish''<br />
|-<br />
| '''4th''' || ''xash'' || '''14th''' || ''xasash''<br />
|-<br />
| '''5th''' || ''makachi'' || '''15th''' || ''xamakachi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''6th''' || ''utechi'' || '''16th''' || ''xazutechi'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''7th''' || ''gyenchi'' || '''17th''' || ''xaggyenchi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''8th''' || ''eilenchi'' || '''18th''' || ''xazeilenchi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''9th''' || ''sunenchi'' || '''19th''' || ''xassunenchi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''10th''' || ''hacchi'' || '''20th''' || ''hatrunchi''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! !! colspan="2;" | Standard !! Colspan="2;" | Emphatic<br />
|-<br />
! width="100;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! 1st<br />
| ''ni'' || ''bi'' (excl.) <br> ''bu'' (incl.) || ''nibez'' || ''bibez'' (excl.) <br> ''bubez'' (incl.)<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd<br />
| ''chi'' || ''fu'' || ''chibez'' || ''fubez''<br />
|-<br />
! Indefinite<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''yeka'' || colspan="2;" | ''yekabez''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns only truly exist for the 1st and 2nd persons, the 3rd person pronouns being demonstratives. There is also an '''indefinite''' pronoun ''yeka'', often used as a formal 1st singular.<br />
<br />
Note that the 1st person plural has both exclusive ''bi'' 'us (but not you)' and inclusive ''bu'' 'us all'.<br />
<br />
No distinctions of gender case are made, the pronouns being followed by the case particles like nouns. To form possessive pronouns, the forms are followed by the possessive particle ''na'' (when referring to alienable possession) or the genitive particle ''le'' (when inalienable), e.g. ''ni na hato'' 'my knife' but ''ni le ata'' 'my father'. <br />
<br />
'''Emphatic''' forms of the personal pronouns are created with the suffix ''-bez'', i.e. ''nibez, chibez, bibez, bubez, fubez, yekabez''. These function as both emphatic pronouns, drawing particular attention to the person, and reflexive pronouns.<br />
<br />
There is a tendency to omit pronouns, particularly the subject, where the person referred to is understood from context. <br />
<br />
A number of terms of address are used in place of 2nd person pronouns or demonstratives when speaking of high ranking individuals, including: ''fuchi, furung'' (for any addressee), ''burosh, andosh'' (for masc. addressees), ''burez, andez'' (for fem. addressees); ''burai, andai'' (for ''iriji'' addressees).<br />
<br />
====Demonstratives====<br />
Demonstratives function as both determiners (preceding the noun) and pronouns and distinguish proximal ''tong'' 'this (near speaker)', medial ''to'' 'that (near listener)' and distal ''taz'' 'that (distant from both listener and speaker, or abstract)'. No distinction is made for gender, and case is marked by particles. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | Simple !! width="100px;" | Emphatic<br />
|-<br />
! Proximal <br />
| ''tong'' || ''tombez'' <br />
|-<br />
! Medial<br />
| ''to'' || ''tobez''<br />
|-<br />
! Distal <br />
| ''taz'' || ''tabbez''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plural forms ''tombu, tobu, tabbu'' occur where number is necessary for clarity or emphasis; otherwise the simple forms are used for both singular and plural referents. <br />
<br />
====Interrogatives and Indefinites====<br />
Burunko has a related series of adjectives, adverbs and pronouns denoting ...<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" rowspan="2;"| !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Proximal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Medial !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Distal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Interrogative !! colspan="3;" | Indefinite <br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | 'any, no' !! width="100px;" | 'every' !! width="100px;" | 'some'<br />
|-<br />
! An. <br />
| rowspan="2;" | ''tong'' <br> 'this' || rowspan="2;" | ''to'' <br> 'that' || rowspan="2;" | ''taz'' <br> 'that' || ''nobuji'' <br> 'who' || ''imbuji'' <br> 'anyone' || ''aubuji'' <br> 'everyone' || ''bujido'' <br> 'someone'<br />
|-<br />
! Inan. <br />
| ''nohez'' <br> 'what' || ''inhez'' <br> 'anything' || ''auhez'' <br> 'everything' || ''heddo'' <br> 'something'<br />
|-<br />
! Place<br />
| ''tonsuki'' <br> 'here' || ''tosuki'' <br> 'there' || ''tassuki'' <br> 'there' || ''nosuki'' <br> 'where' || ''insuki'' <br> 'anywhere' || ''ausuki'' <br> 'everywhere' || ''sukido'' 'somewhere'<br />
|-<br />
! Manner <br />
| ''tombye'' <br> 'like this' || ''tobye'' <br> 'like that' || ''tabbye'' <br> 'like that' || ''nobye'' <br> 'how' || ''imbye'' <br> 'anyhow' || ''aubye'' <br> 'every way' || ''byedo'' <br> 'somehow' <br />
|-<br />
! Time<br />
| ''tombeng'' <br> 'now' || ''tobeng'' <br> 'then' || ''tabbeng'' <br> 'then' || ''nobeng'' <br> 'when' || ''imbeng'' <br> 'anytime' || ''aubeng'' <br> 'always' || ''bendo'' <br> 'sometime(s)'<br />
|-<br />
! Cause<br />
| ''tongeze'' <br> 'because' || || ''tazeze'' <br> 'because' || ''noze'' <br> 'why' || ''ineze'' <br> 'any reason' || ''aweze'' <br> 'all reasons' || ''ezedo'' <br> 'some reason'<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Most Burunko verbs are composed of two elements: a '''main verb''', which contains the semantic information, and an '''auxiliary verb''', which encodes tense, mood and aspectual information. Combining the two creates the following classes:<br />
<br />
* Aspect: aorist, imperfective or perfective<br />
* Tense: present or past<br />
* Mood: indicative, hypothetical or imperative<br />
* Valency: intransitive, transitive, causative, applicative<br />
<br />
====Main Verbs====<br />
Main verbs can be divided into several categories: '''primary''', '''secondary''' and '''compound'''. At the heart of all verbs is a mono- or disyllabic root, which carries the main meaning but cannot occur alone. Here roots are written in capitals to show that they are not words in their own right, e.g. ''ZUKI'' 'touch', ''AZ'' 'take', ''KASH'' 'learn'. Such roots are essentially a closed class. In some instances, a single root may be both nominal and verbal, so ''DANG'' 'to drink' and ''dang'' 'a drink'. <br />
<br />
Primary verbs are composed of the root with the verbalising prefix ''E-'', realised as ''i-'' before a high vowel (''i, u'') in the next syllable, as ''y-'' before vowels and as ''e-'' elsewhere, .e.g. ''izuki'', ''yaz'', ''ekash''. This is the minimal form a verb can take in use.<br />
<br />
Secondary verbs are derived from primary verbs by affixation and are also a closed class. The main affixes used to create secondary verbs are:<br />
* The '''causative''' infix ''-da-'', which comes between the verbaliser ''E-'' and the root, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach' < ''ekash'' 'learn'. This form of causative is mainly added to intransitive verbs and transitive verbs in which the subject has little or no control over the action (e.g. ''edapush'' 'show' < ''ipush'' 'see').<br />
* The '''pejorative''' infix ''-na-'', which takes the same position as ''-da-'' and perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enakash'' 'mislearn, learn wrongly', ''enadang'' 'drink heavily, get drunk'. When used with the causative, it becomes ''-dan-'', e.g. ''edankash'' 'teach wrongly'. <br />
* The '''applicative''' suffix ''-ki'', which makes an indirect object the direct object and indicates the beneficiary, recipient, purpose or goal of the action, depending on context and the meaning of the verb,, e.g. ''edakaiki'' 'teach someone', ''edapuiki'' 'show someone'.<br />
* The '''iterative/frequentative''' suffixes ''-iko'' (after a vowel) or ''-ko'' (after a consonant), which denotes frequent or repeated action, or an action seemingly composed of multiple smaller instances of an action, often where the result is quiet or of limited intensity e.g. ''ekaiko'' 'study' < ''KASH'' 'learn', ''edanko'' 'sip' < ''DANG'' 'drink', ''ebaiko'' 'babble, chatter' (softly, as of a baby) < ''BA'' 'speak', ''yedeiko'' 'nibble' < ''EDE'' 'bite'. <br />
<br />
A '''reduplicated''' root may also be used to create a frequentative, but always with an intensive and often a pejorative sense, e.g. ''edandan'' 'gulp, quaff' < ''DANG'', ''yedede'' 'to chomp' < ''EDE'', ''ebaba'' 'yammer, gossip, yak' < ''BA''. <br />
<br />
Compound verbs are derived from a primary or secondary verb by prefixing the verb stem with another part of speech. The initial element may be:<br />
* a '''noun''' denoting the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''xemmang'' 'to name' < ''xeng'' 'name' + ''MANG'' 'give', ''loging'' 'to sleep' < ''lo'' 'sleep' + ''GING'' 'do'. These verbs may take a new object, e.g. ''...''<br />
* an '''adjective''', denoting various senses of being or becoming a state, or to denote the subject's feelings or opinion, e.g. ''futtoz'' 'turn white' < ''fuz'' 'white' + ''TOZ'' 'come', ''ongushi'' 'like, approve of' < ''ong'' 'good' and ''USHI'' 'consider'.<br />
* an '''adverb''' denoting the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''fimiroz'' 'move quickly' < ''fimiro'' 'quickly' + ''OZ'' 'move'; ''yommikei'' 'kick' < ''yommi'' 'with the foot' + ''KEI'' 'strike, hit'.<br />
<br />
====Non-Finite Forms====<br />
All main verbs, whether primary, secondary or compound, have three non-finite forms:<br />
<br />
* The '''infinitive''' is the unmodified form of the verb e.g. ''izuki'' 'touch', ''ekaiki'' 'teach', ''yommikei'' 'kick'. It is aspectless form, often called the '''aorist''', referring to an action as an abstract, without and reference to time.<br />
* The '''imperfective participle''' is created by adding ''-N'' to the infinitive, which is realised as ''-ng'' following vowels and ''-na'' following consonants, e.g. ''izuking'' 'touching', ''yanna'' 'taking', ''ekaina'' 'learning'. It refers to an action or state which is either ongoing or habitual.<br />
* The '''perfective participle''' is created by adding ''-i'' to the infinitive, e.g. ''izukii'' 'touched', ''yazi'' 'taken, took', ''yommikeyi'' 'kicked'. It is used to denote an action or state in its entirety, without reference to its duration.<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary Verbs====<br />
The auxiliary verbs are primarily used to conjugate the main verbs. ''Yita'' 'be' is used to conjugate intransitive verbs and ''izu'' 'have' is used for transitives. Both verbs have simple and causative forms, which can be affirmative ('is, has') or negative ('is not, has not'). <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Basic Forms for Auxiliary Verbs<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" width="100px;" | Mood !! rowspan="3;" width="100px;" | Tense !! colspan="2;" | Intransitive !! colspan="2;" | Transitive<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | ''yita'' 'be' !! colspan="2;" | ''izu'' 'have'<br />
|-<br />
! Aff || Neg || Aff || Neg<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" | Realis !! Present <br />
| width="100px;" | ''jaite'' || width="100px;" | ''denite'' || width="100px;" | ''dozu'' || width="100px;" | ''donuzu'' <br />
|-<br />
! Past<br />
| ''xiteng'' || ''xiniteng'' || ''xizung'' || ''xinuzung'' <br />
|-<br />
! Hypothetical <br />
| ''yite'' || ''linite'' || ''lizu'' || ''linuzu'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" | Irrealis !! Present <br />
| ''deji'' || ''donuji'' || ''daipa'' || ''danoipa'' <br />
|-<br />
! Past<br />
| ''xijing'' || ''xinujing'' || ''heipang'' || ''henoipang'' <br />
|-<br />
! Hypothetical <br />
| ''liji'' || ''linuji'' || ''leipa'' || ''lenoipa'' <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Imperative <br />
| ''biite'' || ''benite'' || ''bozu'' || ''bonuzu'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The auxiliary causative differs from the derived causative because it tends to denote actions where the causer intentionally or directly causes the action and implies a degree of force or control, e.g. ''ekash dajaite'' means 'to make someone learn' while ''edakash'' means 'to teach'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Causative Forms for Auxiliary Verbs<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" width="100px;" | Mood !! rowspan="3;" width="100px;" | Tense !! colspan="2;" | Intransitive !! colspan="2;" | Transitive<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | ''yita'' 'be' !! colspan="2;" | ''izu'' 'have'<br />
|-<br />
! Aff || Neg || Aff || Neg<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" | Realis !! Present <br />
| width="100px;" | ''dajaite'' || width="100px;" | ''danite'' || width="100px;" | ''dadozu'' || width="100px;" | ''danuzu'' <br />
|-<br />
! Past<br />
| ''hejaiteng'' || ''heniteng'' || ''hedozung'' || ''henuzung'' <br />
|-<br />
! Hypothetical <br />
| ''lejaite'' || ''lenite'' || ''ledozu'' || ''lenuzu'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" | Irrealis !! Present <br />
| ''dadeji'' || ''danuji'' || ''dadaipa'' || ''danoipa'' <br />
|-<br />
! Past<br />
| ''hedejing'' || ''henujing'' || ''hedaipang'' || ''henoipang'' <br />
|-<br />
! Hypothetical <br />
| ''ledeji'' || ''lenuji'' || ''ledaipa'' || ''lenoipa'' <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Imperative <br />
| ''bajaite'' || ''banite'' || ''badozu'' || ''banuzu'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Periphrastic Conjugation====<br />
The combination of tense, aspect and mood information encoded in the various forms of main and auxiliary verbs gives the following verb forms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" width="150px;" | Aspect !! colspan="4;" | Tense/Mood<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="4;" | Realis<br />
|-<br />
! width="150px;" | Present !! width="150px;" | Past !! width="150px;" | Hypothetical !! width="150px;" | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
| Stative Present || Stative Past || Stative Hypothetical || Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfective<br />
| Present || Past || Present Hypothetical <br />
! rowspan="2;" |<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
| Recent Past || Distant Past || Past Hypothetical<br />
|-<br />
! || colspan="4;" | Irrealis<br />
|-<br />
! !! Present !! Past !! Hypothetical !! rowspan="4;" | <br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
| Present Potential || Past Potential || Conditional<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfective<br />
| || || Present Conditional<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
| || || Past Conditional <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on the tenses:<br />
* The '''Stative Present''' or '''Gnomic''' is used to make general statements. With stative verbs it refers to existing states (e.g. 'fire is hot') and with action verbs it refers to general truths (e.g. 'birds sing'). <br />
* The '''Stative Past'''<br />
<br />
==Derivation==<br />
Bis Burunko has a highly productive derivational system, primarily based on suffixes. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;" <br />
! width="100px;" | Suffix !! width="300px;" | Meaning !! width="100;" | Added To !! width="300;" | Examples<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="4;" | Nouns<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ai'' || augmentative, honorific (mid.) || n, adj ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-aro'' || "time, season, right time" || n, adj, vn || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-ba, -be'' || kinship suffix denoting primary line || n ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-do'' || collective || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-ez'' || augmentative, honorific (fem.) || n, adj || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-fo'' || diminutive || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-ji'' || (domesticated) animal || n, adj || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-jing'' || "period of time, age, era" || n, adj, v || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-ko<sup><small>1</small></sup>'' || "thing for, connected with" || n ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ko<sup><small>2</small></sup>'' || diminutive || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-mi'' || diminutive || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-ni, -ng'' || agent || v || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-o'' || instrument, tool || v ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-osh'' || augmentative, honorific (masc.) || n, adj ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-pung'' || "having" || n ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-taz, -daz''* || "person/thing from" || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-te, -de''* || "(short) stretch of time, period" || n || ''araite'' "nighttime"<br />
|-<br />
| ''-teng, -deng''* || diminutive || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-to<sup><small>1</small></sup>, -do''* || instrument, tool || n, v, adj <br />
|-<br />
| ''-to<sup><small>2</small></sup>'' || diminutive || n ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-yo'' || kinship suffix denoting 2 removed from ego || n || <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="4;" | Adjective<br />
|-<br />
| ''-chi, -ji''* || "of, like, pertaining to; characteristic of" || n || ''demechi'' "female, feminine" <br />
|-<br />
| ''-king'' || "tending to, fond of" || n, v ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ko'' || "related to, characteristic of" || n || <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="4;" | Adverbs<br />
|-<br />
| ''-mi'' || means, method || n || ''yommi'' "with the foot"<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ro'' || manner || adj || ''fimiro'' "quickly"<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
* [[Bis Burunko/Vocabulary| General Vocabulary]]<br />
* [[Bis Burunko/Gender and Age | Gender and Age]]<br />
* [[Bis Burunko/Kinship | Kinship]]<br />
===Gender Terms===<br />
Gender terms for humans and gods are partly based on the individual's age. Burung society sees life divided into four ages:<br />
* '''Childhood''' (''pumebu'') from birth to the onset of puberty, in which all individuals are considered ''iriji''.<br />
* '''Young Adulthood''' (''garaapu'') from the onset of puberty to full initiation into adult life.<br />
* '''Adulthood''' (''koziji'') encompasses the working life, a time for raising a family. <br />
* '''Old Age''' (''hajji'') from retirement to death.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Gender !! width="100px;" | Child !! width="100px;" | Young Adult !! width="100px;" | Adult !! width="100px;" | Senior<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" | ''Acchi'' <br> (masc.) <br />
| rowspan="4;" style="background-color:gray" | || colspan="3;" | ''az''<br />
|-<br />
| ''goi'' || ''gis, gyong'' || ''hoz''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" | ''Demechi'' <br> (fem.) <br />
| colspan="3;" | ''deme''<br />
|-<br />
| ''madash'' || ''xoz'' || ''axoz''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" | ''Iriji'' <br> (mid.)<br />
| colspan="4;" | ''haya''<br />
|-<br />
| ''pume'' || ''poda'' || ''búrus'' ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Primary Verbs===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! Root !! Meanings !! Infinitive !! Gerundive !! Perfective<br />
|-<br />
| '''OZ''' || move || ''yoz'' || ''yonna'' || ''yozi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ARANG''' || move back and forth, swing, sway || ''yarang'' || ''yaranna'' || ''yarangi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''GA''' || go up; ascend, climb; improve || ''ega'' || ''egang'' || ''egai''<br />
|-<br />
| '''BE''' || go down, descend; fall; deteriorate || ''ebe'' || ''ebeng'' || ''ebei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''IGI''' || go past, pass; exceed; change state || ''yigi'' || ''yiging'' || ''yigii''<br />
|-<br />
| '''XAZ''' || go in(to), enter; penetrate || ''exaz'' || ''exanna'' || ''exai''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ZUKI'''<small>1</small> || go out, exit, leave || ''izuki'' || ''izuking'' || ''izukii''<br />
|-<br />
| '''LIPU''' || go || ''ilipu'' || ''ilipung ''|| ''ilipui''<br />
|-<br />
| '''TOZ''' || come || ''etoz'' || ''etonna'' || ''etozi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ES''' || approach; press || ''yes'' || ''yeena'' || ''yeshi'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''ZUKI'''<small>2</small> || touch, come into contact; mention || ''izuki'' || ''izuking'' || ''izukii'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Swadesh List===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! No. !! English !! Burunko<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | 1 !! width="100px;" | I<br />
| width="150px;" | ''ni''<br />
|-<br />
! 2 !! you (sg.) <br />
| ''chi''<br />
|-<br />
! 3 !! he <br />
| ''az'' (m.)<br />
|-<br />
! 4 !! we (inc.) <br />
| ''bi''<br />
|-<br />
! 5 !! you (pl.)<br />
| ''fu''<br />
|-<br />
! 6 !! they <br />
| ''abbu'' (m.)<br />
|-<br />
! 7 !! this<br />
| ''tong''<br />
|-<br />
! 8 !! that<br />
| ''taz''<br />
|-<br />
! 9 !! here <br />
| ''sukitong''<br />
|-<br />
! 10 !! there<br />
| ''sukitaz''<br />
|-<br />
! 11 !! who (int.)<br />
| ''nosha''<br />
|-<br />
! 12 !! what (int.)<br />
| ''nohez''<br />
|-<br />
! 13 !! when (int.)<br />
| ''nobeng''<br />
|-<br />
! 14 !! where (int.)<br />
| ''nusuki''<br />
|- <br />
! 15 !! how (int.)<br />
| ''nubide''<br />
|-<br />
! 16 !! not<br />
| ''-no-''<br />
|-<br />
! 17 !! all<br />
| ''alo''<br />
|-<br />
! 18 !! many<br />
| ''mupu''<br />
|-<br />
! 19 !! some<br />
| ''xama''<br />
|-<br />
! 20 !! few<br />
| ''<br />
|-<br />
! 21 !! other<br />
| ''ai''<br />
|-<br />
! 22 !! one<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! 23 !! two<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! 24 !! three<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! 25 !! four<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! 26 !! five<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! 27 !! big<br />
| ''enji''<br />
|-<br />
! 28 !! long<br />
| ''los''<br />
|-<br />
! 29 !! wide<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! 30 !! thick<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! 31 !! heavy<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! 32 !! small<br />
| ''bing''<br />
|-<br />
! 33 !! short<br />
| ''dobuz''<br />
|-<br />
! 34 !! narrow <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
thin<br />
woman<br />
man (adult male)<br />
man (human being)<br />
child<br />
wife<br />
husband<br />
mother<br />
father<br />
animal<br />
fish<br />
bird<br />
dog<br />
louse<br />
snake<br />
worm<br />
tree<br />
forest<br />
stick<br />
fruit</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=User:Psammead&diff=345101
User:Psammead
2024-01-22T14:29:28Z
<p>Psammead: </p>
<hr />
<div>My conlangs on Linguifex:<br />
<br />
* [[Cumbraek]], an ''a posteriori'' language which began life as an attempt to recreate the lost medieval P-Celtic language of Cumbric. <br />
* [[Norþimris]], an ''a posteriori'' lang based on what Northumbrian Old English might have ended up like if the Normans hadn't invaded (what did they ever do for us?!).<br />
* [[Bźatga]], an ''a posteriori'' P-Celtic language, a Slavic-flavoured descendent of 1st century AD Brittonic.<br />
* [[Bis Burunko]] (built upon [[Is Burunking]], which was my first attempt at an ''a priori'' language in about 15 years).<br />
* [[Proto-Rathmosian]], an ''a priori'' sketch intended to be the basis of two daughter languages.<br />
* [[Pulqer]], an ''a posteriori'' Romance language based on a conworld idea I had when I was about 10.<br />
* [[Kelt]], an ''a priori'' isolate created as a substrate to Pulqer, but I actually quite like it.</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327899
Carrick
2023-10-17T14:22:17Z
<p>Psammead: /* Phonology and Orthography */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærthío'' /ˈkærðiˑo/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærthi'') on the archipelago of ''Íni Oyir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a á æ ǽ b d e é f g h i í j k l m n o ó œ œ́ p r s t u ú v y ý''<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
There are 8 pure vowels and 7 diphthongs, each of which has long and short variants.<br />
<br />
{| class="IPA" cellspacing="0px" cellpadding="0" style="text-align:center; background:none;"<br />
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"<br />
|style="padding-bottom:3px;"| &nbsp;<br />
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Front'''<br />
| style="width: 60px; word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- front'''<br />
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Central'''<br />
| style="width: 60px;word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- back'''<br />
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Back'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close'''<br />
| style="height: 210px;" colspan=5 rowspan=7 | <div style="position: relative;">[[File:Blank vowel trapezoid.svg|300px|link=]]<div style="background:none; position:absolute; top:0; left:0;"><br />
{| style="position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none;"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none; font-size:120%;"|<br />
<br />
<!-- CLOSE VOWELS --><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 5%; width: 2.3em; top: 2%; background: white;">i(ː)</div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 43%; width: 3.1em; top: 2%; background: white;">ʉ(ː)</div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 85%; width: 2.3em; top: 2%; background: white;">u(ː)</div><br />
<br />
<!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS --><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 28%; width: 2.33em; top: 17%; background: white;"></div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 44%; width: 4em; top: 17%; background: white;"></div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 74%; width: 1.5em; top: 17%; background: white;"></div><br />
<br />
<!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS --><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 16%; width: 2.7em; top: 30%; background: white;">e(ː)</div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 50%; width: 2.7em; top: 30%; background: white;">ɵ(ː)</div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 84%; width: 2.7em; top: 30%; background: white;">o(ː)</div><br />
<br />
<!-- MID VOWELS --><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 24%; width: 2.7em; top: 44%; background: white;"></div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 57%; width: 1em; top: 44%; background: white;"></div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 83%; width: 2.7em; top: 44%; background: white;"></div><br />
<br />
<!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS --><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 30%; width: 3em; top: 58%; background: white;">ɛ(ː)</div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 57%; width: 2.7em; top: 58%; background: white;"></div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 83%; width: 2.7em; top: 58%; background: white;">ɔ(ː)</div><br />
<br />
<!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS --><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 37%; width: 1.3em; top: 73%;"></div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 64%; width: 1em; top: 73%; background: white;"></div><br />
<br />
<!-- OPEN VOWELS --><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 44%; width: 3em; top: 86%; background: white;"></div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 68%; width: 1.5em; top: 86%; background: white;">ä(ː)</div><br />
<div style="position: absolute; left: 85%; width: 2em; top: 86%; background: white;"></div><br />
|}<br />
</div></div><br />
|-<br />
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;'''Near-close'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close-mid'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Mid'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open-mid'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Near-open'''<br />
|-<br />
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open'''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Pure Vowels<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Short !! width="100px;" | Long <br />
|-<br />
| '''a''' /ä/ || '''á''' /äː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''æ''' /ɛ/ || '''ǽ''' /ɛː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''e''' /e/ || '''é''' /eː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''i''' /i// || '''í''' /iː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''o''' /o/ || '''ó''' /oː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''œ''' /ɵ/ || '''œ́''' /ɵː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''ǫ''' /ɔ/ || '''ǫ́''' /ɔː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''u''' /u/ || '''ú''' /uː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''y''' /y/ || '''ý''' /yː/<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Dipthongs <br />
|-<br />
| '''ai''' /æi/ || '''ái''' /æiː/ <br />
|-<br />
| '''au''' /au/ || '''áu''' /auː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''ei''' /əi/ || '''éi''' /əiː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''eu''' /əu/ || '''éu''' /əuː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''ey''' /əy/ || '''éy''' /əyː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''ou''' /ɔu/ || '''óu''' /ɔuː/<br />
|-<br />
| '''oy''' /ɔy/ || '''óy''' /ɔyː/<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
<br />
===Mutations===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
When ''a, á'' or ''au, áu'' are affected by both i-mutation and u-mutation simultaneously, the result is ''œ, œ́'' and ''oy, óy'' respectively.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter and decline for 4 cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) in the singular and plural. There are 8 stem classes (a-, o-, u-, i-, Ø-, s-, n-, r-), within which are a number of sub-classes.<br />
<br />
Stems can be divided into a number of types:<br />
* short monosyllables (those with a short or long vowel)<br />
* long monosyllables (those with a diphthong)<br />
* polysyllables<br />
<br />
A summary of the endings for monosyllables is given below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="30px;" | !! rowspan="2;" width="40px;" | !! colspan="2;" | A-Stems !! O-Stems !! colspan="2;" | U-Stems !! colspan="3;" | I-Stems || colspan="2;" | Ø-Stems !! colspan="2;" | N-Stems !! S-Stems || R-Stems<br />
|-<br />
!! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nom.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ― || ― || ''-ir''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ― || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="3;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ― || ― || ''-er''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r'''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-e'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-e''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-(e)ni'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ri''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nom.<br />
| -''i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || ''-an'' || ''-(a)no''|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-(a)no''<br />
|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-on'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-au'' || ''-ou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-if''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-amb'' || ''-ith''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-rif''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, polysyllabic forms follow the same paradigms but do not undergo i- or u-mutation unless there is a following vowel (e.g. ''áratt'' "silver" (a, n.), g.sg. ''áratt'' but n.pl. ''árett''). Polysyllabic forms are also liable to lose the final vowel of the stem when endings are added when the syllable is short and this may obstruct mutations from occurring (e.g. ''dafath'' (a, m.), g.sg. ''dafath'' but n.pl. ''dafthi''). <br />
<br />
The vocalic stem classes include stems with either ''j'' or ''v'' in the stem (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', d.sg. ''dænju''; ''mor'' 'ant', d.sg. ''morvi''):<br />
* In ''-j-'' stems:<br />
** ''j'' occurs only before ''a, o, u'' <br />
** monosyllables undergo i-mutation throughout the paradigm, except in the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', a.sg. ''dæn'' but ''kærjo'' 'crime', a.sg. ''kær'')<br />
** in polysyllables, the same is true but only pure vowels are affected (e.g. ...). <br />
** u-mutation is blocked <br />
* In ''-v-'' stems:<br />
** ''v'' shows only before ''i, e'' (except following certain vowels, e.g. ''ý'' 'yew tree', a.sg. ''ývu'')<br />
** monosyllables undergo u-mutation everywhere except the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''kar'' 'deer', a.sg. ''kor'')<br />
** polysyllables do not show u-mutation except where the ''v'' survives (e.g. ...)<br />
** i-mutation is not blocked.<br />
<br />
The following nouns are irregular:<br />
* ''sovol'' 'sun' (Ø, n.), oblique stem ''seul-''<br />
* ''keu'' 'hound' (N, m.), oblique stem ''kun-''<br />
* ''bou'' 'cow' (Ø, f.), oblique stem ''ba(v)-''<br />
* ''sœ́ur'' 'sister' (R, f.):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="40px;" !! width="100px;" | Singular !! width="100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nom. <br />
| ''soyur'' || ''soyar''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| ''soyar'' || ''soyro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''soyr''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''seyrif''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives must agree with their noun in gender, number and case, and follow the same declension patterns as nouns. A-stem adjectives take the o-stem endings following a feminine noun (e.g. ''dæni sini'' 'old men' but ''rægi sjano'' 'old women', ''hœthlo sjano'' 'old stories').<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
Comparative adjectives decline only for number and gender, not case. They are formed with the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | Singular !! width="100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Masc/Fem.<br />
| ''-ju<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ja''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Neut.<br />
| ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The comparative is used in two forms of sentence:<br />
* with the copula, e.g. ''ih keu sant kænju ith sau'' 'this dog is nicer than that one'<br />
* with a relative clause, e.g. ''rái-sei í koylju'' 'the woman who is thinner'. <br />
<br />
Superlative adjectives take ''-jau''<sup><small>I</small></sup>, which declines like an a/o-stem adjective:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="40px;" rowspan="2;" | !! colspan="3;" | Singular !! colspan="3;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! width="50px;" | Masc. !! width="50px;" | Neut. !! width="50px;" | Fem. !! width="50px;" | Masc. !! width="50px;" | Neut. !! width="50px;" | Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! Nom. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-jau'' || ''-javo'' || ''-jevi'' || colspan="2;" | ''-javo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Acc.<br />
| colspan="3;" | ''-jau'' || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-javo''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-jey'' || ''-javo'' || colspan="2;" | ''-jau'' || ''-javon''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-jou'' || ''-jave'' || colspan="2;" | ''-javau'' || ''-javou''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The following adjectives are compared irregularly:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="150px;" | Positive !! width="100px;" | Comparative !! width="100px;" | Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! ''dah'' 'good' <br />
| ''vjall'' || ''villjau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''druh'' 'bad' <br />
| ''vaut'' || ''vaudau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''ljathan'' 'wide' <br />
| ''lithju'' || ''lithjau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''mor'' 'big'<br />
| ''maju'' || ''mau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''seir'' 'long'<br />
| ''siju'' || ''sijau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''ail'' 'high''<br />
| ''ai'' || ''au''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
===Verbs===<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
===Syntax===<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''botha''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauth''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæthif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauth''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeutha''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauthr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry''' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327584
Carrick
2023-10-12T10:55:25Z
<p>Psammead: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærthío'' /ˈkærðiˑo/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærthi'') on the archipelago of ''Íni Oyir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d th e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter and decline for 4 cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) in the singular and plural. There are 8 stem classes (a-, o-, u-, i-, Ø-, s-, n-, r-), within which are a number of sub-classes.<br />
<br />
Stems can be divided into a number of types:<br />
* short monosyllables (those with a short or long vowel)<br />
* long monosyllables (those with a diphthong)<br />
* polysyllables<br />
<br />
A summary of the endings for monosyllables is given below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="30px;" | !! rowspan="2;" width="40px;" | !! colspan="2;" | A-Stems !! O-Stems !! colspan="2;" | U-Stems !! colspan="3;" | I-Stems || colspan="2;" | Ø-Stems !! colspan="2;" | N-Stems !! S-Stems || R-Stems<br />
|-<br />
!! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nom.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ― || ― || ''-ir''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ― || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="3;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ― || ― || ''-er''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r'''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-e'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-e''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-(e)ni'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ri''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nom.<br />
| -''i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || ''-an'' || ''-(a)no''|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-(a)no''<br />
|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-on'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-au'' || ''-ou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-if''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-amb'' || ''-ith''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-rif''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, polysyllabic forms follow the same paradigms but do not undergo i- or u-mutation unless there is a following vowel (e.g. ''áratt'' "silver" (a, n.), g.sg. ''áratt'' but n.pl. ''árett''). Polysyllabic forms are also liable to lose the final vowel of the stem when endings are added when the syllable is short and this may obstruct mutations from occurring (e.g. ''dafath'' (a, m.), g.sg. ''dafath'' but n.pl. ''dafthi''). <br />
<br />
The vocalic stem classes include stems with either ''j'' or ''v'' in the stem (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', d.sg. ''dænju''; ''mor'' 'ant', d.sg. ''morvi''):<br />
* In ''-j-'' stems:<br />
** ''j'' occurs only before ''a, o, u'' <br />
** monosyllables undergo i-mutation throughout the paradigm, except in the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', a.sg. ''dæn'' but ''kærjo'' 'crime', a.sg. ''kær'')<br />
** in polysyllables, the same is true but only pure vowels are affected (e.g. ...). <br />
** u-mutation is blocked <br />
* In ''-v-'' stems:<br />
** ''v'' shows only before ''i, e'' (except following certain vowels, e.g. ''ý'' 'yew tree', a.sg. ''ývu'')<br />
** monosyllables undergo u-mutation everywhere except the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''kar'' 'deer', a.sg. ''kor'')<br />
** polysyllables do not show u-mutation except where the ''v'' survives (e.g. ...)<br />
** i-mutation is not blocked.<br />
<br />
The following nouns are irregular:<br />
* ''sovol'' 'sun' (Ø, n.), oblique stem ''seul-''<br />
* ''keu'' 'hound' (N, m.), oblique stem ''kun-''<br />
* ''bou'' 'cow' (Ø, f.), oblique stem ''ba(v)-''<br />
* ''sœ́ur'' 'sister' (R, f.):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="40px;" !! width="100px;" | Singular !! width="100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nom. <br />
| ''soyur'' || ''soyar''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| ''soyar'' || ''soyro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''soyr''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''seyrif''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives must agree with their noun in gender, number and case, and follow the same declension patterns as nouns. A-stem adjectives take the o-stem endings following a feminine noun (e.g. ''dæni sini'' 'old men' but ''rægi sjano'' 'old women', ''hœthlo sjano'' 'old stories').<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
Comparative adjectives decline only for number and gender, not case. They are formed with the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | Singular !! width="100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Masc/Fem.<br />
| ''-ju<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ja''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Neut.<br />
| ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The comparative is used in two forms of sentence:<br />
* with the copula, e.g. ''ih keu sant kænju ith sau'' 'this dog is nicer than that one'<br />
* with a relative clause, e.g. ''rái-sei í koylju'' 'the woman who is thinner'. <br />
<br />
Superlative adjectives take ''-jau''<sup><small>I</small></sup>, which declines like an a/o-stem adjective:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="40px;" rowspan="2;" | !! colspan="3;" | Singular !! colspan="3;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! width="50px;" | Masc. !! width="50px;" | Neut. !! width="50px;" | Fem. !! width="50px;" | Masc. !! width="50px;" | Neut. !! width="50px;" | Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! Nom. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-jau'' || ''-javo'' || ''-jevi'' || colspan="2;" | ''-javo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Acc.<br />
| colspan="3;" | ''-jau'' || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-javo''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-jey'' || ''-javo'' || colspan="2;" | ''-jau'' || ''-javon''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-jou'' || ''-jave'' || colspan="2;" | ''-javau'' || ''-javou''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The following adjectives are compared irregularly:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="150px;" | Positive !! width="100px;" | Comparative !! width="100px;" | Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! ''dah'' 'good' <br />
| ''vjall'' || ''villjau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''druh'' 'bad' <br />
| ''vaut'' || ''vaudau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''ljathan'' 'wide' <br />
| ''lithju'' || ''lithjau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''mor'' 'big'<br />
| ''maju'' || ''mau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''seir'' 'long'<br />
| ''siju'' || ''sijau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''ail'' 'high''<br />
| ''ai'' || ''au''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
===Verbs===<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
===Syntax===<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''botha''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauth''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæthif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauth''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeutha''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauthr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry''' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327580
Carrick
2023-10-12T10:32:13Z
<p>Psammead: /* Comparison */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter and decline for 4 cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) in the singular and plural. There are 8 stem classes (a-, o-, u-, i-, Ø-, s-, n-, r-), within which are a number of sub-classes.<br />
<br />
Stems can be divided into a number of types:<br />
* short monosyllables (those with a short or long vowel)<br />
* long monosyllables (those with a diphthong)<br />
* polysyllables<br />
<br />
A summary of the endings for monosyllables is given below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="30px;" | !! rowspan="2;" width="40px;" | !! colspan="2;" | A-Stems !! O-Stems !! colspan="2;" | U-Stems !! colspan="3;" | I-Stems || colspan="2;" | Ø-Stems !! colspan="2;" | N-Stems !! S-Stems || R-Stems<br />
|-<br />
!! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nom.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ― || ― || ''-ir''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ― || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="3;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ― || ― || ''-er''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r'''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-e'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-e''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-(e)ni'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ri''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nom.<br />
| -''i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || ''-an'' || ''-(a)no''|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-(a)no''<br />
|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-on'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-au'' || ''-ou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-if''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-amb'' || ''-ið''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-rif''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, polysyllabic forms follow the same paradigms but do not undergo i- or u-mutation unless there is a following vowel (e.g. ''áratt'' "silver" (a, n.), g.sg. ''áratt'' but n.pl. ''árett''). Polysyllabic forms are also liable to lose the final vowel of the stem when endings are added when the syllable is short and this may obstruct mutations from occurring (e.g. ''dafað'' (a, m.), g.sg. ''dafað'' but n.pl. ''dafði''). <br />
<br />
The vocalic stem classes include stems with either ''j'' or ''v'' in the stem (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', d.sg. ''dænju''; ''mor'' 'ant', d.sg. ''morvi''):<br />
* In ''-j-'' stems:<br />
** ''j'' occurs only before ''a, o, u'' <br />
** monosyllables undergo i-mutation throughout the paradigm, except in the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', a.sg. ''dæn'' but ''kærjo'' 'crime', a.sg. ''kær'')<br />
** in polysyllables, the same is true but only pure vowels are affected (e.g. ...). <br />
** u-mutation is blocked <br />
* In ''-v-'' stems:<br />
** ''v'' shows only before ''i, e'' (except following certain vowels, e.g. ''ý'' 'yew tree', a.sg. ''ývu'')<br />
** monosyllables undergo u-mutation everywhere except the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''kar'' 'deer', a.sg. ''kor'')<br />
** polysyllables do not show u-mutation except where the ''v'' survives (e.g. ...)<br />
** i-mutation is not blocked.<br />
<br />
The following nouns are irregular:<br />
* ''sovol'' 'sun' (Ø, n.), oblique stem ''seul-''<br />
* ''keu'' 'hound' (N, m.), oblique stem ''kun-''<br />
* ''bou'' 'cow' (Ø, f.), oblique stem ''ba(v)-''<br />
* ''sœ́ur'' 'sister' (R, f.):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="40px;" !! width="100px;" | Singular !! width="100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nom. <br />
| ''soyur'' || ''soyar''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| ''soyar'' || ''soyro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''soyr''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''seyrif''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives must agree with their noun in gender, number and case, and follow the same declension patterns as nouns. A-stem adjectives take the o-stem endings following a feminine noun (e.g. ''dæni sini'' 'old men' but ''rægi sjano'' 'old women', ''hœðlo sjano'' 'old stories').<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
Comparative adjectives decline only for number and gender, not case. They are formed with the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | Singular !! width="100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Masc/Fem.<br />
| ''-ju<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ja''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Neut.<br />
| ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The comparative is used in two forms of sentence:<br />
* with the copula, e.g. ''ih keu sant kænju ið sau'' 'this dog is nicer than that one'<br />
* with a relative clause, e.g. ''rái-sei í koylju'' 'the woman who is thinner'. <br />
<br />
Superlative adjectives take ''-jau''<sup><small>I</small></sup>, which declines like an a/o-stem adjective:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="40px;" rowspan="2;" | !! colspan="3;" | Singular !! colspan="3;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! width="50px;" | Masc. !! width="50px;" | Neut. !! width="50px;" | Fem. !! width="50px;" | Masc. !! width="50px;" | Neut. !! width="50px;" | Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! Nom. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-jau'' || ''-javo'' || ''-jevi'' || colspan="2;" | ''-javo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Acc.<br />
| colspan="3;" | ''-jau'' || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-javo''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-jey'' || ''-javo'' || colspan="2;" | ''-jau'' || ''-javon''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-jou'' || ''-jave'' || colspan="2;" | ''-javau'' || ''-javou''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The following adjectives are compared irregularly:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="150px;" | Positive !! width="100px;" | Comparative !! width="100px;" | Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! ''dah'' 'good' <br />
| ''vjall'' || ''villjau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''druh'' 'bad' <br />
| ''vaut'' || ''vaudau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''ljaðan'' 'wide' <br />
| ''liðju'' || ''liðjau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''mor'' 'big'<br />
| ''maju'' || ''mau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''seir'' 'long'<br />
| ''siju'' || ''sijau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''ail'' 'high''<br />
| ''ai'' || ''au''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
===Verbs===<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
===Syntax===<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327538
Carrick
2023-10-11T22:04:17Z
<p>Psammead: /* Adjectives */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter and decline for 4 cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) in the singular and plural. There are 8 stem classes (a-, o-, u-, i-, Ø-, s-, n-, r-), within which are a number of sub-classes.<br />
<br />
Stems can be divided into a number of types:<br />
* short monosyllables (those with a short or long vowel)<br />
* long monosyllables (those with a diphthong)<br />
* polysyllables<br />
<br />
A summary of the endings for monosyllables is given below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="30px;" | !! rowspan="2;" width="40px;" | !! colspan="2;" | A-Stems !! O-Stems !! colspan="2;" | U-Stems !! colspan="3;" | I-Stems || colspan="2;" | Ø-Stems !! colspan="2;" | N-Stems !! S-Stems || R-Stems<br />
|-<br />
!! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nom.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ― || ― || ''-ir''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ― || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="3;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ― || ― || ''-er''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r'''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-e'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-e''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-(e)ni'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ri''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nom.<br />
| -''i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || ''-an'' || ''-(a)no''|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-(a)no''<br />
|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-on'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-au'' || ''-ou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-if''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-amb'' || ''-ið''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-rif''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, polysyllabic forms follow the same paradigms but do not undergo i- or u-mutation unless there is a following vowel (e.g. ''áratt'' "silver" (a, n.), g.sg. ''áratt'' but n.pl. ''árett''). Polysyllabic forms are also liable to lose the final vowel of the stem when endings are added when the syllable is short and this may obstruct mutations from occurring (e.g. ''dafað'' (a, m.), g.sg. ''dafað'' but n.pl. ''dafði''). <br />
<br />
The vocalic stem classes include stems with either ''j'' or ''v'' in the stem (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', d.sg. ''dænju''; ''mor'' 'ant', d.sg. ''morvi''):<br />
* In ''-j-'' stems:<br />
** ''j'' occurs only before ''a, o, u'' <br />
** monosyllables undergo i-mutation throughout the paradigm, except in the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', a.sg. ''dæn'' but ''kærjo'' 'crime', a.sg. ''kær'')<br />
** in polysyllables, the same is true but only pure vowels are affected (e.g. ...). <br />
** u-mutation is blocked <br />
* In ''-v-'' stems:<br />
** ''v'' shows only before ''i, e'' (except following certain vowels, e.g. ''ý'' 'yew tree', a.sg. ''ývu'')<br />
** monosyllables undergo u-mutation everywhere except the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''kar'' 'deer', a.sg. ''kor'')<br />
** polysyllables do not show u-mutation except where the ''v'' survives (e.g. ...)<br />
** i-mutation is not blocked.<br />
<br />
The following nouns are irregular:<br />
* ''sovol'' 'sun' (Ø, n.), oblique stem ''seul-''<br />
* ''keu'' 'hound' (N, m.), oblique stem ''kun-''<br />
* ''bou'' 'cow' (Ø, f.), oblique stem ''ba(v)-''<br />
* ''sœ́ur'' 'sister' (R, f.):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="40px;" !! width="100px;" | Singular !! width="100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nom. <br />
| ''soyur'' || ''soyar''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| ''soyar'' || ''soyro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''soyr''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''seyrif''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives must agree with their noun in gender, number and case, and follow the same declension patterns as nouns. A-stem adjectives take the o-stem endings following a feminine noun (e.g. ''dæni sini'' 'old men' but ''rægi sjano'' 'old women', ''hœðlo sjano'' 'old stories').<br />
<br />
====Comparison====<br />
Comparative adjectives are only used predicatively (not attributively) and decline only for number and gender, not case. They are formed with the following suffixes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | Singular !! width="100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Masc/Fem.<br />
| ''-ju<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ja''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Neut.<br />
| ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The following adjectives are compared irregularly:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="150px;" | Positive !! width="100px;" | Comparative !! width="100px;" | Superlative<br />
|-<br />
! ''dah'' 'good' <br />
| ''vjall'' || ''villjau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''druh'' 'bad' <br />
| ''vaut'' || ''vaudau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''ljaðan'' 'wide' <br />
| ''liðju'' || ''liðjau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''mor'' 'big'<br />
| ''maju'' || ''mau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''seir'' 'long'<br />
| ''siju'' || ''sijau''<br />
|-<br />
! ''ail'' 'high''<br />
| ''ai'' || ''au''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
===Verbs===<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
===Syntax===<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327533
Carrick
2023-10-11T21:04:59Z
<p>Psammead: /* Morphology */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter and decline for 4 cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) in the singular and plural. There are 8 stem classes (a-, o-, u-, i-, Ø-, s-, n-, r-), within which are a number of sub-classes.<br />
<br />
Stems can be divided into a number of types:<br />
* short monosyllables (those with a short or long vowel)<br />
* long monosyllables (those with a diphthong)<br />
* polysyllables<br />
<br />
A summary of the endings for monosyllables is given below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="30px;" | !! rowspan="2;" width="40px;" | !! colspan="2;" | A-Stems !! O-Stems !! colspan="2;" | U-Stems !! colspan="3;" | I-Stems || colspan="2;" | Ø-Stems !! colspan="2;" | N-Stems !! S-Stems || R-Stems<br />
|-<br />
!! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nom.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ― || ― || ''-ir''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ― || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="3;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ― || ― || ''-er''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r'''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-e'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-e''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-(e)ni'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ri''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nom.<br />
| -''i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || ''-an'' || ''-(a)no''|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-(a)no''<br />
|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-on'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-au'' || ''-ou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-if''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-amb'' || ''-ið''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-rif''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, polysyllabic forms follow the same paradigms but do not undergo i- or u-mutation unless there is a following vowel (e.g. ''áratt'' "silver" (a, n.), g.sg. ''áratt'' but n.pl. ''árett''). Polysyllabic forms are also liable to lose the final vowel of the stem when endings are added when the syllable is short and this may obstruct mutations from occurring (e.g. ''dafað'' (a, m.), g.sg. ''dafað'' but n.pl. ''dafði''). <br />
<br />
The vocalic stem classes include stems with either ''j'' or ''v'' in the stem (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', d.sg. ''dænju''; ''mor'' 'ant', d.sg. ''morvi''):<br />
* In ''-j-'' stems:<br />
** ''j'' occurs only before ''a, o, u'' <br />
** monosyllables undergo i-mutation throughout the paradigm, except in the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', a.sg. ''dæn'' but ''kærjo'' 'crime', a.sg. ''kær'')<br />
** in polysyllables, the same is true but only pure vowels are affected (e.g. ...). <br />
** u-mutation is blocked <br />
* In ''-v-'' stems:<br />
** ''v'' shows only before ''i, e'' (except following certain vowels, e.g. ''ý'' 'yew tree', a.sg. ''ývu'')<br />
** monosyllables undergo u-mutation everywhere except the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''kar'' 'deer', a.sg. ''kor'')<br />
** polysyllables do not show u-mutation except where the ''v'' survives (e.g. ...)<br />
** i-mutation is not blocked.<br />
<br />
The following nouns are irregular:<br />
* ''sovol'' 'sun' (Ø, n.), oblique stem ''seul-''<br />
* ''keu'' 'hound' (N, m.), oblique stem ''kun-''<br />
* ''bou'' 'cow' (Ø, f.), oblique stem ''ba(v)-''<br />
* ''sœ́ur'' 'sister' (R, f.):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="40px;" !! width="100px;" | Singular !! width="100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nom. <br />
| ''soyur'' || ''soyar''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| ''soyar'' || ''soyro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''soyr''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''seyrif''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Determiners===<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives must agree with their noun in gender, number and case, and follow the same declension patterns as nouns. A-stem adjectives take the o-stem endings following a feminine noun (e.g. ''d<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
===Verbs===<br />
===Adverbs===<br />
===Prepositions===<br />
===Syntax===<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick/History&diff=327525
Carrick/History
2023-10-11T16:34:37Z
<p>Psammead: /* Early Carrick */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Common Brittonic===<br />
Carrick inherited the following consonant inventory from Common Brittonic:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Inherited Consonant Inventory of Common Brittonic<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Bilabial || colspan="2;"| Dental/</br>Alveolar !! colspan="2;" | Palatal || colspan="2;"| Velar || colspan="2;"| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive <br />
| width="50px;" | p || width="50px;" | b ||width="50px;" | t || width="50px;" |d ||width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | k ||width="50px;" | g || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" |<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| ɸ || (β, μ) || s || (ð) || || || x || (ɣ) || (h) ||<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| || m || || n || | || || || (ŋ) || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant <br />
| || w || || l || || j || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| || || || r || || || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The process of lenition weakened intervocalic consonants, including those at the beginning and end of a word in continuous speech, creating a chain shift of voiceless stop > voiced stop > voiced fricative, plus ''m'' > ''μ'' (a voiced bilabial nasalised fricative), ''s > h'' and probably ''ɸ'' > Ø. Meanwhile, geminate stops and ''ss'' were shortened to fill the gap created by the lenited allophones (e.g. ''katus'' "battle" > ''kaduh'' but ''kattā'' > ''katā'').<br />
<br />
The Brittonic vowel inventory had already undergone changes, creating long monophthongs from old diphthongs. It consisted of five short and seven long vowels, plus triphthongs consisting of ''ijV'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Vowel Inventory of Common Brittonic 1C<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Short !! colspan="2;" | Long<br />
|-<br />
! Front !! Back !! Front !! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| width="50px;" | i || width="50px;" | u || width="75px;" | iː || width="75px;" | uː<br />
|-<br />
! Close-Mid<br />
| || || eː </br> (< ei) || oː </br> (< oi)<br />
|-<br />
! Open-Mid<br />
| ɛ || ɔ || ɛː </br> (< ai) || ɔː </br> (< ou, eu)<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| a || || aː </br> (< aː, au) ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Proto-Carrick===<br />
Proto-Carrick, ranging from approximately the 3rd to the 8th centuries, underwent a series of significant changes:<br />
* Changes to unstressed word-final sounds:<br />
** short ''-a, -e, -o'' are lost, along with any preceding ''j, w'' (e.g. ''donjo- > don'')<br />
** final ''-n'' is lost and a preceding vowel nasalised (e.g. ''kanton > kantõ'')<br />
* Vowel changes:<br />
** unstressed short ''e'' > ''i'' (e.g. ''imbed > imbid'')<br />
** short ''o > a'', long ''aː > ɔː'' (e.g. ''don > dan, laːμaː > lɔːμɔː'')<br />
* '''Short I-Mutation:''' ''a > æ, e > i, o > ø, u > y'' before ''i, iː, j'' in next syllable (e.g. ''dani > dæni''). <br />
* Short word-final vowels are deleted in words of 3 syllables or more (e.g. ''riːɣænĩ > riːɣæn'')<br />
* Vowel Changes:<br />
** final-syllable unstressed ''oː > uː, ɛː > eː'' (e.g. ''kadoː > kaduː'', ''tundɛː > tundeː'')<br />
** unstressed ''eː > iː''<br />
** non-final ''ɛː > aː'' (e.g. ''kɛːd > kaːd'')<br />
* ''x'' < earlier ''xs'' and in the combination ''xt'' becomes ''h''<br />
** ''h'' < earlier ''x'' and ''s'' are lost, lengthening preceding vowel (e.g. ''oxtuː > ɔːtuː'', ''swehr > sweːr)<br />
* '''Lenition 2''' of intervocalic and final consonants:<br />
** also affects consonants adjacent to ''l, r'' (''balg > balɣ, mark > marg'')<br />
** previously lenited stops lenite again: ''b > β, d > ð, g > ɣ,''<br />
** ''p, t, k'' from earlier ''pp, tt / xt, kk'' become ''b, d, g'' (''ɔːtuː > ɔːduː'')<br />
** ''s'' (from ''ss'') > ''h'' (''sanes > saneh, )<br />
* Final consonants are devoiced: (e.g. ''kaːð > kaːθ, balɣ > balx)<br />
* '''Full I-Mutation''' before ''i, iː'' or ''j'' in the next syllable:<br />
** Short vowels: ''a > æ, e > i, o > ø, u > y''<br />
** Long vowels: ''aː > æː, eː > iː, ɔː > øː, oː > œː, uː > yː''<br />
<br />
===Early Carrick===<br />
* '''U-Mutation:''' ''a(ː) > ɔ(ː), e > ø, eː > œː, i(ː) > y(ː)'' before ''u(ː), w'' in next syllable (e.g. ''kaðu > kɔðu'')<br />
** word-initial combinations of (C)''w''V are mutated (e.g. ''sweːr > sœːr'', ''gwan- > gon-''). <br />
* Stressed ''e(ː)'' becomes ''ja(ː)'' (e.g. ''geːhl'' > ''gjaːhl'', ''menn'' > ''mjann'')<br />
* '''Syncope:''' <br />
** unstressed short vowels in open syllables (including word-final) are lost (e.g. ''kɔðu > kɔθ'')<br />
** unstressed ''æ, ø'' become ''e'' (e.g. ''salæn > salen'')<br />
** unstressed long vowels are shortened (e.g. ''ɔːduː > ɔːdu)<br />
* ''mp, nt, nk'' > ''pp, tt, kk''<br />
<br />
===Late Carrick===<br />
* medial ''s'' > ''h'' before ''p, k, t'' (''sisp > sihp'')<br />
* long vowels break: ''aː > au, æː > ai, eː > je, øː > oy, ɔː > ou, oː > wo, œː> jo, iː > ei, y > ey, u > eu'' (e.g. ''ɔːdu > oudu'').<br />
* ''ɣ'' merges with ''h'' (< ''s'') (e.g. ''selɣ'' > ''selha''<br />
* ''h'' is lost, with lengthening of preceding vowel:<br />
** before a consonant (e.g. ''sihp > siːp'')<br />
** between a consonant and a vowel (e.g. ''selha > seːla'')</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick/History&diff=327524
Carrick/History
2023-10-11T16:26:54Z
<p>Psammead: /* Proto-Carrick */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Common Brittonic===<br />
Carrick inherited the following consonant inventory from Common Brittonic:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Inherited Consonant Inventory of Common Brittonic<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Bilabial || colspan="2;"| Dental/</br>Alveolar !! colspan="2;" | Palatal || colspan="2;"| Velar || colspan="2;"| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive <br />
| width="50px;" | p || width="50px;" | b ||width="50px;" | t || width="50px;" |d ||width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | k ||width="50px;" | g || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" |<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| ɸ || (β, μ) || s || (ð) || || || x || (ɣ) || (h) ||<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| || m || || n || | || || || (ŋ) || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant <br />
| || w || || l || || j || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| || || || r || || || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The process of lenition weakened intervocalic consonants, including those at the beginning and end of a word in continuous speech, creating a chain shift of voiceless stop > voiced stop > voiced fricative, plus ''m'' > ''μ'' (a voiced bilabial nasalised fricative), ''s > h'' and probably ''ɸ'' > Ø. Meanwhile, geminate stops and ''ss'' were shortened to fill the gap created by the lenited allophones (e.g. ''katus'' "battle" > ''kaduh'' but ''kattā'' > ''katā'').<br />
<br />
The Brittonic vowel inventory had already undergone changes, creating long monophthongs from old diphthongs. It consisted of five short and seven long vowels, plus triphthongs consisting of ''ijV'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Vowel Inventory of Common Brittonic 1C<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Short !! colspan="2;" | Long<br />
|-<br />
! Front !! Back !! Front !! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| width="50px;" | i || width="50px;" | u || width="75px;" | iː || width="75px;" | uː<br />
|-<br />
! Close-Mid<br />
| || || eː </br> (< ei) || oː </br> (< oi)<br />
|-<br />
! Open-Mid<br />
| ɛ || ɔ || ɛː </br> (< ai) || ɔː </br> (< ou, eu)<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| a || || aː </br> (< aː, au) ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Proto-Carrick===<br />
Proto-Carrick, ranging from approximately the 3rd to the 8th centuries, underwent a series of significant changes:<br />
* Changes to unstressed word-final sounds:<br />
** short ''-a, -e, -o'' are lost, along with any preceding ''j, w'' (e.g. ''donjo- > don'')<br />
** final ''-n'' is lost and a preceding vowel nasalised (e.g. ''kanton > kantõ'')<br />
* Vowel changes:<br />
** unstressed short ''e'' > ''i'' (e.g. ''imbed > imbid'')<br />
** short ''o > a'', long ''aː > ɔː'' (e.g. ''don > dan, laːμaː > lɔːμɔː'')<br />
* '''Short I-Mutation:''' ''a > æ, e > i, o > ø, u > y'' before ''i, iː, j'' in next syllable (e.g. ''dani > dæni''). <br />
* Short word-final vowels are deleted in words of 3 syllables or more (e.g. ''riːɣænĩ > riːɣæn'')<br />
* Vowel Changes:<br />
** final-syllable unstressed ''oː > uː, ɛː > eː'' (e.g. ''kadoː > kaduː'', ''tundɛː > tundeː'')<br />
** unstressed ''eː > iː''<br />
** non-final ''ɛː > aː'' (e.g. ''kɛːd > kaːd'')<br />
* ''x'' < earlier ''xs'' and in the combination ''xt'' becomes ''h''<br />
** ''h'' < earlier ''x'' and ''s'' are lost, lengthening preceding vowel (e.g. ''oxtuː > ɔːtuː'', ''swehr > sweːr)<br />
* '''Lenition 2''' of intervocalic and final consonants:<br />
** also affects consonants adjacent to ''l, r'' (''balg > balɣ, mark > marg'')<br />
** previously lenited stops lenite again: ''b > β, d > ð, g > ɣ,''<br />
** ''p, t, k'' from earlier ''pp, tt / xt, kk'' become ''b, d, g'' (''ɔːtuː > ɔːduː'')<br />
** ''s'' (from ''ss'') > ''h'' (''sanes > saneh, )<br />
* Final consonants are devoiced: (e.g. ''kaːð > kaːθ, balɣ > balx)<br />
* '''Full I-Mutation''' before ''i, iː'' or ''j'' in the next syllable:<br />
** Short vowels: ''a > æ, e > i, o > ø, u > y''<br />
** Long vowels: ''aː > æː, eː > iː, ɔː > øː, oː > œː, uː > yː''<br />
<br />
===Early Carrick===<br />
* '''U-Mutation:''' ''a(ː) > ɔ(ː), e > ø, eː > œː, i(ː) > y(ː)'' before ''u(ː)'' in next syllable (e.g. ''kaðu > kɔðu'')<br />
* Stressed ''e(ː)'' becomes ''ja(ː)'' (''geːhl'' > ''gjaːhl'', ''menn'' > ''mjann'')<br />
* '''Syncope:''' <br />
** unstressed short vowels in open syllables (including word-final) are lost (e.g. ''kɔðu > kɔθ'')<br />
** unstressed ''æ, ø'' become ''e'' (e.g. ''salæn > salen'')<br />
** unstressed long vowels are shortened (e.g. ''ɔːduː > ɔːdu)<br />
* ''mp, nt, nk'' > ''pp, tt, kk''<br />
<br />
===Late Carrick===<br />
* medial ''s'' > ''h'' before ''p, k, t'' (''sisp > sihp'')<br />
* long vowels break: ''aː > au, æː > ai, eː > je, øː > oy, ɔː > ou, oː > wo, œː> jo, iː > ei, y > ey, u > eu'' (e.g. ''ɔːdu > oudu'').<br />
* ''ɣ'' merges with ''h'' (< ''s'') (e.g. ''selɣ'' > ''selha''<br />
* ''h'' is lost, with lengthening of preceding vowel:<br />
** before a consonant (e.g. ''sihp > siːp'')<br />
** between a consonant and a vowel (e.g. ''selha > seːla'')</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327523
Carrick
2023-10-11T16:16:57Z
<p>Psammead: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter and decline for 4 cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) in the singular and plural. There are 8 stem classes (a-, o-, u-, i-, Ø-, s-, n-, r-), within which are a number of sub-classes.<br />
<br />
Stems can be divided into a number of types:<br />
* short monosyllables (those with a short or long vowel)<br />
* long monosyllables (those with a diphthong)<br />
* polysyllables<br />
<br />
A summary of the endings for monosyllables is given below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="30px;" | !! rowspan="2;" width="40px;" | !! colspan="2;" | A-Stems !! O-Stems !! colspan="2;" | U-Stems !! colspan="3;" | I-Stems || colspan="2;" | Ø-Stems !! colspan="2;" | N-Stems !! S-Stems || R-Stems<br />
|-<br />
!! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nom.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ― || ― || ''-ir''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ― || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="3;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ― || ― || ''-er''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r'''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-e'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-e''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-(e)ni'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ri''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nom.<br />
| -''i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || ''-an'' || ''-(a)no''|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-(a)no''<br />
|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-on'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-au'' || ''-ou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-if''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-amb'' || ''-ið''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-rif''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, polysyllabic forms follow the same paradigms but do not undergo i- or u-mutation unless there is a following vowel (e.g. ''áratt'' "silver" (a, n.), g.sg. ''áratt'' but n.pl. ''árett''). Polysyllabic forms are also liable to lose the final vowel of the stem when endings are added when the syllable is short and this may obstruct mutations from occurring (e.g. ''dafað'' (a, m.), g.sg. ''dafað'' but n.pl. ''dafði''). <br />
<br />
The vocalic stem classes include stems with either ''j'' or ''v'' in the stem (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', d.sg. ''dænju''; ''mor'' 'ant', d.sg. ''morvi''):<br />
* In ''-j-'' stems:<br />
** ''j'' occurs only before ''a, o, u'' <br />
** monosyllables undergo i-mutation throughout the paradigm, except in the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', a.sg. ''dæn'' but ''kærjo'' 'crime', a.sg. ''kær'')<br />
** in polysyllables, the same is true but only pure vowels are affected (e.g. ...). <br />
** u-mutation is blocked <br />
* In ''-v-'' stems:<br />
** ''v'' shows only before ''i, e'' (except following certain vowels, e.g. ''ý'' 'yew tree', a.sg. ''ývu'')<br />
** monosyllables undergo u-mutation everywhere except the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''kar'' 'deer', a.sg. ''kor'')<br />
** polysyllables do not show u-mutation except where the ''v'' survives (e.g. ...)<br />
** i-mutation is not blocked.<br />
<br />
The following nouns are irregular:<br />
* ''sovol'' 'sun' (Ø, n.), oblique stem ''seul-''<br />
* ''keu'' 'hound' (N, m.), oblique stem ''kun-''<br />
* ''bou'' 'cow' (Ø, f.), oblique stem ''ba(v)-''<br />
* ''sœ́ur'' 'sister' (R, f.):<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="40px;" !! width="100px;" | Singular !! width="100px;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! Nom. <br />
| ''soyur'' || ''soyar''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| ''soyar'' || ''soyro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''soyr''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| ''soyr'' || ''seyrif''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick/Noun_Declension&diff=327522
Carrick/Noun Declension
2023-10-11T15:45:50Z
<p>Psammead: Created page with "{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ A-Stems (masculine & neuter) |- ! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''penn'' </br> head (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tækkið'' </br> fate (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''dan'' </br> man (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tar'' </br> bull (m.) || width="100px;" | ''deun'' </br> city (n.) |- ! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative | ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dan'' || ''tar'' || ''deun'' |- ! Accusative | ''pen..."</p>
<hr />
<div>{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ A-Stems (masculine & neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''penn'' </br> head (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tækkið'' </br> fate (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''dan'' </br> man (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tar'' </br> bull (m.) || width="100px;" | ''deun'' </br> city (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dan'' || ''tar'' || ''deun'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''pinn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tœr'' || ''deyn''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deunu''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''pinni'' || ''tækkði'' || ''dænji'' || ''tœrvi'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pennau'' || ''tækkðau'' || ''dænjau'' || ''torvau'' || ''deunau''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ O-Stems (feminine)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''louvo'' </br> hand !! width="100px;" | ''íro'' </br> prostitute !! width="100px;" | ''vijo'' </br> web !! width="100px;" | ''dølvo'' </br> image <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louv'' || ''irih'' || ''vij'' || ''dœl'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louve'' || ''íre'' || ''vije'' || ''dœlve'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvon'' || ''íron'' || ''vijon'' || ''dœlvon'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louvou'' || ''írou'' || ''vijou'' || ''dœlvou'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ U-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''koð'' </br> battle (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kryh'' </br> shirt (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''aret'' </br> conversation (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mornath'' </br> eulogy (n.) !! width="100px;" | ''yð'' </br> corn (n.)<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ I-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''læð'' </br> country (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kloyn'' </br> meadow (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''bovel'' </br> shepherd (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mœr'' </br> sea (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læðif'' || ''kloynif'' || ''boulif'' || ''mœrif'' <br />
|-<br />
|}</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327521
Carrick
2023-10-11T15:42:18Z
<p>Psammead: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter and decline for 4 cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) in the singular and plural. There are 8 stem classes (a-, o-, u-, i-, Ø-, s-, n-, r-), within which are a number of sub-classes.<br />
<br />
Stems can be divided into a number of types:<br />
* short monosyllables (those with a short or long vowel)<br />
* long monosyllables (those with a diphthong)<br />
* polysyllables<br />
<br />
A summary of the endings for monosyllables is given below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="30px;" | !! rowspan="2;" width="40px;" | !! colspan="2;" | A-Stems !! O-Stems !! colspan="2;" | U-Stems !! colspan="3;" | I-Stems || colspan="2;" | Ø-Stems !! colspan="2;" | N-Stems !! S-Stems || R-Stems<br />
|-<br />
!! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nom.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ― || ― || ''-ir''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ― || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="3;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ― || ― || ''-er''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r'''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-e'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-e''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-(e)ni'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ri''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nom.<br />
| -''i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || ''-an'' || ''-(a)no''|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-(a)no''<br />
|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-on'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-au'' || ''-ou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-if''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-amb'' || ''-ið''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-rif''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, polysyllabic forms follow the same paradigms but do not undergo i- or u-mutation unless there is a following vowel (e.g. ''áratt'' "silver" (a, n.), g.sg. ''áratt'' but n.pl. ''árett''). Polysyllabic forms are also liable to lose the final vowel of the stem when endings are added when the syllable is short and this may obstruct mutations from occurring (e.g. ''dafað'' (a, m.), g.sg. ''dafað'' but n.pl. ''dafði''). <br />
<br />
The vocalic stem classes include stems with either ''j'' or ''v'' in the stem (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', d.sg. ''dænju''; ''mor'' 'ant', d.sg. ''morvi''):<br />
* In ''-j-'' stems:<br />
** ''j'' occurs only before ''a, o, u'' <br />
** monosyllables undergo i-mutation throughout the paradigm, except in the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', a.sg. ''dæn'' but ''kærjo'' 'crime', a.sg. ''kær'')<br />
** in polysyllables, the same is true but only pure vowels are affected (e.g. ...). <br />
** u-mutation is blocked <br />
* In ''-v-'' stems:<br />
** ''v'' shows only before ''i, e'' (except following certain vowels, e.g. ''ý'' 'yew tree', a.sg. ''ývu'')<br />
** monosyllables undergo u-mutation everywhere except the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''kar'' 'deer', a.sg. ''kor'')<br />
** polysyllables do not show u-mutation except where the ''v'' survives (e.g. ...)<br />
** i-mutation is not blocked.<br />
<br />
====Example Declensions====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ A-Stems (masculine & neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''penn'' </br> head (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tækkið'' </br> fate (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''dan'' </br> man (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tar'' </br> bull (m.) || width="100px;" | ''deun'' </br> city (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dan'' || ''tar'' || ''deun'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''pinn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tœr'' || ''deyn''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deunu''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''pinni'' || ''tækkði'' || ''dænji'' || ''tœrvi'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pennau'' || ''tækkðau'' || ''dænjau'' || ''torvau'' || ''deunau''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ O-Stems (feminine)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''louvo'' </br> hand !! width="100px;" | ''íro'' </br> prostitute !! width="100px;" | ''vijo'' </br> web !! width="100px;" | ''dølvo'' </br> image <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louv'' || ''irih'' || ''vij'' || ''dœl'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louve'' || ''íre'' || ''vije'' || ''dœlve'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvon'' || ''íron'' || ''vijon'' || ''dœlvon'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louvou'' || ''írou'' || ''vijou'' || ''dœlvou'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ U-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''koð'' </br> battle (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kryh'' </br> shirt (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''aret'' </br> conversation (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mornath'' </br> eulogy (n.) !! width="100px;" | ''yð'' </br> corn (n.)<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ I-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''læð'' </br> country (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kloyn'' </br> meadow (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''bovel'' </br> shepherd (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mœr'' </br> sea (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læðif'' || ''kloynif'' || ''boulif'' || ''mœrif'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327520
Carrick
2023-10-11T13:58:36Z
<p>Psammead: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter and decline for four cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) in the singular and plural. There are X stem classes (a-, o-, u-, i-, ...), within which are a number of sub-classes.<br />
<br />
Stems can be divided into a number of types:<br />
* short monosyllables (those with a short or long vowel)<br />
* long monosyllables (those with a diphthong)<br />
* polysyllables<br />
<br />
A summary of the endings for monosyllables is given below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="30px;" | !! rowspan="2;" width="40px;" | !! colspan="2;" | A-Stems !! O-Stems !! colspan="2;" | U-Stems !! colspan="3;" | I-Stems || colspan="2;" | Ø-Stems !! colspan="2;" | N-Stems !! S-Stems || R-Stems<br />
|-<br />
!! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nom.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ― || ― || ''-ir''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ― || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="3;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ― || ― || ''-er''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r'''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-e'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-e''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-(e)ni'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ri''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nom.<br />
| -''i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || ''-an'' || ''-(a)no''|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-(a)no''<br />
|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-on'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-au'' || ''-ou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-if''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-amb'' || ''-ið''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-rif''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, polysyllabic forms follow the same paradigms but do not undergo i- or u-mutation unless there is a following vowel (e.g. ''áratt'' "silver" (a, n.), g.sg. ''áratt'' but n.pl. ''árett''). Polysyllabic forms are also liable to lose the final vowel of the stem when endings are added when the syllable is short and this may obstruct mutations from occurring (e.g. ''dafað'' (a, m.), g.sg. ''dafað'' but n.pl. ''dafði''). <br />
<br />
The vocalic stem classes include stems with either ''j'' or ''v'' in the stem (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', ''dœl'' 'image'). <br />
<br />
A ''j'' occurs only before ''a, o, u'' but causes i-mutation to monosyllables throughout the paradigm (blocking u-mutation), except in the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', a.sg. ''dæn'' but ''kærjo'' 'crime', a.sg. ''kær''). In polysyllables, the same is true but only pure vowels are affected (e.g. ...). <br />
<br />
Stems with ''v'' show this only before ''i, e'' and monosyllables undergo u-mutation (blocking i-affection) everywhere except the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''kar'' 'deer', a.sg. ''kor''). Polysyllables do not show u-mutation except where the ''v'' survives (e.g. ...).<br />
<br />
====Example Declensions====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ A-Stems (masculine & neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''penn'' </br> head (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tækkið'' </br> fate (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''dan'' </br> man (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tar'' </br> bull (m.) || width="100px;" | ''deun'' </br> city (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dan'' || ''tar'' || ''deun'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''pinn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deyn''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deunu''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''pinni'' || ''tækkði'' || ''dænji'' || ''torvi'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pennau'' || ''tækkðau'' || ''dænjau'' || ''torvau'' || ''deunau''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ O-Stems (feminine)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''louvo'' </br> hand !! width="100px;" | ''íro'' </br> prostitute !! width="100px;" | ''vijo'' </br> web !! width="100px;" | ''dølvo'' </br> image <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louv'' || ''irih'' || ''vij'' || ''dœl'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louve'' || ''íre'' || ''vije'' || ''dœlve'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvon'' || ''íron'' || ''vijon'' || ''dœlvon'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louvou'' || ''írou'' || ''vijou'' || ''dœlvou'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ U-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''koð'' </br> battle (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kryh'' </br> shirt (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''aret'' </br> conversation (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mornath'' </br> eulogy (n.) !! width="100px;" | ''yð'' </br> corn (n.)<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ I-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''læð'' </br> country (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kloyn'' </br> meadow (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''bovel'' </br> shepherd (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mœr'' </br> sea (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læðif'' || ''kloynif'' || ''boulif'' || ''mœrif'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327519
Carrick
2023-10-11T13:47:45Z
<p>Psammead: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter and decline for four cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) in the singular and plural. There are X stem classes (a-, o-, u-, i-, ...), within which are a number of sub-classes.<br />
<br />
Stems can be divided into a number of types:<br />
* short monosyllables (those with a short or long vowel)<br />
* long monosyllables (those with a diphthong)<br />
* polysyllables<br />
<br />
A summary of the endings for monosyllables is given below.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="30px;" | !! rowspan="2;" width="40px;" | !! colspan="2;" | A-Stems !! O-Stems !! colspan="2;" | U-Stems !! colspan="3;" | I-Stems || colspan="2;" | Ø-Stems !! colspan="2;" | N-Stems !! S-Stems || R-Stems<br />
|-<br />
!! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nom.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ― || ― || ''-ir''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ― || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="3;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ― || ― || ''-er''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r'''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-e'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-e''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-(e)ni'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ri''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nom.<br />
| -''i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || ''-an'' || ''-(a)no''|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-(a)no''<br />
|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-on'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-au'' || ''-ou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-if''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-amb'' || ''-ið''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-rif''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, polysyllabic forms follow the same paradigms but do not undergo i- or u-mutation unless there is a following vowel (e.g. ''áratt'' "silver" (a, n.), g.sg. ''áratt'' but n.pl. ''árett''). Polysyllabic forms are also liable to lose the final vowel of the stem when endings are added when the syllable is short and this may obstruct mutations from occurring (e.g. ''dafað'' (a, m.), g.sg. ''dafað'' but n.pl. ''dafði''). <br />
<br />
The vocalic stem classes include stems with either ''j'' or ''v'' in the stem (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', ''dœl'' 'image'). <br />
<br />
A ''j'' occurs only before ''a, o, u'' but causes i-mutation to monosyllables throughout the paradigm (blocking u-mutation), except in the n.sg. of masculine a-stems (e.g. ''dan'' 'man', a.sg. ''dæn'' but ''kærjo'' 'crime', a.sg. ''kær''). In polysyllables, the same is true but only pure vowels are affected (e.g. ...). <br />
<br />
Stems with ''v'' show this only before ''i, e'' <br />
<br />
====Example Declensions====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ A-Stems (masculine & neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''penn'' </br> head (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tækkið'' </br> fate (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''dan'' </br> man (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tar'' </br> bull (m.) || width="100px;" | ''deun'' </br> city (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dan'' || ''tar'' || ''deun'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''pinn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deyn''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deunu''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''pinni'' || ''tækkði'' || ''dænji'' || ''torvi'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pennau'' || ''tækkðau'' || ''dænjau'' || ''torvau'' || ''deunau''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ O-Stems (feminine)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''louvo'' </br> hand !! width="100px;" | ''íro'' </br> prostitute !! width="100px;" | ''vijo'' </br> web !! width="100px;" | ''dølvo'' </br> image <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louv'' || ''irih'' || ''vij'' || ''dœl'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louve'' || ''íre'' || ''vije'' || ''dœlve'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvon'' || ''íron'' || ''vijon'' || ''dœlvon'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louvou'' || ''írou'' || ''vijou'' || ''dœlvou'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ U-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''koð'' </br> battle (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kryh'' </br> shirt (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''aret'' </br> conversation (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mornath'' </br> eulogy (n.) !! width="100px;" | ''yð'' </br> corn (n.)<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ I-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''læð'' </br> country (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kloyn'' </br> meadow (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''bovel'' </br> shepherd (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mœr'' </br> sea (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læðif'' || ''kloynif'' || ''boulif'' || ''mœrif'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327518
Carrick
2023-10-11T13:16:53Z
<p>Psammead: /* Morphology */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter and decline for four cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) in the singular and plural. There are X stem classes (a-, o-, u-, i-, ...), within which are a number of sub-classes.<br />
<br />
Stems can be divided into a number of types:<br />
* short monosyllables (those with a short or long vowel)<br />
* long monosyllables (those with a diphthong)<br />
* polysyllables<br />
<br />
A summary of the endings for monosyllables is given below.<br />
<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="30px;" | !! rowspan="2;" width="40px;" | !! colspan="2;" | A-Stems !! O-Stems !! colspan="2;" | U-Stems !! colspan="3;" | I-Stems || colspan="2;" | Ø-Stems !! colspan="2;" | N-Stems !! S-Stems || R-Stems<br />
|-<br />
!! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nom.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ― || ― || ''-ir''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ― || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="3;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ― || ― || ''-er''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r'''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-e'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-e''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-(e)ni'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ri''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nom.<br />
| -''i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || ''-an'' || ''-(a)no''|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-(a)no''<br />
|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-on'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-au'' || ''-ou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-if''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-amb'' || ''-ið''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-rif''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, polysyllabic forms follow the same paradigms but do not undergo i- or u-mutation unless there is a following vowel (e.g. ''áratt'' "silver" (a, n.), g.sg. ''áratt'' but n.pl. ''árett''). Polysyllabic forms are also liable to lose the final vowel of the stem when endings are added when the syllable is short and this may obstruct mutations from occurring (e.g. ''dafað'' (a, m.), g.sg. ''dafað'' but n.pl. ''dafði''). <br />
<br />
====Example Declensions====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ A-Stems (masculine & neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''penn'' </br> head (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tækkið'' </br> fate (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''dan'' </br> man (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tar'' </br> bull (m.) || width="100px;" | ''deun'' </br> city (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dan'' || ''tar'' || ''deun'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''pinn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deyn''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deunu''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''pinni'' || ''tækkði'' || ''dænji'' || ''torvi'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pennau'' || ''tækkðau'' || ''dænjau'' || ''torvau'' || ''deunau''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ O-Stems (feminine)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''louvo'' </br> hand !! width="100px;" | ''íro'' </br> prostitute !! width="100px;" | ''vijo'' </br> web !! width="100px;" | ''dølvo'' </br> image <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louv'' || ''irih'' || ''vij'' || ''dœl'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louve'' || ''íre'' || ''vije'' || ''dœlve'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvon'' || ''íron'' || ''vijon'' || ''dœlvon'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louvou'' || ''írou'' || ''vijou'' || ''dœlvou'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ U-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''koð'' </br> battle (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kryh'' </br> shirt (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''aret'' </br> conversation (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mornath'' </br> eulogy (n.) !! width="100px;" | ''yð'' </br> corn (n.)<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ I-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''læð'' </br> country (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kloyn'' </br> meadow (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''bovel'' </br> shepherd (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mœr'' </br> sea (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læðif'' || ''kloynif'' || ''boulif'' || ''mœrif'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327517
Carrick
2023-10-11T13:16:21Z
<p>Psammead: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns may be masculine, feminine or neuter and decline for four cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative) in the singular and plural. There are X stem classes (a-, o-, u-, i-, ...), within which are a number of sub-classes.<br />
<br />
Stems can be divided into a number of types:<br />
* short monosyllables (those with a short or long vowel)<br />
* long monosyllables (those with a diphthong)<br />
* polysyllables<br />
<br />
A summary of the endings for monosyllables is given below.<br />
<br />
===Example Declensions===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="30px;" | !! rowspan="2;" width="40px;" | !! colspan="2;" | A-Stems !! O-Stems !! colspan="2;" | U-Stems !! colspan="3;" | I-Stems || colspan="2;" | Ø-Stems !! colspan="2;" | N-Stems !! S-Stems || R-Stems<br />
|-<br />
!! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Fem. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Neut. !! width="70px;" | Masc/Fem. <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nom.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ― || ― || ''-ir''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ― || colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="3;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ― || ― || ''-er''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r'''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-e'' || colspan="2;" | ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-e''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-(e)ni'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ri''<sup><small>I</small></sup><br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nom.<br />
| -''i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || ''-an'' || ''-(a)no''|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Acc. <br />
| -''u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o'' || ''-o'' || ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-o''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ― || ''-o'' || colspan="2;" | ''-(a)no''<br />
|| ''-jo''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-ro''<br />
|-<br />
! Gen.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ― || ''-on'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ―<sup><small>I</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-an'' || ''-i''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-r''<br />
|-<br />
! Dat.<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''-au'' || ''-ou'' || colspan="2;" | ''-u''<sup><small>U</small></sup> || colspan="2;" | ''-if''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-jou'' || colspan="2;" | ― || colspan="2;" | ''-amb'' || ''-ið''<sup><small>I</small></sup> || ''-rif''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, polysyllabic forms follow the same paradigms but do not undergo i- or u-mutation unless there is a following vowel (e.g. ''áratt'' "silver" (a, n.), g.sg. ''áratt'' but n.pl. ''árett''). Polysyllabic forms are also liable to lose the final vowel of the stem when endings are added when the syllable is short and this may obstruct mutations from occurring (e.g. ''dafað'' (a, m.), g.sg. ''dafað'' but n.pl. ''dafði''). <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ A-Stems (masculine & neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''penn'' </br> head (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tækkið'' </br> fate (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''dan'' </br> man (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tar'' </br> bull (m.) || width="100px;" | ''deun'' </br> city (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dan'' || ''tar'' || ''deun'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''pinn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deyn''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deunu''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''pinni'' || ''tækkði'' || ''dænji'' || ''torvi'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pennau'' || ''tækkðau'' || ''dænjau'' || ''torvau'' || ''deunau''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ O-Stems (feminine)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''louvo'' </br> hand !! width="100px;" | ''íro'' </br> prostitute !! width="100px;" | ''vijo'' </br> web !! width="100px;" | ''dølvo'' </br> image <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louv'' || ''irih'' || ''vij'' || ''dœl'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louve'' || ''íre'' || ''vije'' || ''dœlve'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvon'' || ''íron'' || ''vijon'' || ''dœlvon'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louvou'' || ''írou'' || ''vijou'' || ''dœlvou'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ U-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''koð'' </br> battle (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kryh'' </br> shirt (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''aret'' </br> conversation (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mornath'' </br> eulogy (n.) !! width="100px;" | ''yð'' </br> corn (n.)<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ I-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''læð'' </br> country (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kloyn'' </br> meadow (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''bovel'' </br> shepherd (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mœr'' </br> sea (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læðif'' || ''kloynif'' || ''boulif'' || ''mœrif'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327515
Carrick
2023-10-11T10:20:20Z
<p>Psammead: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ A-Stems (masculine & neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''penn'' </br> head (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tækkið'' </br> fate (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''dan'' </br> man (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tar'' </br> bull (m.) || width="100px;" | ''deun'' </br> city (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dan'' || ''tar'' || ''deun'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''pinn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deyn''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deunu''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''pinni'' || ''tækkði'' || ''dænji'' || ''torvi'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''pœnnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pennau'' || ''tækkðau'' || ''dænjau'' || ''torvau'' || ''deunau''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ O-Stems (feminine)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''louvo'' </br> hand !! width="100px;" | ''íro'' </br> prostitute !! width="100px;" | ''vijo'' </br> web !! width="100px;" | ''dølvo'' </br> image <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louv'' || ''irih'' || ''vij'' || ''dœl'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louve'' || ''íre'' || ''vije'' || ''dœlve'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvon'' || ''íron'' || ''vijon'' || ''dœlvon'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louvou'' || ''írou'' || ''vijou'' || ''dœlvou'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ U-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''koð'' </br> battle (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kryh'' </br> shirt (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''aret'' </br> conversation (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mornath'' </br> eulogy (n.) !! width="100px;" | ''yð'' </br> corn (n.)<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koð'' || ''kryh'' || ''aret'' || ''mornað'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornaðo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''kaðo'' || ''krío'' || ''ardo'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðo'' || ''yðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''koðu'' || ''krýu'' || ''ardu'' || ''mornoðu'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ I-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''læð'' </br> country (f.) !! width="100px;" | ''kloyn'' </br> meadow (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''bovel'' </br> shepherd (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''mœr'' </br> sea (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læð'' || ''kloyn'' || ''bovel'' || ''mœr'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœrjo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''læði'' || ''kloyni'' || ''bouli'' || ''mœri'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''læðif'' || ''kloynif'' || ''boulif'' || ''mœrif'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327512
Carrick
2023-10-11T09:06:43Z
<p>Psammead: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ A-Stems (masculine & neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''penn'' </br> head (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tækkið'' </br> fate (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''dan'' </br> man (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tar'' </br> bull (m.) || width="100px;" | ''deun'' </br> city (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dan'' || ''tar'' || ''deun'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''pinn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deyn''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pønnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deunu''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''pinni'' || ''tækkði'' || ''dænji'' || ''torvi'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''pønnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pennau'' || ''tækkðau'' || ''dænjau'' || ''torvau'' || ''deunau''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ O-Stems (feminine)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''louvo'' </br> hand !! width="100px;" | ''íro'' </br> prostitute !! width="100px;" | ''vijo'' </br> web !! width="100px;" | ''dølvo'' </br> image <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dølvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louv'' || ''irih'' || ''vij'' || ''døl'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dølvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louve'' || ''íre'' || ''vije'' || ''dølve'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dølvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dølvo'' <br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvon'' || ''íron'' || ''vijon'' || ''dølvon'' <br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louvou'' || ''írou'' || ''vijou'' || ''dølvou'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ U-Stems (masculine, feminine, neuter)<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''louvo'' </br> hand !! width="100px;" | ''íro'' </br> prostitute !! width="100px;" | ''vijo'' </br> web !! width="100px;" | ''dølvo'' </br> image !! width="100px;" | ''yð'' </br> corn<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louv'' || ''irih'' || ''vij'' || ''dœl'' || ''yð''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vijo'' || ''dœlvo'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louve'' || ''íre'' || ''vije'' || ''dœlve'' || ''iðo''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' || ''yðvo''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''louvo'' || ''íro'' || ''vija'' || ''dœlvo'' || ''yðvo''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''louvon'' || ''íron'' || ''vijon'' || ''dœlvon'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''louvou'' || ''írou'' || ''vijou'' || ''dœlvou'' || ''yðu''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327443
Carrick
2023-10-10T16:43:40Z
<p>Psammead: /* Nouns */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ A-Stems<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | !! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | ''penn'' </br> head (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tækkið'' </br> fate (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''dan'' </br> man (m.) !! width="100px;" | ''tar'' </br> bull (m.) || width="100px;" | ''deun'' </br> city (n.) <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Sg. !! Nominative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dan'' || ''tar'' || ''deun'' <br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''pinn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deyn''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pønnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deunu''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="4;" | Pl. !! Nominative <br />
| ''pinni'' || ''tækkði'' || ''dænji'' || ''torvi'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Accusative <br />
| ''pønnu'' || ''tækkðu'' || ''dænju'' || ''torvu'' || ''deuno''<br />
|-<br />
! Genitive <br />
| ''penn'' || ''tækkið'' || ''dæn'' || ''tor'' || ''deun''<br />
|-<br />
! Dative <br />
| ''pennau'' || ''tækkðau'' || ''dænjau'' || ''torvau'' || ''deunau''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327442
Carrick
2023-10-10T15:20:09Z
<p>Psammead: /* Phonology and Orthography */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327441
Carrick
2023-10-10T15:18:35Z
<p>Psammead: /* Phonology and Orthography */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Long Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''á'' || ''ǽ'' || ''ó''<br />
|-<br />
| ''é'' || ''í'' || ''œ́''<br />
|-<br />
| ''í'' || - || ''ý''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ó'' || ''œ́'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ú'' || ''ý'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick/History&diff=327440
Carrick/History
2023-10-10T15:12:14Z
<p>Psammead: /* Late Carrick */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Common Brittonic===<br />
Carrick inherited the following consonant inventory from Common Brittonic:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Inherited Consonant Inventory of Common Brittonic<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Bilabial || colspan="2;"| Dental/</br>Alveolar !! colspan="2;" | Palatal || colspan="2;"| Velar || colspan="2;"| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive <br />
| width="50px;" | p || width="50px;" | b ||width="50px;" | t || width="50px;" |d ||width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | k ||width="50px;" | g || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" |<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| ɸ || (β, μ) || s || (ð) || || || x || (ɣ) || (h) ||<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| || m || || n || | || || || (ŋ) || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant <br />
| || w || || l || || j || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| || || || r || || || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The process of lenition weakened intervocalic consonants, including those at the beginning and end of a word in continuous speech, creating a chain shift of voiceless stop > voiced stop > voiced fricative, plus ''m'' > ''μ'' (a voiced bilabial nasalised fricative), ''s > h'' and probably ''ɸ'' > Ø. Meanwhile, geminate stops and ''ss'' were shortened to fill the gap created by the lenited allophones (e.g. ''katus'' "battle" > ''kaduh'' but ''kattā'' > ''katā'').<br />
<br />
The Brittonic vowel inventory had already undergone changes, creating long monophthongs from old diphthongs. It consisted of five short and seven long vowels, plus triphthongs consisting of ''ijV'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Vowel Inventory of Common Brittonic 1C<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Short !! colspan="2;" | Long<br />
|-<br />
! Front !! Back !! Front !! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| width="50px;" | i || width="50px;" | u || width="75px;" | iː || width="75px;" | uː<br />
|-<br />
! Close-Mid<br />
| || || eː </br> (< ei) || oː </br> (< oi)<br />
|-<br />
! Open-Mid<br />
| ɛ || ɔ || ɛː </br> (< ai) || ɔː </br> (< ou, eu)<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| a || || aː </br> (< aː, au) ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Proto-Carrick===<br />
Proto-Carrick, ranging from approximately the 3rd to the 8th centuries, underwent a series of significant changes:<br />
* Changes to unstressed word-final sounds:<br />
** short ''-a, -e, -o'' are lost, along with any preceding ''j, w'' (e.g. ''donjo- > don'')<br />
** final ''-n'' is lost and a preceding vowel nasalised (e.g. ''kanton > kantõ'')<br />
* Vowel changes:<br />
** unstressed short ''e'' > ''i'' (e.g. ''imbed > imbid'')<br />
** short ''o > a'', long ''aː > ɔː'' (e.g. ''don > dan, laːμaː > lɔːμɔː'')<br />
* '''Short I-Mutation:''' ''a > æ, e > i, o > ø, u > y'' before ''i, iː, j'' in next syllable (e.g. ''dani > dæni''). <br />
* Short word-final vowels are deleted in words of 3 syllables or more (e.g. ''riːɣænĩ > riːɣæn'')<br />
* Vowel Changes:<br />
** final-syllable unstressed ''oː > uː, ɛː > eː'' (e.g. ''kadoː > kaduː'', ''tundɛː > tundeː'')<br />
** unstressed ''eː > iː''<br />
** non-final ''ɛː > aː'' (e.g. ''kɛːd > kaːd'')<br />
* ''x'' < earlier ''xs'' and in the combination ''xt'' is lost, lengthening preceding vowel (e.g. ''oxtuː > ɔːtuː'')<br />
* '''Lenition 2''' of intervocalic and final consonants:<br />
** also affects consonants adjacent to ''l, r'' (''balg > balɣ, mark > marg'')<br />
** previously lenited stops lenite again: ''b > β, d > ð, g > ɣ,''<br />
** ''p, t, k'' from earlier ''pp, tt / xt, kk'' become ''b, d, g'' (''ɔːtuː > ɔːduː'')<br />
** ''s'' (from ''ss'') > ''h'', earlier ''h'' (< ''s'') is lost (''sanes > saneh, saμæhisp > saμæisp'')<br />
* Final consonants are devoiced: (e.g. ''kaːð > kaːθ, balɣ > balx)<br />
* '''Full I-Mutation''' before ''i, iː'' or ''j'' in the next syllable:<br />
** Short vowels: ''a > æ, e > i, o > ø, u > y''<br />
** Long vowels: ''aː > æː, eː > iː, ɔː > øː, oː > œː, uː > yː''<br />
<br />
===Early Carrick===<br />
* '''U-Mutation:''' ''a(ː) > ɔ(ː), e > ø, eː > œː, i(ː) > y(ː)'' before ''u(ː)'' in next syllable (e.g. ''kaðu > kɔðu'')<br />
* Stressed ''e(ː)'' becomes ''ja(ː)'' (''geːhl'' > ''gjaːhl'', ''menn'' > ''mjann'')<br />
* '''Syncope:''' <br />
** unstressed short vowels in open syllables (including word-final) are lost (e.g. ''kɔðu > kɔθ'')<br />
** unstressed ''æ, ø'' become ''e'' (e.g. ''salæn > salen'')<br />
** unstressed long vowels are shortened (e.g. ''ɔːduː > ɔːdu)<br />
* ''mp, nt, nk'' > ''pp, tt, kk''<br />
<br />
===Late Carrick===<br />
* medial ''s'' > ''h'' before ''p, k, t'' (''sisp > sihp'')<br />
* long vowels break: ''aː > au, æː > ai, eː > je, øː > oy, ɔː > ou, oː > wo, œː> jo, iː > ei, y > ey, u > eu'' (e.g. ''ɔːdu > oudu'').<br />
* ''ɣ'' merges with ''h'' (< ''s'') (e.g. ''selɣ'' > ''selha''<br />
* ''h'' is lost, with lengthening of preceding vowel:<br />
** before a consonant (e.g. ''sihp > siːp'')<br />
** between a consonant and a vowel (e.g. ''selha > seːla'')</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327417
Carrick
2023-10-10T10:42:29Z
<p>Psammead: /* Phonology and Orthography */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' (''e'') || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''je'' || ''ei'' || ''jo''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vo'' || ''jo'' || -<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick/History&diff=327415
Carrick/History
2023-10-10T10:17:37Z
<p>Psammead: /* Proto-Carrick */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Common Brittonic===<br />
Carrick inherited the following consonant inventory from Common Brittonic:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Inherited Consonant Inventory of Common Brittonic<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Bilabial || colspan="2;"| Dental/</br>Alveolar !! colspan="2;" | Palatal || colspan="2;"| Velar || colspan="2;"| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive <br />
| width="50px;" | p || width="50px;" | b ||width="50px;" | t || width="50px;" |d ||width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | k ||width="50px;" | g || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" |<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| ɸ || (β, μ) || s || (ð) || || || x || (ɣ) || (h) ||<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| || m || || n || | || || || (ŋ) || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant <br />
| || w || || l || || j || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| || || || r || || || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The process of lenition weakened intervocalic consonants, including those at the beginning and end of a word in continuous speech, creating a chain shift of voiceless stop > voiced stop > voiced fricative, plus ''m'' > ''μ'' (a voiced bilabial nasalised fricative), ''s > h'' and probably ''ɸ'' > Ø. Meanwhile, geminate stops and ''ss'' were shortened to fill the gap created by the lenited allophones (e.g. ''katus'' "battle" > ''kaduh'' but ''kattā'' > ''katā'').<br />
<br />
The Brittonic vowel inventory had already undergone changes, creating long monophthongs from old diphthongs. It consisted of five short and seven long vowels, plus triphthongs consisting of ''ijV'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Vowel Inventory of Common Brittonic 1C<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Short !! colspan="2;" | Long<br />
|-<br />
! Front !! Back !! Front !! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| width="50px;" | i || width="50px;" | u || width="75px;" | iː || width="75px;" | uː<br />
|-<br />
! Close-Mid<br />
| || || eː </br> (< ei) || oː </br> (< oi)<br />
|-<br />
! Open-Mid<br />
| ɛ || ɔ || ɛː </br> (< ai) || ɔː </br> (< ou, eu)<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| a || || aː </br> (< aː, au) ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Proto-Carrick===<br />
Proto-Carrick, ranging from approximately the 3rd to the 8th centuries, underwent a series of significant changes:<br />
* Changes to unstressed word-final sounds:<br />
** short ''-a, -e, -o'' are lost, along with any preceding ''j, w'' (e.g. ''donjo- > don'')<br />
** final ''-n'' is lost and a preceding vowel nasalised (e.g. ''kanton > kantõ'')<br />
* Vowel changes:<br />
** unstressed short ''e'' > ''i'' (e.g. ''imbed > imbid'')<br />
** short ''o > a'', long ''aː > ɔː'' (e.g. ''don > dan, laːμaː > lɔːμɔː'')<br />
* '''Short I-Mutation:''' ''a > æ, e > i, o > ø, u > y'' before ''i, iː, j'' in next syllable (e.g. ''dani > dæni''). <br />
* Short word-final vowels are deleted in words of 3 syllables or more (e.g. ''riːɣænĩ > riːɣæn'')<br />
* Vowel Changes:<br />
** final-syllable unstressed ''oː > uː, ɛː > eː'' (e.g. ''kadoː > kaduː'', ''tundɛː > tundeː'')<br />
** unstressed ''eː > iː''<br />
** non-final ''ɛː > aː'' (e.g. ''kɛːd > kaːd'')<br />
* ''x'' < earlier ''xs'' and in the combination ''xt'' is lost, lengthening preceding vowel (e.g. ''oxtuː > ɔːtuː'')<br />
* '''Lenition 2''' of intervocalic and final consonants:<br />
** also affects consonants adjacent to ''l, r'' (''balg > balɣ, mark > marg'')<br />
** previously lenited stops lenite again: ''b > β, d > ð, g > ɣ,''<br />
** ''p, t, k'' from earlier ''pp, tt / xt, kk'' become ''b, d, g'' (''ɔːtuː > ɔːduː'')<br />
** ''s'' (from ''ss'') > ''h'', earlier ''h'' (< ''s'') is lost (''sanes > saneh, saμæhisp > saμæisp'')<br />
* Final consonants are devoiced: (e.g. ''kaːð > kaːθ, balɣ > balx)<br />
* '''Full I-Mutation''' before ''i, iː'' or ''j'' in the next syllable:<br />
** Short vowels: ''a > æ, e > i, o > ø, u > y''<br />
** Long vowels: ''aː > æː, eː > iː, ɔː > øː, oː > œː, uː > yː''<br />
<br />
===Early Carrick===<br />
* '''U-Mutation:''' ''a(ː) > ɔ(ː), e > ø, eː > œː, i(ː) > y(ː)'' before ''u(ː)'' in next syllable (e.g. ''kaðu > kɔðu'')<br />
* Stressed ''e(ː)'' becomes ''ja(ː)'' (''geːhl'' > ''gjaːhl'', ''menn'' > ''mjann'')<br />
* '''Syncope:''' <br />
** unstressed short vowels in open syllables (including word-final) are lost (e.g. ''kɔðu > kɔθ'')<br />
** unstressed ''æ, ø'' become ''e'' (e.g. ''salæn > salen'')<br />
** unstressed long vowels are shortened (e.g. ''ɔːduː > ɔːdu)<br />
* ''mp, nt, nk'' > ''pp, tt, kk''<br />
<br />
===Late Carrick===<br />
* medial ''s'' > ''h'' before ''p, k, t'' (''sisp > sihp'')<br />
* ''h'' is lost before a consonant or pause, causing the preceding vowel to lengthen (e.g. ''saneh > saneː'', ''sihp > siːp''<br />
* long vowels break: ''aː > au, æː > ai, eː > je, øː > oy, ɔː > ou, oː > wo, œː> jo, iː > ei, y > ey, u > eu'' (e.g. ''ɔːdu > oudu, siːp > seip, gjaːl > gjaul'').</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick/History&diff=327397
Carrick/History
2023-10-10T08:34:13Z
<p>Psammead: /* Common Brittonic */</p>
<hr />
<div>===Common Brittonic===<br />
Carrick inherited the following consonant inventory from Common Brittonic:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Inherited Consonant Inventory of Common Brittonic<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Bilabial || colspan="2;"| Dental/</br>Alveolar !! colspan="2;" | Palatal || colspan="2;"| Velar || colspan="2;"| Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive <br />
| width="50px;" | p || width="50px;" | b ||width="50px;" | t || width="50px;" |d ||width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | k ||width="50px;" | g || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" |<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| ɸ || (β, μ) || s || (ð) || || || x || (ɣ) || (h) ||<br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| || m || || n || | || || || (ŋ) || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant <br />
| || w || || l || || j || || || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| || || || r || || || || || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The process of lenition weakened intervocalic consonants, including those at the beginning and end of a word in continuous speech, creating a chain shift of voiceless stop > voiced stop > voiced fricative, plus ''m'' > ''μ'' (a voiced bilabial nasalised fricative), ''s > h'' and probably ''ɸ'' > Ø. Meanwhile, geminate stops and ''ss'' were shortened to fill the gap created by the lenited allophones (e.g. ''katus'' "battle" > ''kaduh'' but ''kattā'' > ''katā'').<br />
<br />
The Brittonic vowel inventory had already undergone changes, creating long monophthongs from old diphthongs. It consisted of five short and seven long vowels, plus triphthongs consisting of ''ijV'':<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Vowel Inventory of Common Brittonic 1C<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Short !! colspan="2;" | Long<br />
|-<br />
! Front !! Back !! Front !! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| width="50px;" | i || width="50px;" | u || width="75px;" | iː || width="75px;" | uː<br />
|-<br />
! Close-Mid<br />
| || || eː </br> (< ei) || oː </br> (< oi)<br />
|-<br />
! Open-Mid<br />
| ɛ || ɔ || ɛː </br> (< ai) || ɔː </br> (< ou, eu)<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| a || || aː </br> (< aː, au) ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Proto-Carrick===<br />
* Changes to unstressed word-final sounds:<br />
** short ''-a, -e, -o'' are lost, along with any preceding ''j, w'' (e.g. ''donjo- > don'')<br />
** final ''-n'' is lost and a preceding vowel nasalised (e.g. ''kanton > kantõ'')<br />
* Vowel changes:<br />
** unstressed short ''e'' > ''i'' (e.g. ''imbed > imbid'')<br />
** short ''o > a'', long ''aː > ɔː'' (e.g. ''don > dan, laːμaː > lɔːμɔː'')<br />
* '''I-Mutation 1:''' ''a > æ, e > i, o > œ, u > y'' before ''i, iː, j'' in next syllable (e.g. ''dani > dæni''). <br />
* Short word-final vowels are deleted in words of 3 syllables or more (e.g. ''riːɣænĩ > riːɣæn'')<br />
* A-Mutation: ''u'' lowers to ''o'' before ''a, æ, ɔː'' (e.g. ''tumbã > tombã'')<br />
* Vowel Changes:<br />
** final-syllable ''oː > u, ɛː > e'' (e.g. ''kadoː > kadu'', ''tundɛː > tunde'')<br />
** unstressed ''eː > i<br />
** all other final-syllable long vowels shorten<br />
** non-final ''ɛː > aː'' (e.g. ''kɛːd > kaːd'')<br />
* ''x'' < earlier ''xs'' and in the combination ''xt'' is lost, lengthening preceding vowel (e.g. ''oxtu > ɔːtu'')<br />
* '''Lenition 2 of intervocalic and final consonants:<br />
** previously lenited stops lenite again: ''b > β, d > ð, g > ɣ,''<br />
** ''p, t, k'' from earlier ''pp, tt / xt, kk'' become ''b, d, g'' (''ɔːtu > ɔːdu'')<br />
** ''s'' (from ''ss'') > ''h'', earlier ''h'' (< ''s'') is lost (''sanes > saneh, brisk > brihk''<br />
* Final consonants are devoiced: (e.g. ''kaːð > kaːθ)<br />
* '''I-Mutation 2:''' <br />
** Short vowels: ''a > æ, e > i, o > ø, u > y''<br />
** Long vowels: ''aː > æː, eː > iː, ɔː > øː, o > œː, uː > yː''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick/History&diff=327375
Carrick/History
2023-10-09T22:07:13Z
<p>Psammead: Created page with "===Common Brittonic=== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Consonant Inventory of Common Brittonic 1C |- ! width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Bilabial !! colspan="2;" | Alveolar !! colspan="2;" | Palatal || colspan="2;"| Velar |- ! Plosive | width="50px;" | p || width="50px;" | b ||width="50px;" | t || width="50px;" |d ||width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | k ||width="50px;" | g |- ! Fricative | ɸ || || s || || || || x || |- ! Nasal | ||..."</p>
<hr />
<div>===Common Brittonic===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Consonant Inventory of Common Brittonic 1C<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Bilabial !! colspan="2;" | Alveolar !! colspan="2;" | Palatal || colspan="2;"| Velar<br />
|-<br />
! Plosive <br />
| width="50px;" | p || width="50px;" | b ||width="50px;" | t || width="50px;" |d ||width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | || width="50px;" | k ||width="50px;" | g<br />
|-<br />
! Fricative<br />
| ɸ || || s || || || || x || <br />
|-<br />
! Nasal<br />
| || m || || n || | || || || (ŋ)<br />
|-<br />
! Approximant <br />
| || w || || l || || j || ||<br />
|-<br />
! Trill<br />
| || || || r || || || || <br />
|}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Vowel Inventory of Common Brittonic 1C<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" width="100px;| !! colspan="2;" | Short !! colspan="2;" | Long<br />
|-<br />
! Front !! Back !! Front !! Back<br />
|-<br />
! Close<br />
| width="50px;" | i || width="50px;" | u || width="75px;" | iː || width="75px;" | uː<br />
|-<br />
! Close-Mid<br />
| || || eː </br> (< ei) || oː </br> (< oi)<br />
|-<br />
! Open-Mid<br />
| ɛ || ɔ || ɛː </br> (< ai) || ɔː </br> (< ou, eu)<br />
|-<br />
! Open<br />
| a || || aː </br> (< aː, au) ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
* '''Lenition:''' ''p > b > β, t > d > ð, k > g > ɣ, ɸ > -, s > h, m > μ<br />
** Geminate consonants are shortened<br />
<br />
===Proto-Carrick===<br />
* Changes to unstressed word-final sounds:<br />
** short ''-a, -e, -o'' are lost, along with any preceding ''j, w'' (e.g. ''donjo- > don'')<br />
** final ''-n'' is lost and a preceding vowel nasalised (e.g. ''kanton > kantõ'')<br />
* Vowel changes:<br />
** unstressed short ''e'' > ''i'' (e.g. ''imbed > imbid'')<br />
** short ''o > a'', long ''aː > ɔː'' (e.g. ''don > dan, laːμaː > lɔːμɔː'')<br />
* '''I-Mutation 1:''' ''a > æ, e > i, o > œ, u > y'' before ''i, iː, j'' in next syllable (e.g. ''dani > dæni''). <br />
* Short word-final vowels are deleted in words of 3 syllables or more (e.g. ''riːɣænĩ > riːɣæn'')<br />
* A-Mutation: ''u'' lowers to ''o'' before ''a, æ, ɔː'' (e.g. ''tumbã > tombã'')<br />
* Vowel Changes:<br />
** final-syllable ''oː > u, ɛː > e'' (e.g. ''kadoː > kadu'', ''tundɛː > tunde'')<br />
** unstressed ''eː > i<br />
** all other final-syllable long vowels shorten<br />
** non-final ''ɛː > aː'' (e.g. ''kɛːd > kaːd'')<br />
* ''x'' < earlier ''xs'' and in the combination ''xt'' is lost, lengthening preceding vowel (e.g. ''oxtu > ɔːtu'')<br />
* '''Lenition 2 of intervocalic and final consonants:<br />
** previously lenited stops lenite again: ''b > β, d > ð, g > ɣ,''<br />
** ''p, t, k'' from earlier ''pp, tt / xt, kk'' become ''b, d, g'' (''ɔːtu > ɔːdu'')<br />
** ''s'' (from ''ss'') > ''h'', earlier ''h'' (< ''s'') is lost (''sanes > saneh, brisk > brihk''<br />
* Final consonants are devoiced: (e.g. ''kaːð > kaːθ)<br />
* '''I-Mutation 2:''' <br />
** Short vowels: ''a > æ, e > i, o > ø, u > y''<br />
** Long vowels: ''aː > æː, eː > iː, ɔː > øː, o > œː, uː > yː''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carrick&diff=327365
Carrick
2023-10-09T14:50:02Z
<p>Psammead: Created page with "'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''. ==Phonology and Orthography== Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet: :: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y'' {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Mutations |- ! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation |- ! col..."</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Carrick''' (Ck. ''Kærðiᵹa'' /kærðiɣa/) is a Brittonic Celtic language spoken by the mountain-dwelling Carthi (Ck. ''Kærði'') on the archipelago of ''Inhi Oysir''.<br />
<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Carrick is written in the Latin alphabet:<br />
<br />
:: ''a æ b d ð e f g ᵹ h i j k l m n o œ p r s t u v y''<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ Mutations<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Radical !! width="100px;" | I-Mutation !! width="100px;" | U-Mutation<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Short Vowels <br />
|-<br />
| ''a'' || ''æ'' (''e'') || ''o''<br />
|-<br />
| ''e'' || ''i'' || ''œ''<br />
|-<br />
| ''i'' || - || ''y''<br />
|-<br />
| ''o'' || ''œ'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''u'' || ''y'' || -<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="3;" | Diphthongs<br />
|-<br />
| ''au'' || ''ai'' || ''ou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ei'' || - || ''ey''<br />
|-<br />
| ''eu'' || ''ey'' || -<br />
|-<br />
| ''ou'' || ''oy'' || -<br />
|- <br />
| ''jau'' || ''jai'' || ''jou''<br />
|-<br />
| ''vau'' || ''vai'' || ''vou''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Nouns===<br />
* '''dan''' ''1m'' man, husband <br />
* '''vræᵹi''' ''2f'' woman, wife <br />
* '''maf''' ''1m'' son, boy <br />
* '''ginda''' ''2f'' daughter, girl<br />
* '''boða''' ''2f'' house<br />
* '''keu''' ''4m'' dog (g.s. ''kun'')<br />
* '''kada''' ''2f'' cat <br />
* '''bau''' ''irr. f'' cow<br />
* '''dauð''' ''1m'' sheep<br />
* '''mok''' ''5f'' pig<br />
* '''gaur''' ''1m'', '''gaura''' ''2f'' goat<br />
* '''prjann''' ''1n'' tree<br />
* '''klæðif''' ''1m'' sword<br />
* '''kolᵹa''' ''2f'' short sword, dagger<br />
* '''gau''' ''1m'' spear<br />
* '''skjauð''' ''1m'' shield<br />
* '''ekeuða''' ''2f'' shoe<br />
* '''rouga''' ''2f'' tunic<br />
* '''brada''' ''1m'' cloak<br />
* '''lauðr''' ''1m'' trousers, hose<br />
* '''kry'' ''5m'' shirt<br />
* '''vaᵹry''' ''5m'' belt<br />
* '''barᵹ''' ''1m'' bread<br />
* '''bleit''' ''1m'' milk<br />
* '''kyrf''' ''3n''</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bis_Burunko&diff=327337
Bis Burunko
2023-10-09T10:10:29Z
<p>Psammead: /* Numerals */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Bis Burunko''' (/bɨs bʉˈɾʉnkɔ/, literally 'the Burungian language'), also known as ''Burunko'' or ''Burungian'', is a language isolate spoken on the island of Burung in the north Atlantic. <br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Bis Burunko has a relatively simple phonology with 21 consonants, 5 pure vowels and 6 true diphthongs. The orthography is almost entirely regular and predictable, based on a 1:1 spelling to pronunciation system. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 68px; "|<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''n''' /n/ <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/ <br> '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''t''' /t/ <br> '''d''' /d/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /k/ <br> '''g''' /g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Sibilant<br />
| <br />
| '''s''' /s/<br />
| '''sh''' /ɕ/ <br> '''z''' /ʑ/<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Fricative<br />
| '''f''' /ɸ/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /ç/ <br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /h/ <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Affricate<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /t͡ɕ/ <br> '''j''' /d͡ʑ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Flap or tap<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /ɾ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Approximant<br />
| '''w, u''' /w/<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Lateral app.<br />
| <br />
| '''l''' /l/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Notes:'''<br />
* ''n'' is realised as /ŋ/ before ''g, k, ng''<br />
* medial ''h'' is often simply hiatus between vowels<br />
* /w/ is spelled ''u'' immediately after a consonant but ''w'' elsewhere<br />
* all consonants except fricatives and glides (''w, y'') may be doubled word-internally; note the trigraphs ''ssh, cch, nng'' <br />
For consonant clusters, see [[#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] below. <br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɨ/<br />
| '''u''' /ʉ/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in ''biitosh'' 'gender neutral person' /bɨ:'tɔɕ/. <br />
<br />
'''Note:''' word-initial sequences of ''i + i'' and ''u + uu'' are written ''yi-'', ''wu-''.<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
There are six diphthongs proper: ''ai'' /aɨ/, ''ei'' /ɛɨ/, ''oi'' /ɔɨ/, ''au'' /aʉ/, ''eu'' /ɛʉ/ and ''ou'' /ɔʉ/, which may be considered sequences of vowels in measuring syllables. In addition, any vowel is permitted to occur following the 'glides' /w/ or /j/.<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
Bis Burunko has a relatively restricted syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or part of a diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are also restrictions on the other elements. The table below shows the rules governing each position in the syllable:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 200px; " |C<sup>1</sup><br />
! style="width: 200px; " |G<br />
! style="width: 200px; " |V<sup>1</sup><br />
! style="width: 200px; " |V<sup>2</sup><br />
! style="width: 200px; " |C<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
* optional <br />
* any consonant but ''sh, r'' word-initially (''s'' and ''p'' only occur before ''u'')<br />
* any consonant word-medially<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " | <br />
* optional<br />
*only ''y'' or ''w/u''<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | <br />
* mandatory <br />
* any vowel<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | <br />
* optional <br />
* only ''i, u'' or the preceding vowel repeated<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | <br />
* optional <br />
* only ''s, sh, ng'' or ''z'' word-finally <br />
* only ''n'' or ''m'' before a consonant, except in the case of geminates<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The word-final consonants ''s, sh, ng'' and ''z'' are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:<br />
<br />
* ''-s'' is lost, the preceding vowel is doubled and a following voiced plosive or ''j'' is devoiced: <br />
:: ''gis'' 'man' + ''-do'' (collective) = ''giito'' 'group, band'<br />
* ''-sh'' becomes ''-i-'', forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel, and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: <br />
:: ''sush'' 'empty' + ''bupung'' 'person' = ''suipupung'' 'vain person'<br />
:: ''arash'' 'night' + ''-te'' (time) = ''araite'' 'night-time'<br />
* ''-ng'' becomes ''-m'' before ''p, b, f'' and ''n'' before any other consonant: <br />
:: ''gyong'' 'man' + ''-bu'' (collective) = ''gyombu'' 'warrior class'<br />
:: ''yong'' 'foot' + ''-ko'' (adjectival) = ''yonko'' 'sock'<br />
* ''-z'' is lost and causes a following consonant to double, except ''x'' which becomes ''s'' and ''h'' which is lost, while ''z'' remains: <br />
:: ''az'' 'male' + ''-chi'' (adjectival) = ''acchi'' 'masculine'<br />
:: ''haz'' 'old' + ''kora'' 'bitch' = ''hakkora'' 'hag'<br />
:: ''buaz'' 'sun' + ''xu'' 'fire' = ''buasu'' 'heat of the sun'<br />
:: ''fuz'' 'tree' + ''HUZ'' 'lack' = ''fuzuz'' 'treeless'<br />
<br />
In some cases a word ending in a vowel + ''-i'' will alter to vowel + ''-u'' when a suffix or the second element of a compound begins with a consonant:<br />
:: ''mei'' 'dark' + ''kezi'' 'stone' = ''meukézi'' 'obsidian'<br />
<br />
Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings.<br />
<br />
===Stress===<br />
Syllables may be defined as either heavy or light:<br />
* a heavy syllable being either ends in a consonant ('''''az''''', '''''gyom-'''bu'', '''''ut'''-te'') or contains a long vowel ('''''bii''''', '''''gii'''-to'') or diphthong ('''''mei''''', ''a-'''rai'''-te'')<br />
* a light syllable ends in a single vowel ('''''fa-be''''', '''''xu''''').<br />
<br />
Monosyllabic words carry stress. In polysyllables, stress is attracted to heavy syllables. In words containing more than one heavy syllable, primary stress is placed on the last such syllable, with secondary stress on the penultimate heavy syllable. In words with no heavy syllables, primary stress falls on the first syllable.<br />
<br />
In some instances, stress does not follow these rules and is marked with an acute accent (e.g. ''béyong'' "knee", ''búrus'' "iriji person", ''ugáras'' "breast").<br />
<br />
===Orthography===<br />
Bis Burunko was traditionally written in a semi-syllabary called '''''higomido''''', which was originally a rune-like system carved into stone, wood and bone but later developed a more calligraphic style used on paper-like sheets of wood. <br />
<br />
The ''higomido'' consist of five specific vowel graphs, 41 consonant-vowel combinations (plosives, fricatives and affricates) and 7 individual consonant symbols (finals ''s, sh, ng'' and the remaining nasals and liquids ''m, n, l, r''). <br />
<br />
Other sequences of sounds are formed using these 53 symbols in combination:<br />
* diphthongs and double vowels are written using either a vowel + vowel combination (e.g. ''a + i = ai''), or the relevant syllabic + vowel combination (''ba + i = bai''). <br />
* glide + vowel combinations are written using ''i/u'' + vowel (e.g. ''i + a = ya''), or ''Ci/Cu'' + vowel (e.g. ''bi + a = bya'').<br />
* sequences of ''ch''V and ''j''V are written with the symbols for ''chi'' and ''ji'' + the relevant vowel (e.g. ''chi + a = cha'').<br />
* nasals and liquids are simply followed by the relevant vowel (e.g. ''m + a = ma''). <br />
* while there is a specific symbol for ''pu'', other combinations of ''pV'' - which only occur as a result of devoicing by a preceding (former) sibilant - are formed with the b-syllabics preceded by either ''s'' or ''sh'' (e.g. )<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
===Natural Gender on Burung===<br />
Grammatical gender does not occur in Bis Burunko, but natural gender is frequently marked on nominals, either by employing different words (e.g. ''az'' 'male', ''deme'' 'female', ''biitosh'' '''iriji'' person') or by derivation (e.g. with the honorative suffixes ''-osh'' (m.) and ''-ez'' (f.), ''-ai'' (mid.)). The concept of natural gender differs somewhat from the usual Western concept.<br />
<br />
All things are considered to be either '''animate''' (''bui'') or '''inanimate''' (''nabui''), the primary distinction being whether a thing is capable of acting under its own power. This means humans, deities/spirits, most animals and some natural features, such as the sun and the sea, are considered ''bui'' while plants, rocks and most abstracts are ''nabui''.<br />
<br />
Within the category of animate nouns, all things are then considered to be '''masculine''' (''acchi''), '''feminine''' (''demechi'') or '''middle''' (''iriji''). The relevant gender is based partly on biological sex, partly on particular characteristics and partly on social roles. All children are considered ''iriji'' until puberty when they will be assigned one of the three genders.<br />
<br />
Each of the four categories has a complex series of associations and is considered an equal part of a harmonious whole.<br />
<br />
===Case===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | <big>'''ba'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Topicaliser || colspan="2;" | marks a subject or object as the focus of the utterance<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''ze'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Nominative || colspan="2;" | marks the subject of a verb (where it is not the topic)<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''ke'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Accusative || colspan="2;" | marks the direct object of a verb (where it is not the topic)<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''na'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Possessive || colspan="2;" | marks the (animate) possessor of an (inanimate) object. Used only for alienable possession.<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''le'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Genitive || colspan="2;" | marks the possessor of an inalienable object, or marks an object related to another. <br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''i'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Dative || colspan="2;" | marks the indirect object of a verb (where it is not the topic)<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''la'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Allative || colspan="2;" | marks motion towards 'to'<br />
|- <br />
! <big>'''chi'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Ablative || colspan="2;" | marks movement away 'from, of, through'<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''ang'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Locative || colspan="2;" | marks location 'in, on, at'<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''mi'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Instrumental || colspan="2;" | marks use of, 'with, by'.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns are non-inflecting and do not mark grammatical gender, number or definiteness, so e.g. ''puz'' can mean 'dog/dogs/a dog/(some) dogs/the dog/the dogs' etc. Grammatical case is indicated by the particles above after the noun.<br />
<br />
Though grammatical number is not marked, nouns may take the following affixes to show a collective sense:<br />
* ''-do'' indicates a discrete group of things, usually located together, e.g. ''binjido'' 'mountain ridge' (''binji'' 'mountain'), ''fuddo'' 'copse, small wood' (''fuz'' 'tree'), ''gyondo'' 'band' (''gyong'' 'man').<br />
* ''-bu'' indicates a totality of things, a class, and also the absract state of being a member of that class, e.g. ''binjibu'' 'mountains; mountain-hood', ''fubbu'' 'trees; treehood', ''gyombu'' 'men; manhood, masculinity'.<br />
* ''i-'' indicates a mass of things, ''ibinji'' 'mountain range', ''ifuz'' 'forest', ''igyong'' 'population'. <br />
<br />
Reduplication is used to indicate intensity and in some cases can take on a collective meaning, e.g. ''gyongyong'' 'crowd, throng', ''yaiyai'' 'storm' (''yai'' 'wind').<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives are of two types. Verbal adjectives are the participles in ''-ng/na'' or ''-i'' (e.g. ''ekonna'' "growing", ''ewai'' "tired, exhausted, spent"). Nominal adjectives are either primary adjectives (e.g. ''haz'' "old", ''ong'' "good") or derived from a noun, other adjective or a verb (e.g. ''acchi'' "masculine", ''ukko'' "watery, aquatic", ''eyiking'' "pessimistic, defeatist" < ''exi'' "despair"). <br />
<br />
Any of these adjectives may occur attributively by preceding the noun they qualify unmodified, e.g. ''haz gyong to'' "that old man", ''ekonna fuz'' "a growing tree", ''eyiking heni chiri'' "three pessimistic guards".<br />
<br />
When used predicatively, both types of adjective follow the entire noun phrase and precede the relevant form of ''yita'' "to be". Verbal adjectives are unmodified in this usage and, as often with English, the adjectival function of the participle is indistinguishable from the verbal function, e.g. ''fuz tong ba ekonna xiniteng'' "this tree wasn't growing", ''haz gyong to ba ewai jaite'' "that old man is tired".<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Cardinal Numbers<br />
|-<br />
| width="25px;" | '''1''' || width="100px;" | ''su(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''11''' || width="100px;" | ''xassu(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''21''' || width="100px;" | ''hatorunsu''<br />
|-<br />
| '''2''' || ''hai'' || '''12''' || ''xazai'' || '''22''' || ''hatorunhai''<br />
|-<br />
| '''3''' || ''gi'' || '''13''' || ''xaggi''|| '''30''' || ''gyauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''4''' || ''xa'' || '''14''' || ''xasa'' || '''40''' || ''xauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''5''' || ''maka'' || '''15''' || ''xammaka'' || '''50''' || ''makauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''6''' || ''ute'' || '''16''' || ''xazute'' || '''60''' || ''utauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''7''' || ''gyeng'' || '''17''' || ''xaggyeng'' || '''70''' || ''gyengauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''8''' || ''eileng'' || '''18''' || ''xazeileng'' || '''80''' || ''eilengauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''9''' || ''suneng'' || '''19''' || ''xassuneng'' || '''90''' || ''sunengauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''10''' || ''haz'' || '''20''' || ''hatrung'' || '''100''' || ''inung''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Numbers are based on a decimal system, though numbers above 10 are, in reality, rarely used. The word ''inung'', translated here as '100', is generally used for any large number. Higher numbers can be created, somewhat artificially, in the form ''su le inung'' '101', ''xaggyeng le inung'' '117'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Ordinal Numbers<br />
|-<br />
| width="25px;" | '''1st''' || width="100px;" | ''sus'' || '''11th''' || ''xassus''<br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd''' || ''haus'' || '''12th''' || ''xazaush''<br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd''' || ''gish'' || '''13th''' || ''xaggish''<br />
|-<br />
| '''4th''' || ''xash'' || '''14th''' || ''xasash''<br />
|-<br />
| '''5th''' || ''makachi'' || '''15th''' || ''xamakachi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''6th''' || ''utechi'' || '''16th''' || ''xazutechi'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''7th''' || ''gyenchi'' || '''17th''' || ''xaggyenchi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''8th''' || ''eilenchi'' || '''18th''' || ''xazeilenchi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''9th''' || ''sunenchi'' || '''19th''' || ''xassunenchi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''10th''' || ''hacchi'' || '''20th''' || ''hatrunchi''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! !! colspan="2;" | Standard !! Colspan="2;" | Emphatic<br />
|-<br />
! width="100;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! 1st<br />
| ''ni'' || ''bi'' (excl.) <br> ''bu'' (incl.) || ''nibez'' || ''bibez'' (excl.) <br> ''bubez'' (incl.)<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd<br />
| ''chi'' || ''fu'' || ''chibez'' || ''fubez''<br />
|-<br />
! Indefinite<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''yeka'' || colspan="2;" | ''yekabez''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns only truly exist for the 1st and 2nd persons, the 3rd person pronouns being demonstratives. There is also an '''indefinite''' pronoun ''yeka'', often used as a formal 1st singular.<br />
<br />
Note that the 1st person plural has both exclusive ''bi'' 'us (but not you)' and inclusive ''bu'' 'us all'.<br />
<br />
No distinctions of gender case are made, the pronouns being followed by the case particles like nouns. To form possessive pronouns, the forms are followed by the possessive particle ''na'' (when referring to alienable possession) or the genitive particle ''le'' (when inalienable), e.g. ''ni na hato'' 'my knife' but ''ni le ata'' 'my father'. <br />
<br />
'''Emphatic''' forms of the personal pronouns are created with the suffix ''-bez'', i.e. ''nibez, chibez, bibez, bubez, fubez, yekabez''. These function as both emphatic pronouns, drawing particular attention to the person, and reflexive pronouns.<br />
<br />
There is a tendency to omit pronouns, particularly the subject, where the person referred to is understood from context. <br />
<br />
A number of terms of address are used in place of 2nd person pronouns or demonstratives when speaking of high ranking individuals, including: ''fuchi, furung'' (for any addressee), ''burosh, andosh'' (for masc. addressees), ''burez, andez'' (for fem. addressees); ''burai, andai'' (for ''iriji'' addressees).<br />
<br />
====Demonstratives====<br />
Demonstratives function as both determiners (preceding the noun) and pronouns and distinguish proximal ''tong'' 'this (near speaker)', medial ''to'' 'that (near listener)' and distal ''taz'' 'that (distant from both listener and speaker, or abstract)'. No distinction is made for gender, and case is marked by particles. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | !! width="100px;" | Simple !! width="100px;" | Emphatic<br />
|-<br />
! Proximal <br />
| ''tong'' || ''tombez'' <br />
|-<br />
! Medial<br />
| ''to'' || ''tobez''<br />
|-<br />
! Distal <br />
| ''taz'' || ''tabbez''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The plural forms ''tombu, tobu, tabbu'' occur where number is necessary for clarity or emphasis; otherwise the simple forms are used for both singular and plural referents. <br />
<br />
====Interrogatives and Indefinites====<br />
Burunko has a related series of adjectives, adverbs and pronouns denoting ...<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" rowspan="2;"| !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Proximal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Medial !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Distal !! width="100px;" rowspan="2;" | Interrogative !! colspan="3;" | Indefinite <br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | 'any, no' !! width="100px;" | 'every' !! width="100px;" | 'some'<br />
|-<br />
! An. <br />
| rowspan="2;" | ''tong'' <br> 'this' || rowspan="2;" | ''to'' <br> 'that' || rowspan="2;" | ''taz'' <br> 'that' || ''nobuji'' <br> 'who' || ''imbuji'' <br> 'anyone' || ''aubuji'' <br> 'everyone' || ''bujido'' <br> 'someone'<br />
|-<br />
! Inan. <br />
| ''nohez'' <br> 'what' || ''inhez'' <br> 'anything' || ''auhez'' <br> 'everything' || ''heddo'' <br> 'something'<br />
|-<br />
! Place<br />
| ''tonsuki'' <br> 'here' || ''tosuki'' <br> 'there' || ''tassuki'' <br> 'there' || ''nosuki'' <br> 'where' || ''insuki'' <br> 'anywhere' || ''ausuki'' <br> 'everywhere' || ''sukido'' 'somewhere'<br />
|-<br />
! Manner <br />
| ''tombye'' <br> 'like this' || ''tobye'' <br> 'like that' || ''tabbye'' <br> 'like that' || ''nobye'' <br> 'how' || ''imbye'' <br> 'anyhow' || ''aubye'' <br> 'every way' || ''byedo'' <br> 'somehow' <br />
|-<br />
! Time<br />
| ''tombeng'' <br> 'now' || ''tobeng'' <br> 'then' || ''tabbeng'' <br> 'then' || ''nobeng'' <br> 'when' || ''imbeng'' <br> 'anytime' || ''aubeng'' <br> 'always' || ''bendo'' <br> 'sometime(s)'<br />
|-<br />
! Cause<br />
| ''tongeze'' <br> 'because' || || ''tazeze'' <br> 'because' || ''noze'' <br> 'why' || ''ineze'' <br> 'any reason' || ''aweze'' <br> 'all reasons' || ''ezedo'' <br> 'some reason'<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
Most Burunko verbs are composed of two elements: a '''main verb''', which contains the semantic information, and an '''auxiliary verb''', which encodes tense, mood and aspectual information. Combining the two creates the following classes:<br />
<br />
* Aspect: aorist, imperfective or perfective<br />
* Tense: present or past<br />
* Mood: indicative, hypothetical or imperative<br />
* Valency: intransitive, transitive, causative, applicative<br />
<br />
====Main Verbs====<br />
Main verbs can be divided into several categories: '''primary''', '''secondary''' and '''compound'''. At the heart of all verbs is a mono- or disyllabic root, which carries the main meaning but cannot occur alone. Here roots are written in capitals to show that they are not words in their own right, e.g. ''ZUKI'' 'touch', ''AZ'' 'take', ''KASH'' 'learn'. Such roots are essentially a closed class. In some instances, a single root may be both nominal and verbal, so ''DANG'' 'to drink' and ''dang'' 'a drink'. <br />
<br />
Primary verbs are composed of the root with the verbalising prefix ''E-'', realised as ''i-'' before a high vowel (''i, u'') in the next syllable, as ''y-'' before vowels and as ''e-'' elsewhere, .e.g. ''izuki'', ''yaz'', ''ekash''. This is the minimal form a verb can take in use.<br />
<br />
Secondary verbs are derived from primary verbs by affixation and are also a closed class. The main affixes used to create secondary verbs are:<br />
* The '''causative''' infix ''-da-'', which comes between the verbaliser ''E-'' and the root, e.g. ''edakash'' 'teach' < ''ekash'' 'learn'. This form of causative is mainly added to intransitive verbs and transitive verbs in which the subject has little or no control over the action (e.g. ''edapush'' 'show' < ''ipush'' 'see').<br />
* The '''pejorative''' infix ''-na-'', which takes the same position as ''-da-'' and perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enakash'' 'mislearn, learn wrongly', ''enadang'' 'drink heavily, get drunk'. When used with the causative, it becomes ''-dan-'', e.g. ''edankash'' 'teach wrongly'. <br />
* The '''applicative''' suffix ''-ki'', which makes an indirect object the direct object and indicates the beneficiary, recipient, purpose or goal of the action, depending on context and the meaning of the verb,, e.g. ''edakaiki'' 'teach someone', ''edapuiki'' 'show someone'.<br />
* The '''iterative/frequentative''' suffixes ''-iko'' (after a vowel) or ''-ko'' (after a consonant), which denotes frequent or repeated action, or an action seemingly composed of multiple smaller instances of an action, often where the result is quiet or of limited intensity e.g. ''ekaiko'' 'study' < ''KASH'' 'learn', ''edanko'' 'sip' < ''DANG'' 'drink', ''ebaiko'' 'babble, chatter' (softly, as of a baby) < ''BA'' 'speak', ''yedeiko'' 'nibble' < ''EDE'' 'bite'. <br />
<br />
A '''reduplicated''' root may also be used to create a frequentative, but always with an intensive and often a pejorative sense, e.g. ''edandan'' 'gulp, quaff' < ''DANG'', ''yedede'' 'to chomp' < ''EDE'', ''ebaba'' 'yammer, gossip, yak' < ''BA''. <br />
<br />
Compound verbs are derived from a primary or secondary verb by prefixing the verb stem with another part of speech. The initial element may be:<br />
* a '''noun''' denoting the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''xemmang'' 'to name' < ''xeng'' 'name' + ''MANG'' 'give', ''loging'' 'to sleep' < ''lo'' 'sleep' + ''GING'' 'do'. These verbs may take a new object, e.g. ''...''<br />
* an '''adjective''', denoting various senses of being or becoming a state, or to denote the subject's feelings or opinion, e.g. ''futtoz'' 'turn white' < ''fuz'' 'white' + ''TOZ'' 'come', ''ongushi'' 'like, approve of' < ''ong'' 'good' and ''USHI'' 'consider'.<br />
* an '''adverb''' denoting the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''fimiroz'' 'move quickly' < ''fimiro'' 'quickly' + ''OZ'' 'move'; ''yommikei'' 'kick' < ''yommi'' 'with the foot' + ''KEI'' 'strike, hit'.<br />
<br />
====Non-Finite Forms====<br />
All main verbs, whether primary, secondary or compound, have three non-finite forms:<br />
<br />
* The '''infinitive''' is the unmodified form of the verb e.g. ''izuki'' 'touch', ''ekaiki'' 'teach', ''yommikei'' 'kick'. It is aspectless form, often called the '''aorist''', referring to an action as an abstract, without and reference to time.<br />
* The '''imperfective participle''' is created by adding ''-N'' to the infinitive, which is realised as ''-ng'' following vowels and ''-na'' following consonants, e.g. ''izuking'' 'touching', ''yanna'' 'taking', ''ekaina'' 'learning'. It refers to an action or state which is either ongoing or habitual.<br />
* The '''perfective participle''' is created by adding ''-i'' to the infinitive, e.g. ''izukii'' 'touched', ''yazi'' 'taken, took', ''yommikeyi'' 'kicked'. It is used to denote an action or state in its entirety, without reference to its duration.<br />
<br />
====Auxiliary Verbs====<br />
The auxiliary verbs are primarily used to conjugate the main verbs. ''Yita'' 'be' is used to conjugate intransitive verbs and ''izu'' 'have' is used for transitives. Both verbs have simple and causative forms, which can be affirmative ('is, has') or negative ('is not, has not'). <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Basic Forms for Auxiliary Verbs<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" width="100px;" | Mood !! rowspan="3;" width="100px;" | Tense !! colspan="2;" | Intransitive !! colspan="2;" | Transitive<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | ''yita'' 'be' !! colspan="2;" | ''izu'' 'have'<br />
|-<br />
! Aff || Neg || Aff || Neg<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" | Realis !! Present <br />
| width="100px;" | ''jaite'' || width="100px;" | ''denite'' || width="100px;" | ''dozu'' || width="100px;" | ''donuzu'' <br />
|-<br />
! Past<br />
| ''xiteng'' || ''xiniteng'' || ''xizung'' || ''xinuzung'' <br />
|-<br />
! Hypothetical <br />
| ''yite'' || ''linite'' || ''lizu'' || ''linuzu'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" | Irrealis !! Present <br />
| ''deji'' || ''donuji'' || ''daipa'' || ''danoipa'' <br />
|-<br />
! Past<br />
| ''xijing'' || ''xinujing'' || ''heipang'' || ''henoipang'' <br />
|-<br />
! Hypothetical <br />
| ''liji'' || ''linuji'' || ''leipa'' || ''lenoipa'' <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Imperative <br />
| ''biite'' || ''benite'' || ''bozu'' || ''bonuzu'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
The auxiliary causative differs from the derived causative because it tends to denote actions where the causer intentionally or directly causes the action and implies a degree of force or control, e.g. ''ekash dajaite'' means 'to make someone learn' while ''edakash'' means 'to teach'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Causative Forms for Auxiliary Verbs<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" width="100px;" | Mood !! rowspan="3;" width="100px;" | Tense !! colspan="2;" | Intransitive !! colspan="2;" | Transitive<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | ''yita'' 'be' !! colspan="2;" | ''izu'' 'have'<br />
|-<br />
! Aff || Neg || Aff || Neg<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" | Realis !! Present <br />
| width="100px;" | ''dajaite'' || width="100px;" | ''danite'' || width="100px;" | ''dadozu'' || width="100px;" | ''danuzu'' <br />
|-<br />
! Past<br />
| ''hejaiteng'' || ''heniteng'' || ''hedozung'' || ''henuzung'' <br />
|-<br />
! Hypothetical <br />
| ''lejaite'' || ''lenite'' || ''ledozu'' || ''lenuzu'' <br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" | Irrealis !! Present <br />
| ''dadeji'' || ''danuji'' || ''dadaipa'' || ''danoipa'' <br />
|-<br />
! Past<br />
| ''hedejing'' || ''henujing'' || ''hedaipang'' || ''henoipang'' <br />
|-<br />
! Hypothetical <br />
| ''ledeji'' || ''lenuji'' || ''ledaipa'' || ''lenoipa'' <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Imperative <br />
| ''bajaite'' || ''banite'' || ''badozu'' || ''banuzu'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Periphrastic Conjugation====<br />
The combination of tense, aspect and mood information encoded in the various forms of main and auxiliary verbs gives the following verb forms:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3;" width="150px;" | Aspect !! colspan="4;" | Tense/Mood<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="4;" | Realis<br />
|-<br />
! width="150px;" | Present !! width="150px;" | Past !! width="150px;" | Hypothetical !! width="150px;" | Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
| Stative Present || Stative Past || Stative Hypothetical || Imperative<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfective<br />
| Present || Past || Present Hypothetical <br />
! rowspan="2;" |<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
| Recent Past || Distant Past || Past Hypothetical<br />
|-<br />
! || colspan="4;" | Irrealis<br />
|-<br />
! !! Present !! Past !! Hypothetical !! rowspan="4;" | <br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
| Present Potential || Past Potential || Conditional<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfective<br />
| || || Present Conditional<br />
|-<br />
! Perfective<br />
| || || Past Conditional <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on the tenses:<br />
* The '''Stative Present''' or '''Gnomic''' is used to make general statements. With stative verbs it refers to existing states (e.g. 'fire is hot') and with action verbs it refers to general truths (e.g. 'birds sing'). <br />
* The '''Stative Past'''<br />
<br />
==Derivation==<br />
Bis Burunko has a highly productive derivational system, primarily based on suffixes. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;" <br />
! width="100px;" | Suffix !! width="300px;" | Meaning !! width="100;" | Added To !! width="300;" | Examples<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="4;" | Nouns<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ai'' || augmentative, honorific (mid.) || n, adj ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-aro'' || "time, season, right time" || n, adj, vn || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-ba, -be'' || kinship suffix denoting primary line || n ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-do'' || collective || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-ez'' || augmentative, honorific (fem.) || n, adj || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-fo'' || diminutive || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-ji'' || (domesticated) animal || n, adj || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-jing'' || "period of time, age, era" || n, adj, v || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-ko<sup><small>1</small></sup>'' || "thing for, connected with" || n ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ko<sup><small>2</small></sup>'' || diminutive || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-mi'' || diminutive || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-ni, -ng'' || agent || v || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-o'' || instrument, tool || v ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-osh'' || augmentative, honorific (masc.) || n, adj ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-pung'' || "having" || n ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-taz, -daz''* || "person/thing from" || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-te, -de''* || "(short) stretch of time, period" || n || ''araite'' "nighttime"<br />
|-<br />
| ''-teng, -deng''* || diminutive || n || <br />
|-<br />
| ''-to<sup><small>1</small></sup>, -do''* || instrument, tool || n, v, adj <br />
|-<br />
| ''-to<sup><small>2</small></sup>'' || diminutive || n ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-yo'' || kinship suffix denoting 2 removed from ego || n || <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="4;" | Adjective<br />
|-<br />
| ''-chi, -ji''* || "of, like, pertaining to; characteristic of" || n || ''demechi'' "female, feminine" <br />
|-<br />
| ''-king'' || "tending to, fond of" || n, v ||<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ko'' || "related to, characteristic of" || n || <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="4;" | Adverbs<br />
|-<br />
| ''-mi'' || means, method || n || ''yommi'' "with the foot"<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ro'' || manner || adj || ''fimiro'' "quickly"<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
===Gender Terms===<br />
Gender terms for humans and gods are partly based on the individual's age. Burung society sees life divided into four ages:<br />
* '''Childhood''' (''pumebu'') from birth to the onset of puberty, in which all individuals are considered ''iriji''.<br />
* '''Young Adulthood''' (''garaapu'') from the onset of puberty to full initiation into adult life.<br />
* '''Adulthood''' (''koziji'') encompasses the working life, a time for raising a family. <br />
* '''Old Age''' (''hajji'') from retirement to death.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | Gender !! width="100px;" | Child !! width="100px;" | Young Adult !! width="100px;" | Adult !! width="100px;" | Senior<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" | ''Acchi'' <br> (masc.) <br />
| rowspan="4;" style="background-color:gray" | || colspan="3;" | ''az''<br />
|-<br />
| ''goi'' || ''gis, gyong'' || ''hoz''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" | ''Demechi'' <br> (fem.) <br />
| colspan="3;" | ''deme''<br />
|-<br />
| ''madash'' || ''xoz'' || ''axoz''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2;" | ''Iriji'' <br> (mid.)<br />
| colspan="4;" | ''haya''<br />
|-<br />
| ''pume'' || ''poda'' || ''búrus'' ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Primary Verbs===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! Root !! Meanings !! Infinitive !! Gerundive !! Perfective<br />
|-<br />
| '''OZ''' || move || ''yoz'' || ''yonna'' || ''yozi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ARANG''' || move back and forth, swing, sway || ''yarang'' || ''yaranna'' || ''yarangi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''GA''' || go up; ascend, climb; improve || ''ega'' || ''egang'' || ''egai''<br />
|-<br />
| '''BE''' || go down, descend; fall; deteriorate || ''ebe'' || ''ebeng'' || ''ebei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''IGI''' || go past, pass; exceed; change state || ''yigi'' || ''yiging'' || ''yigii''<br />
|-<br />
| '''XAZ''' || go in(to), enter; penetrate || ''exaz'' || ''exanna'' || ''exai''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ZUKI'''<small>1</small> || go out, exit, leave || ''izuki'' || ''izuking'' || ''izukii''<br />
|-<br />
| '''LIPU''' || go || ''ilipu'' || ''ilipung ''|| ''ilipui''<br />
|-<br />
| '''TOZ''' || come || ''etoz'' || ''etonna'' || ''etozi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ES''' || approach; press || ''yes'' || ''yeena'' || ''yeshi'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''ZUKI'''<small>2</small> || touch, come into contact; mention || ''izuki'' || ''izuking'' || ''izukii'' <br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Swadesh List===<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
! No. !! English !! Burunko<br />
|-<br />
! width="30px;" | 1 !! width="100px;" | I<br />
| width="150px;" | ''ni''<br />
|-<br />
! 2 !! you (sg.) <br />
| ''chi''<br />
|-<br />
! 3 !! he <br />
| ''az'' (m.)<br />
|-<br />
! 4 !! we (inc.) <br />
| ''bi''<br />
|-<br />
! 5 !! you (pl.)<br />
| ''fu''<br />
|-<br />
! 6 !! they <br />
| ''abbu'' (m.)<br />
|-<br />
! 7 !! this<br />
| ''tong''<br />
|-<br />
! 8 !! that<br />
| ''taz''<br />
|-<br />
! 9 !! here <br />
| ''sukitong''<br />
|-<br />
! 10 !! there<br />
| ''sukitaz''<br />
|-<br />
! 11 !! who (int.)<br />
| ''nosha''<br />
|-<br />
! 12 !! what (int.)<br />
| ''nohez''<br />
|-<br />
! 13 !! when (int.)<br />
| ''nobeng''<br />
|-<br />
! 14 !! where (int.)<br />
| ''nusuki''<br />
|- <br />
! 15 !! how (int.)<br />
| ''nubide''<br />
|-<br />
! 16 !! not<br />
| ''-no-''<br />
|-<br />
! 17 !! all<br />
| ''alo''<br />
|-<br />
! 18 !! many<br />
| ''mupu''<br />
|-<br />
! 19 !! some<br />
| ''xama''<br />
|-<br />
! 20 !! few<br />
| ''<br />
|-<br />
! 21 !! other<br />
| ''ai''<br />
|-<br />
! 22 !! one<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! 23 !! two<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! 24 !! three<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! 25 !! four<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! 26 !! five<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! 27 !! big<br />
| ''enji''<br />
|-<br />
! 28 !! long<br />
| ''los''<br />
|-<br />
! 29 !! wide<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! 30 !! thick<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! 31 !! heavy<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! 32 !! small<br />
| ''bing''<br />
|-<br />
! 33 !! short<br />
| ''dobuz''<br />
|-<br />
! 34 !! narrow <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
thin<br />
woman<br />
man (adult male)<br />
man (human being)<br />
child<br />
wife<br />
husband<br />
mother<br />
father<br />
animal<br />
fish<br />
bird<br />
dog<br />
louse<br />
snake<br />
worm<br />
tree<br />
forest<br />
stick<br />
fruit</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bis_Burunko/Vocabulary&diff=323989
Bis Burunko/Vocabulary
2023-08-29T19:00:55Z
<p>Psammead: </p>
<hr />
<div>==Nouns==<br />
===[[Bis Burunko/Gender and Age|Gender and Age]]===<br />
===[[Bis Burunko/Kinship|Kinship]]===<br />
===Body===<br />
===The Body • ''Cźizda''===<br />
Body parts usually found in pairs take the dual prefix ''bin/bim-'' when referring to a pair belonging to the same person.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''head''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''puru''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hair''' || ''jiki''<br />
|-<br />
| '''eye''' || ''bigi'' (du. ''bimbigi'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''eyelash''' || ''bigijiki''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ear''' || ''beyako'' (du. ''bimbeyako'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''nose''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cheek''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mouth''' || ''a''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lip''' || ''oite''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tooth (incisor)''' || ''koros''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tooth (molar)''' || ''gyosh''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tongue''' || ''bing''<br />
|-<br />
| '''chin''' || ''bes''<br />
|-<br />
| '''face''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''beard''' || ''fos''<br />
|-<br />
| '''neck''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''shoulder''' || '''' <br />
|-<br />
| '''arm''' || ''meyo'' (du. ''bimmeyo'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''elbow''' || ''meigedesh''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hand''' || ''jikyo'' (du. ''bindikyo'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''finger''' || ''higommi''<br />
|-<br />
| '''thumb''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''breast''' || ''ugáras'' (du. ''binugáras'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''chest''' || ''erish''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lung''' || ''hengi'' (du. ''binhengi'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''heart''' || ''byoros'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''stomach, belly''' || ''xambei''<br />
|-<br />
| '''back''' || ''xuni''<br />
|-<br />
| '''backbone, spine''' || ''bihaz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''liver''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''kidney''' || '''' <br />
|- <br />
| '''womb, uterus''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''intestines''' || ''budong''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bladder''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''penis''' || ''taga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''testicle''' || ''keni'' (du. ''binkeni'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''vagina''' || ''puki''<br />
|- <br />
| '''buttocks''' || ''ofuz'' (du. ''binofuz'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''anus''' || ''gawa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''waist''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hip''' || ''xupu'' (du. ''binxupu'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''leg''' || ''lunzu'' (du. ''binlunzu'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''thigh''' || ''ifez'' (du. ''binifez'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''knee''' || ''beyong'' (du. ''bimbeyong'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''testicle''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''scrotum''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ankle''' || ''yongedesh'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''foot''' || ''yong'' (du. ''bingong'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''toe''' || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''nail''' || ''''<br />
|}<br />
===Colours===<br />
There are few primary words for colours in Bis Burunko, the majority of colour words being derivatives of something representing that colour, often in ''-re'' (particularly when a dark colour), or ''-kye''. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''colour''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''ĺû''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #b31919;" | || ''xarre'' (blood red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #ff0000" | || '''' (bright red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #cc2900;" | || '''' (orange red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #ffcc00;" | || '''' (golden yellow)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #b38600;" | || '''' (brown yellow)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #59b300;" | || '''' (bright green)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #00664d;" | || '''' (sea green, blue)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #330066;" | || '''' (dark blue, purple)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #4d3319;" | || '''' (brown, dusky)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: black;" | || ''meus'' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background: gray;" | || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: white;" | || ''furi''<br />
|}</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=B%C5%BAatga/Vocabulary&diff=323919
Bźatga/Vocabulary
2023-08-26T17:47:02Z
<p>Psammead: /* The Body • Cźizda */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Nouns==<br />
<br />
===Family • ''Veńa''===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''father''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''aḑir, tada''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mother'''|| ''maḑir, mama''<br />
|- <br />
| '''parent''' || ''rouńe''<br />
|-<br />
| '''brother'''|| ''braḑir''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sister''' || ''zviur'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''son''' || ''maba'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''daughter''' || ''brecda''<br />
|-<br />
| '''child''' || ''sila''<br />
|- <br />
| '''husband''' || ''vêra''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wife''' || ''mena''<br />
|-<br />
| '''grandfather''' || ''taća''<br />
|-<br />
| '''grandmother''' || ''nańa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''grandchild''' || ''ajar'' (GDsg. ''aire'', NApl. ''aiŕi'', GDpl. ''aiŕa'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''uncle''' || ''auțir''<br />
|-<br />
| '''aunt''' || ''madreba''<br />
|-<br />
| '''nephew''' || ''ńoda'' (4th)<br />
|-<br />
|'''niece''' || ''neće''<br />
|-<br />
| '''father-in-law''' || ''zvegrona''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mother-in-law''' || ''zvegro''<br />
|-<br />
| '''son-in-law''' || ''dava''<br />
|-<br />
| '''daughter-in-law''' || ''vaiźe''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Landscape===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" rowspan="2;" | '''land''' || style="width: 400px;" | (general) ''țira'' (NApl. ''tiŕa'').<br />
|-<br />
| (cultivated) ''ara''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sea''' || ''more'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''island''' || ''ense''<br />
|-<br />
| '''haven, bay''' || ''cana''<br />
|-<br />
| '''estuary, river mouth''' || ''abra''<br />
|-<br />
| '''confluence''' || ''căbera''<br />
|-<br />
| '''riverbend''' || ''capso''<br />
|-<br />
| '''stream, ravine''' || ''nata''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''stream''' || (slow running) ''śtaźa''<br />
|-<br />
| (swift) ''zrôda'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''river''' || ''aû''<br />
|-<br />
| '''waterfall''' || ''źadra''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lake''' || ''ĺida''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lake, pool''' || ''logo''<br />
|-<br />
| '''riverbank, shore''' || ''ĺada''<br />
|-<br />
| '''beach''' || ''traćo''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cliff, height''' || ''auta''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''rock''' || ''ĺôga''<br />
|-<br />
| (flat rock, slab) ''lêca''<br />
|-<br />
| '''height''' || ''razva''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hill''' || ''bźija'' (4th)<br />
|-<br />
| '''hillock, knoll''' || ''ńoca'', ''croca''<br />
|-<br />
| '''moor''' || ''rosa''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="4;" | '''valley''' || (river valley) ''srada''<br />
|-<br />
| (rounded) ''cuba''<br />
|-<br />
| (narrow) ''ĺaģa''<br />
|-<br />
| (shallow, wet; hollow) ''paća''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mountain''' || ''mońa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mound''' || ''tuba''<br />
|-<br />
| '''plain''' || ''maja'' (4th) <br />
|-<br />
| '''wood''' || ''ćada''<br />
|-<br />
| '''copse''' || ''caĺa''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''village, farm''' || ''treva''<br />
|-<br />
| (defended) ''caźa'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''place, square''' || ''vjata'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''fort, city''' || ''duna''<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2;" | '''field''' || (open ground) ''maiso'' <br />
|-<br />
| (enclosure) ''grota'', ''caja''<br />
|-<br />
| '''meadow''' || ''dola''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pasture''' || ''ĺone''<br />
|-<br />
| '''road, way''' || ''śato''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ford''' || ''rêdo''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bridge''' || ''bźua''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===People • ''Dońi''===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''sovereign''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''źi'' (GDsg. ''źije'', pl. ''źija'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''sovereign's consort''' || ''źine''<br />
|-<br />
| '''prince, princess''' || ''maĺa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''earl''' || ''vaudra''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lord''' || ''teźna''<br />
|-<br />
| '''priest''' || ''drouz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''prophet, oracle''' || ''vade''<br />
|-<br />
| '''poet''' || ''braza''<br />
|-<br />
| '''warrior''' || ''cadvêra'', ''vêģu'' (4), ''auŕu'' (4)<br />
|-<br />
| '''man''' || ''vêra''<br />
|-<br />
| '''woman''' || ''mena''<br />
|-<br />
| '''client''' || ''vasa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''servant''' || ''mova'' (household), ''abaća'' (field)<br />
|-<br />
| '''slave''' || ''caća''<br />
|-<br />
| '''smith''' || ''gou''' (4)<br />
|-<br />
| '''shepherd''' || ''ousara''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cowherd''' || ''bougle''<br />
|-<br />
| '''weaver''' || ''veidra''<br />
|-<br />
| '''carpentar''' || ''sara''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===The Body • ''Cźizda''===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''head''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''pena''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hair''' || ''vouta''<br />
|-<br />
| '''eye''' || ''lôda''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ear''' || ''ĺôsa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''nose''' || ''trońe''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cheek''' || ''grôza''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mouth''' || ''śtauna''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tooth''' || ''data''<br />
|-<br />
| '''tongue''' || ''taud''<br />
|-<br />
| '''chin''' || ''znega''<br />
|-<br />
| '''face''' || ''emba''<br />
|-<br />
| '''neck''' || ''mone''<br />
|-<br />
| '''shoulder''' || ''śćeza'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''arm''' || ''caca''<br />
|-<br />
| '''elbow''' || ''oĺna''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hand''' || ''lava''<br />
|-<br />
| '''finger''' || ''bêse''<br />
|-<br />
| '''thumb''' || ''mada''<br />
|-<br />
| '''breast''' || ''brô'' (stem: ''brôn-'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''lung''' || ''ścava''<br />
|-<br />
| '''heart''' || ''crêza'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''stomach''' || ''bova''<br />
|-<br />
| '''back''' || ''cula''<br />
|-<br />
| '''liver''' || ''ava''<br />
|-<br />
| '''kidney''' || ''aru'' (stem: ''aron-'')<br />
|- <br />
| '''womb, uterus''' || ''crôta''<br />
|-<br />
| '''intestine''' || ''endra''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bladder''' || ''bouńa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''penis''' || ''bala''<br />
|-<br />
| '''vagina''' || ''tôda''<br />
|- <br />
| '''buttocks''' || ''tôńa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''waist''' || ''meźa, crêsa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''leg''' || ''gare''<br />
|-<br />
| '''knee''' || ''ĺuna''<br />
|-<br />
| '''testicle''' || ''caĺa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''scrotum''' || ''côde''<br />
|-<br />
| '''ankle''' || ''zvera''<br />
|-<br />
| '''foot''' || ''troud''<br />
|-<br />
| '''toe''' || ''bêse''<br />
|-<br />
| '''nail''' || ''auna''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Countries • ''Lands''===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2;" | Country !! style="width: 180px;" | Adjective<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 150px;" | '''Australia''' || style="width: 180px;" | ''Ostraĺa'' || ''Ostrałga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Austria''' || ''Ostreja'' || ''Ostreiga''<br />
|- <br />
| '''Belgium''' || ''Bełģa'' || ''Bełģaga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Brazil''' || ''Brazila'' || ''Braziłga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Canada''' || ''Canada'' || ''Canatga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''China''' || ''Ćina'' || ''Ćinga''<br />
|- <br />
| '''Denmark''' || ''Dańa'' || ''Danga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''France''' || ''Pranśa'' || ''Pransaga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Germany''' || ''Ćemeńa'' || ''Ćemenga''<br />
|- <br />
| '''Greece''' || ''Grêśa'' || ''Grêsga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Iceland''' || ''Islan'' || ''Islanga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''India''' || ''Inģa'' || ''Indaca''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Iraq''' || ''Irac'' || ''Iracga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Ireland''' || ''Juźu'' || ''Jurga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Israel''' || ''Isrel'' || ''Isrelga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Italy''' || ''Êdaĺa'' || ''Êdałga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Japan''' || ''Ģapan'' || ''Ģapanga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Korea''' || ''Coŕia'' || ''Coŕiga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Mexico''' || ''Mețica'' || ''Mețicga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Netherlands''' || ''Nederlan'' || ''Nederlanga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Norway''' || ''Norveja'' || ''Norveja''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Poland''' || ''Pôlańa'' || ''Pôlanga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Portugal''' || ''Portgala'' || ''Portgałga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Russia''' || ''Ruśa'' || ''Rusga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Spain''' || ''Spańa'' || ''Spanga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sweden''' || ''Zvedan'' || ''Zvedanga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''United States of America''' || ''Vlați Vonauḑi Ǎmericu'' || ''Ǎmericga''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Languages • ''Jeći''===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 150px;" | '''Arabic''' || style="width: 200px;" | ''Arabga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Chinese''' || ''Ćeinga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''English''' || ''Êglanga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''French''' || ''Vranŝga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''German''' || ''Ćemenga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Hindi''' || ''Inde''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Italian''' || ''Êtałga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Japanese''' || ''Ģapanga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Korean''' || ''Côriga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Portuguese''' || ''Poćugałga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Russian''' || ''Ruśga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Spanish''' || ''Spênga''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Religion===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''Christianity''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''Crisćajonaća''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Christian''' || ''Crisćajų''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Islam''' || ''Islam, Mameģajonaća''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Muslim''' || ''Muslim, Mameģajų''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Hinduism''' || ''Indonaća''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Hindu''' || ''Indų''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Buddhism''' || ''Buģajonaća''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Buddhist''' || ''Buģajų''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Taoism''' || ''Tavaća''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Shinto''' || ''Śintų''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Sikhism''' || ''Sicaća''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Judaism''' || ''Ġovaća''<br />
|-<br />
| '''Jew''' || ''Ġova''<br />
|-<br />
| '''god''' || ''ģeva''<br />
|-<br />
| '''goddess''' || ''ģeva''<br />
|-<br />
| '''prayer''' || ''geģada''<br />
|-<br />
| '''priest''' || ''druz''<br />
|-<br />
| '''meditation''' || ''abrazreda''<br />
|-<br />
| '''heaven''' || ''neu'' (sky)<br />
|-<br />
| '''hell''' || ''aduna'' (otherworld)<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Some Bźatian Deities====<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | ''Bźaća'' || style="width: 400px;" | high goddess of the people, goddess of victory<br />
|-<br />
| ''Cocźa'' || god of hunting and woodland<br />
|-<br />
| ''Beudôzra'' || god of war<br />
|-<br />
| ''Luo'' || god of craft<br />
|- <br />
| ''Beĺva'' || goddess of light<br />
|-<br />
| ''Beuna'' || god of healing<br />
|-<br />
| ''Śazlagêńa'' || godddess of long life<br />
|-<br />
| ''Nôźta'' || god of the sea<br />
|-<br />
| ''Lade'' || goddess of drink<br />
|-<br />
| ''Maita'' || the great god<br />
|-<br />
| ''Madrana'' || the mother god<br />
|-<br />
| ''Ebna'' || goddess of horses<br />
|-<br />
| ''Mabna'' || god of youth<br />
|-<br />
| ''Caulo'' || god of war<br />
|-<br />
| ''Conna'' || hound god<br />
|-<br />
| ''Vêrna'' || father god<br />
|-<br />
| ''Tarne'' || god of thunder<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====Animals====<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Domesticated<br />
|-<br />
! style="width: 120px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Generic || style="width: 100px;" | Male || style="width: 100px;" | Female || style="width: 100px;" | Young<br />
|-<br />
| '''cat''' || colspan="3;" | ''cata'' || ''couńa'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''cattle''' || ''ava'' || ''taura'' || ''bô'' || ''laja''<br />
|-<br />
| '''chicken''' || ''jara'' || ''caĺga'' || ''jara'' || ''coja'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''dog''' || colspan="2;" | ''cu'' || ''gasa'' || ''couńa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''duck''' || colspan="3;" | ''bôna'' || ''coja''<br />
|-<br />
| '''goat''' || ''gaura'' || ''bôca'' || ''gaura'' || ''mena''<br />
|-<br />
| '''goose''' || colspan="3;" | ''gêza'' || ''coja''<br />
|-<br />
| '''horse''' || '''eba'' || ''braca'' || ''caśca'' || ''eula''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pig''' || ''sôca'' || ''troca'' || ''vese'' || ''bava''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sheep''' ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Adjectives and Adverbs==<br />
===Colours===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''colour''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''ĺû''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #b31919;" | || ''coca'' (blood red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #ff0000" | || ''dreja'' (bright red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #cc2900;" | || ''rôza'' (orange red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #ffcc00;" | || ''meuna'' (golden yellow)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #b38600;" | || ''gela'' (brown yellow)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #59b300;" | || ''ura'' (bright green)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #00664d;" | || ''ĺasa'' (sea green, blue)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #330066;" | || ''vrova'' (dark blue, purple)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #4d3319;" | || ''dôna'' (brown, dusky)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: black;" | || ''dova'' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background: gray;" | || ''ĺeda''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: white;" | || ''vêna''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Verbs==<br />
Verb forms are given with their '''verbal noun'''. The stem for all regular verbs is found by removing the final ''-a''.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''be''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''bôda'' (irregular)<br />
|-<br />
| '''have'''|| ''bôda'' + dat. (irregular)<br />
|-<br />
| '''do''' || ''vreja'', ''ńija''<br />
|- <br />
| '''say''' || ''seba'', ''veda''<br />
|- <br />
| '''go''' || ''aća'' (stem ''au-'', irregular)<br />
|-<br />
| '''get''' || ''caja''<br />
|-<br />
| '''make''' || ''vreja'', ''ńija''; (create) ''pera''<br />
|-<br />
| '''know''' || (person etc.) ''avońa''; (fact etc.) ''vêzra''<br />
|-<br />
| '''think''' || (use mind) ''abraza''; (have opinion) ''meza''<br />
|-<br />
| '''take''' || ''căbera'', ''gaja''<br />
|-<br />
| '''see''' || ''vela''<br />
|-<br />
| '''come''' || ''tava''<br />
|-<br />
| '''want''' || (desire) ''mjada''; (lack) ''nauģa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''look''' || ''śuna''<br />
|-<br />
| '''use''' || ''arvera''<br />
|-<br />
| '''find''' || ''caja''<br />
|-<br />
| '''give''' || ''da'' (stem ''da-'')<br />
|-<br />
| '''tell''' || ''agojeza'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''work''' || ''ńija''<br />
|-<br />
| '''call''' || ''gava''<br />
|-<br />
| '''try''' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''ask''' || ''raśca''<br />
|-<br />
| '''need''' || ''acńa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''feel''' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''become''' || ''dauna''<br />
|-<br />
| '''leave''' || ''gada''<br />
|-<br />
| '''put''' || ''luga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''mean''' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''keep''' || ''cauda''<br />
|-<br />
| '''let''' || ''daja''<br />
|-<br />
| '''begin''' || ''cena''<br />
|-<br />
| '''seem''' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''help''' || ''văreda''<br />
|-<br />
| '''talk''' || ''lauŕa'', ''ădraza''<br />
|-<br />
| '''turn''' || ''suva''<br />
|-<br />
| '''start''' || (begin) ''cena''; (jump up, set off) ''căśćada''<br />
|-<br />
| '''show''' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''hear''' || ''ĺeva''<br />
|-<br />
| '''play''' || ''văreja''; (instrument) ''văgana''<br />
|-<br />
| '''run''' || ''reda''<br />
|-<br />
| '''move''' || ''zveva''<br />
|-<br />
| '''like''' || ''coja'' + dat.<br />
|-<br />
| '''live''' || ''beviśca''<br />
|-<br />
| '''believe''' || ''creda''<br />
|-<br />
| '''hold''' || ''deva''<br />
|-<br />
| '''bring''' || ''dôga'', ''śabroka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''happen''' || ''ćija''<br />
|-<br />
| '''write''' || ''źiba''<br />
|-<br />
| '''provide''' || ''rana''<br />
|-<br />
| '''sit''' || ''seza''<br />
|-<br />
| '''stand''' || ''śtava''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lose''' || ''couģa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''pay''' || ''tala''<br />
|-<br />
| '''meet''' || ''creda'', ''abgreda''<br />
|-<br />
| '''include''' || ''gada''<br />
|-<br />
| '''continue''' || ''căvana''<br />
|-<br />
| '''lead''' || ''arveza'', ''dôga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''understand''' || ''gaja''<br />
|-<br />
| '''watch''' || ''vrălôga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''follow''' || ''lêna''<br />
|-<br />
| '''stop''' || ''dveźa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''create''' || ''pera''<br />
|-<br />
| '''speak''' || ''ădraza''<br />
|-<br />
| ''allow'' || ''daja''<br />
|-<br />
| ''spend'' || ''caća''<br />
|-<br />
| '''grow''' || ''tôva''<br />
|-<br />
| '''open''' || ''agora''<br />
|-<br />
| '''walk''' || ''ćaga''<br />
|-<br />
| '''win''' || ''ĺaza''<br />
|-<br />
| '''offer''' || ''abreta''<br />
|-<br />
| '''remember''' || ''căveńa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''love''' || ''cara''<br />
|-<br />
| '''consider''' || ''ćeĺa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''appear''' ||<br />
|-<br />
| '''buy''' || ''prêna''<br />
|-<br />
| '''wait''' || ''ǎrvoa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''serve''' || ''văńija''<br />
|-<br />
| '''die''' || ''brava''<br />
|-<br />
| '''send''' || ''auna''<br />
|-<br />
| '''expect''' || ''căvarva''<br />
|-<br />
| '''build''' || ''<br />
|- <br />
| '''stay''' || ''ǎrvoa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''fall''' || ''ćija''<br />
|-<br />
| '''cut''' || ''śćija''<br />
|-<br />
| '''reach''' || ''azreda, ''raka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''kill''' || ''zlaza''<br />
|-<br />
| '''remain''' || ''ărvoa''<br />
|-<br />
| '''suggest''' || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==1000 Words==<br />
iiii<br />
===A===<br />
'''a''' ''det.'' (no equivalent)<br><br />
'''able''' '' adj.'' gałga • '''be ~''' ''v.'' gala<br><br />
'''about''' ''prep.'' abe (+ NA) <br><br />
'''above''' ''prep.'' vor (+ NA, GD) <br><br />
'''according to''' ''prep.'' arvizu <br><br />
'''acquaintance''' ''n.'' seću <br><br />
'''across''' ''prep.'' tra <br><br />
'''act''' ''n.'' vreida • ''v.'' vreja<br />
'''advantage''' ''n.'' lesa <br><br />
'''affection''' ''n.'' śtreka <br><br />
'''afraid''' ''adj.'' ounźa <br><br />
'''after''' ''prep.'' (time) vădejo; (space) ola <br><br />
'''afternoon''' ''n.'' devara <br><br />
'''afterwards''' ''adv.'' vădeju<br><br />
'''again''' ''adv.'' ade <br><br />
'''against''' ''prep.'' vret <br><br />
'''age''' ''n.'' jada <br><br />
'''ago''' ''adv.'' cito <br><br />
'''air''' ''n.'' śina <br><br />
'''alder''' ''n.'' vrena <br><br />
'''all''' ''adj.'' oĺa <br><br />
'''allow''' ''v.'' daja <br><br />
'''almost''' ''adv'' aca <br><br />
'''alone''' ''adj.'' vonga <br><br />
'''along''' ''adv.'' vrăiide <br><br />
'''already''' ''adv.'' citozdu <br><br />
'''also''' ''conj.'' sende <br><br />
although<br />
altogether<br />
always<br />
am<br />
among<br />
an<br />
and<br />
angry<br />
another<br />
answer<br />
answered<br />
anxious<br />
any<br />
anybody<br />
anything<br />
appear<br />
appearance<br />
appeared<br />
are<br />
arm<br />
arms<br />
around<br />
arrived<br />
art<br />
as<br />
'''ash''' (tree) ona <br><br />
ashamed<br />
ask<br />
asked<br />
at<br />
attention<br />
aunt<br />
aware<br />
away<br />
ay<br />
===B===<br />
'''back''' ''n.'' kula <br><br />
'''bad''' ''adj.'' drôga <br><br />
'''be''' ''v.'' bôda (irreg.) <br><br />
'''bear''' ''n.'' arta <br><br />
'''beautiful''' ''adj.'' vipa, ńeuźa <br><br />
'''beauty''' ''n.'' (abstract) ńeva, vipsa; (person) vipju <br><br />
'''became''' ''<br />
'''because'''<br />
'''become''' ''v.'' aća (irreg.)<br><br />
'''bed''' ''n.'' vǎleģa <br><br />
'''beech''' ''n.'' baja <br><br />
'''before''' ''prep.'' are • ''conj.'' cita <br><br />
'''begin''' ''v.'' cena <br><br />
'''beginning''' ''nm.'' cent <br><br />
'''behind''' ''prep.'' ola <br><br />
'''being''' ''nm.'' doja <br><br />
'''believe''' ''v.'' creda <br><br />
'''below''' ''prep.'' vona <br><br />
'''bend''' ''v.'' śtuga <br><br />
'''beside''' ''prep.'' are <br><br />
'''besides''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''best''' ''adj.'' veĺva <br><br />
'''better''' ''adj.'' vela <br><br />
'''between''' ''prep.'' jatra <br><br />
'''beyond''' ''prep.'' tra <br><br />
'''birch''' ''n.'' bedô <br><br />
'''bit''' ''n.'' druĺa <br><br />
'''black''' ''n., adj.'' dova <br><br />
'''blood''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''blue''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''body''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''book''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''books''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''born''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''both''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''bound''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''box''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''boy''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''bracken''' ''n.'' radna <br><br />
'''break'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''breakfast'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''breath'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''bright'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''bring'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''broke'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''broken'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''broom''' ''n.'' (plant) banzla <br><br />
'''brother'''''' ''.'' <br>'''<br />
'''brought'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''brown'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''burst'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''business'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''but'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
'''by'''''' ''.'' <br><br />
<br />
===C===<br />
call<br />
called<br />
calling<br />
came<br />
can<br />
can't<br />
cannot<br />
captain<br />
care<br />
carriage<br />
carried<br />
carry<br />
case<br />
cast<br />
caught<br />
cause<br />
certain<br />
certainly<br />
chair<br />
chance<br />
change<br />
changed<br />
chapter<br />
character<br />
charge<br />
child<br />
children<br />
church<br />
circumstances<br />
clear<br />
close<br />
closed<br />
clothes<br />
cold<br />
colour<br />
come<br />
comes<br />
comfort<br />
coming<br />
common<br />
companion<br />
company<br />
condition<br />
conduct<br />
confidence<br />
consequence<br />
consider<br />
considered<br />
continued<br />
conversation<br />
corner<br />
could<br />
couldn't<br />
countenance<br />
country<br />
course<br />
court<br />
cousin<br />
creature<br />
cried<br />
cry<br />
cut<br />
===D===<br />
danger<br />
dare<br />
dark<br />
daughter<br />
day<br />
days<br />
dead<br />
deal<br />
dear<br />
death<br />
deep<br />
degree<br />
delight<br />
desire<br />
determined<br />
did<br />
didn't<br />
die<br />
died<br />
difference<br />
different<br />
difficulty<br />
dinner<br />
direction<br />
directly<br />
distance<br />
do<br />
doctor<br />
does<br />
dog<br />
doing<br />
don't<br />
done<br />
door<br />
doubt<br />
down<br />
dreadful<br />
dress<br />
drew<br />
drink<br />
during<br />
duty<br />
===E===<br />
'''each''' ''adj.'' caca <br><br />
'''ear''' ''n.'' ĺosa <br><br />
'''early''' ''adj.'' moś <br><br />
'''earth''' ''n.'' ģara <br><br />
'''easy''' ''adj.'' rêze <br><br />
'''eat''' ''v.'' eza <br><br />
'''effect''' <br><br />
'''eight''' ''num.'' oću <br><br />
'''either''' ''conj.'' (either... or...) nove... nove...; ('also' with neg.) seude<br />
'''elder''' ''n.'' (tree) ścava<br />
'''elm''' ''n.'' ĺeva <br><br />
'''else''' <br><br />
'''end''' ''n.'' dveza <br><br />
'''engaged''' <br><br />
'''enough''' ''adj.'' vava <br><br />
'''enter''' ''v.'' aća e, taća e <br><br />
'''entirely''' ''adv.'' ĺerazdu <br><br />
'''especially''' ''adv.'' sanezdu <br><br />
'''even''' ''adj.'' eina <br><br />
'''evening''' ''n.'' voścra <br><br />
'''ever''' ''adv.'' bêtu <br><br />
'''every''' ''adj.'' paba <br><br />
'''everybody''' ''prn.'' paba <br><br />
'''everything''' ''prn.'' paba <br><br />
'''evil''' ''adj.'' <br><br />
'''exactly''' ''adv.'' ecavira <br><br />
'''except''' ''conj.'' ećra <br><br />
'''exclaim''' ''v.'' gaźa <br><br />
'''expect''' ''v.'' cǎvarvosa <br><br />
'''expression''' ''n.'' slodda <br><br />
'''eye''' ''n.'' lôda <br><br />
<br />
===F===<br />
face<br />
fact<br />
fair<br />
fall<br />
fallen<br />
family<br />
fancy<br />
far<br />
farther<br />
fast<br />
father<br />
father's<br />
favour<br />
fear<br />
feel<br />
feeling<br />
feelings<br />
feet<br />
fell<br />
fellow<br />
felt<br />
few<br />
field<br />
figure<br />
filled<br />
find<br />
finding<br />
fine<br />
finished<br />
fire<br />
first<br />
fit<br />
five<br />
fixed<br />
floor<br />
follow<br />
followed<br />
following<br />
fond<br />
fool<br />
foot<br />
for<br />
force<br />
forced<br />
forget<br />
form<br />
former<br />
forth<br />
fortune<br />
forward<br />
found<br />
four<br />
free<br />
fresh<br />
friend<br />
friends<br />
frightened<br />
from<br />
front<br />
full<br />
further<br />
future<br />
===G===<br />
'''garden''' ''n.'' lovrata <br><br />
'''gate''' ''n.'' ĺeda <br><br />
'''general''' ''adj.'' eśago <br><br />
'''gentle''' ''adj.'' mjena <br><br />
'''gentleman''' ''n.'' aźa <br><br />
'''get''' ''v.'' caja <br><br />
'''girl''' ''n.'' genta <br><br />
'''give''' ''v.'' răza (stem: răza-) <br><br />
'''glad''' ''adj.'' launa <br><br />
'''glass'''<br><br />
'''go''' ''v.'' aća (stem: au-)<br><br />
'''god''' ''n.'' ģeva <br><br />
'''good''' ''adj.'' dava, made <br><br />
'''gorse, furze''' ''n.'' aćna <br><br />
'''grave''' ''n.'' beza <br><br />
'''great''' ''adj.'' mara <br><br />
'''green''' ''adj.'' ura <br><br />
'''ground''' ''n.'' (surface) lara; (earth) verta <br><br />
'''grow''' ''v.'' tova <br><br />
<br />
===H===<br />
'''hair''' ''n.'' (of scalp) vouta; (of face) grada; (of body) bleva <br><br />
'''half''' ''n.'' satra <br><br />
'''hall''' ''n.'' vaso <br><br />
'''hand''' ''n.'' lava <br><br />
'''handsome''' ''adj.'' cadra <br><br />
'''happen''' ''v.'' cija <br><br />
'''happiness''' ''n.'' louńa <br><br />
'''happy''' ''adj.'' louna <br><br />
'''hard''' ''adj.'' (solid) cauda; (difficult) asada <br><br />
hardly<br><br />
has<br><br />
hat<br><br />
have<br><br />
having<br><br />
'''hawthorn''' ''n.'' śpjada <br><br />
'''hazel''' ''n.'' cola <br><br />
he<br><br />
he's<br><br />
head<br><br />
health<br><br />
hear<br><br />
heard<br><br />
hearing<br><br />
heart<br><br />
'''heather''' ''n.'' vrôga<br />
heaven<br><br />
heavy<br><br />
held<br><br />
help<br><br />
her<br><br />
here<br><br />
herself<br><br />
high<br><br />
hill<br><br />
him<br><br />
himself<br><br />
his<br><br />
history<br><br />
hold<br><br />
'''holly''' ''n.'' couna <br><br />
home<br><br />
honest<br><br />
honour<br><br />
hope<br><br />
hoped<br><br />
hopes<br><br />
'''horse''' ''n.'' eba, braca<br><br />
hot<br><br />
hour<br><br />
hours<br><br />
house<br><br />
how<br><br />
however<br><br />
human<br><br />
hundred<br><br />
hung<br><br />
hurt<br><br />
husband<br><br />
<br />
===I, J, K===<br />
'''I''' ''prn.'' mi </br><br />
'''idea''' ''n.'' </br><br />
'''if''' ''conj.'' a </br><br />
'''ill''' ''adj.'' ĺaze </br><br />
'''immediately''' ''adv.'' </br><br />
'''impossible''' ''adj.'' vrejdoja </br><br />
''in'' ''prep.'' e </br><br />
'''indeed''' ''interj.'' </br><br />
'''instead''' ''prep.'' e leja </br><br />
'''interest''' ''n.'' </br><br />
'''into''' ''adv.'' e </br><br />
'''is''' (see '''be''') </br><br />
'''it''' ''prn.'' e (NA), ju (D) </br><br />
'''its''' ''adj.'' eja </br><br />
'''itself''' ''prn.'' edve, ezve </br><br />
'''journey''' ''n.'' trado </br><br />
'''joy''' ''n.'' sońa </br><br />
'''just''' ''adj.'' jana </br><br />
'''justice''' ''n.'' </br><br />
'''keep''' ''v.'' cauda </br><br />
'''kind''' (1) ''n.'' • ''adj.'' kane </br><br />
'''kindness''' ''n.'' kanedra </br><br />
'''king''' ''n.'' źia (4) </br><br />
'''kitchen''' ''n.'' pobdeja (4) </br><br />
'''know''' ''v.'' (person etc.) avońa; (fact etc.) vêzra </br><br />
'''knowledge''' ''n.'' vida </br><br />
'''known''' ''adj.'' ńata </br><br />
<br />
===L===<br />
ladies<br />
lady<br />
laid<br />
land<br />
large<br />
last<br />
late<br />
latter<br />
laugh<br />
laughed<br />
laughing<br />
law<br />
lay<br />
least<br />
leave<br />
leaving<br />
led<br />
left<br />
legs<br />
length<br />
less<br />
let<br />
letter<br />
letters<br />
lie<br />
life<br />
light<br />
like<br />
liked<br />
likely<br />
line<br />
lips<br />
little<br />
live<br />
lived<br />
lives<br />
living<br />
long<br />
longer<br />
look<br />
looked<br />
looking<br />
looks<br />
lord<br />
lose<br />
loss<br />
lost<br />
love<br />
loved<br />
low<br />
lying<br />
===M===<br />
made<br />
make<br />
makes<br />
making<br />
man<br />
man's<br />
manner<br />
manners<br />
many<br />
marriage<br />
married<br />
marry<br />
master<br />
matter<br />
matters<br />
may<br />
me<br />
mean<br />
meaning<br />
means<br />
meant<br />
meet<br />
meeting<br />
men<br />
mention<br />
mentioned<br />
mere<br />
met<br />
middle<br />
might<br />
miles<br />
mind<br />
mine<br />
minute<br />
minutes<br />
miserable<br />
miss<br />
mistress<br />
moment<br />
money<br />
months<br />
more<br />
morning<br />
most<br />
mother<br />
mother's<br />
mouth<br />
move<br />
moved<br />
Mr.<br />
Mrs.<br />
much<br />
must<br />
my<br />
myself<br />
===N===<br />
'''name''' ''n.'' ava (5) <br><br />
'''natural''' ''adj.'' bêdla <br><br />
'''nature''' ''n.'' (of person) mêva (5); (natural world) bêdo <br><br />
'''near''' ''adj.'' agsa <br><br />
'''nearly''' ''adv.'' aka <br><br />
'''necessary''' ''adj.'' ẑira <br><br />
'''neck''' ''n.'' mone <br><br />
'''need''' ''n'' nauda • ''v.'' ẑira es <br><br />
'''neither''' ''conj.'' nadec <br><br />
'''never''' ''adv.'' eńasu (+ negative) <br><br />
'''new''' ''adj.'' noja <br><br />
'''news''' ''n.'' manga <br><br />
'''next''' ''adj.'' aĺa <br><br />
'''night''' ''n.'' noć <br><br />
'''no''' ''adv.'' na, nă- <br><br />
'''noble''' ''adj.'' monga <br><br />
'''nobody''' ''pron.'' neba (+ negative) <br><br />
'''noise''' ''n.'' (tumult) trôsa; (sound) <br><br />
'''none''' ''pron.'' neba (+ negative) <br><br />
'''nor''' ''conj.'' nadec <br><br />
'''not''' ''adv.'' nă- <br><br />
'''note''' ''n.'' <br />
'''nothing''' ''pron.'' neba (+ negative) <br><br />
'''notice''' ''n.'' (warning) răvôza <br><br />
'''now''' ''adv.'' nu <br><br />
'''number''' ''n.'' riva <br><br />
<br />
===O===<br />
'''oak''' ''n.'' ''deura'' <br><br />
object<br />
obliged<br />
observed<br />
occasion<br />
of<br />
off<br />
offer<br />
offered<br />
often<br />
oh<br />
old<br />
on<br />
once<br />
one<br />
only<br />
open<br />
opened<br />
opinion<br />
opportunity<br />
opposite<br />
or<br />
order<br />
other<br />
others<br />
otherwise<br />
ought<br />
our<br />
out<br />
outside<br />
over<br />
own<br />
===P, Q===<br />
paid<br />
pain<br />
pair<br />
pale<br />
paper<br />
pardon<br />
part<br />
particular<br />
particularly<br />
party<br />
pass<br />
passed<br />
passing<br />
passion<br />
past<br />
pay<br />
people<br />
perfect<br />
perfectly<br />
perhaps<br />
person<br />
persons<br />
piece <br><br />
'''pine''' ''n.'' ôćga <br><br />
pity<br />
place<br />
placed<br />
places<br />
plain<br />
play<br />
pleasant<br />
please<br />
pleased<br />
pleasure<br />
pocket<br />
point<br />
poor<br />
position<br />
possible<br />
pounds<br />
power<br />
pray<br />
presence<br />
present<br />
presently<br />
pretty<br />
pride<br />
private<br />
probably<br />
proceeded<br />
promise<br />
promised<br />
proper<br />
proud<br />
public<br />
purpose<br />
put<br />
putting<br />
quarter<br />
question<br />
quick<br />
quickly<br />
quiet<br />
quietly<br />
quite<br />
===R===<br />
'''rain''' ''n.'' ĺava • ''v.'' ĺava <br><br />
'''raise''' ''v.'' (child etc.) ala <br><br />
'''reach''' ''v.'' azreda, raca; <br><br />
'''read''' ''v.'' <br><br />
'''ready''' ''adj.'' arbretda <br><br />
'''real''' ''adj.'' dreva <br><br />
'''really''' ''adv.'' virzdu <br><br />
'''reason''' ''n.'' (faculty) brêde; (cause) etreba <br><br />
'''receive''' ''v.'' caja <br><br />
'''red''' ''adj.'' coca, dreja, rôza <br><br />
'''remain''' ''v.'' ěśana <br><br />
'''remember''' ''v.'' căveńa <br><br />
'''repeat''' ''v.'' (action) ădvreja, ădńija; (speaking) ădveda <br><br />
'''reply''' ''v.'' ădseba <br><br />
'''resolve''' ''v.'' <br><br />
'''respect''' ''n.'' praka <br><br />
'''rest''' ''n.'' (relaxation) pojesa; (remainder) vozila • ''v.'' pojeśa <br><br />
'''return''' ''v.'' ădtava <br><br />
'''rich''' ''adj.'' (wealthy) sanva <br><br />
'''right''' ''adj.'' (correct) căvira; (just) ena (not left) deśva <br><br />
'''rise''' ''v.'' reja <br><br />
'''road''' ''n.'' rôna <br><br />
'''room''' ''n.'' (chamber) ćauna; (space) lada <br><br />
'''round''' ''adj.'' cruba <br><br />
'''rowan''' ''n.'' cerzna <br><br />
'''run''' ''v.'' reda<br />
<br />
===S===<br />
sad<br />
safe<br />
said<br />
sake<br />
same<br />
sat<br />
satisfaction<br />
satisfied<br />
save<br />
saw<br />
say<br />
saying<br />
says<br />
scarcely<br />
scene<br />
school<br />
sea<br />
seat<br />
second<br />
secret<br />
see<br />
seeing<br />
seem<br />
seemed<br />
seems<br />
seen<br />
send<br />
sense<br />
sent<br />
serious<br />
servant<br />
servants<br />
service<br />
set<br />
settled<br />
seven<br />
several<br />
shall<br />
shame<br />
share<br />
sharp<br />
she<br />
she's<br />
shook<br />
short<br />
should<br />
shoulder<br />
show<br />
showed<br />
shut<br />
side<br />
sight<br />
silence<br />
silent<br />
simple<br />
since<br />
single<br />
sir<br />
sister<br />
sit<br />
sitting<br />
situation<br />
six<br />
sleep<br />
slowly<br />
small<br />
smile<br />
smiling<br />
so<br />
society<br />
some<br />
somebody<br />
something<br />
sometimes<br />
somewhat<br />
son<br />
soon<br />
sooner<br />
sorry<br />
sort<br />
soul<br />
sound<br />
speak<br />
speaking<br />
speech<br />
spent<br />
spirit<br />
spirits<br />
spite<br />
spoke<br />
spoken<br />
spot<br />
stand<br />
standing<br />
started<br />
state<br />
stay<br />
step<br />
steps<br />
still<br />
stone<br />
stood<br />
stop<br />
stopped<br />
story<br />
strange<br />
stranger<br />
street<br />
strength<br />
strong<br />
struck<br />
subject<br />
such<br />
sudden<br />
suddenly<br />
sun<br />
supper<br />
suppose<br />
supposed<br />
sure<br />
surely<br />
surprise<br />
surprised<br />
sweet<br />
===T===<br />
'''table''' ''n.'' ĺara <br><br />
'''take''' ''v.'' căbera <br><br />
'''talk''' ''v.'' laura <br><br />
'''taste''' ''n.'' mlasa • ''v.'' mlaśa <br><br />
'''tear''' ''n.'' (drop) dagra <br><br />
'''tell''' ''v.'' apgajeza <br><br />
'''ten''' ''num.'' dega <br><br />
'''than''' ''conj.'' vra <br><br />
'''thank''' '' <br><br />
'''that''' ''pron.'' (an.) so; (inan.) se <br><br />
'''the''' ''det.'' -zva <br><br />
'''thee''' ''pron.'' tu <br><br />
'''their''' ''adj.'' jara <br><br />
'''them''' ''pron.'' je <br><br />
'''themselves''' ''pron.'' jezve <br><br />
'''then''' ''conj.'' văḑijo <br><br />
'''there''' <br><br />
'''these''' <br><br />
'''they''' <br><br />
'''thing''' ''n.'' źato <br><br />
'''think''' ''v.'' (use mind) abraza; (have opinion) meza <br><br />
'''third''' ''adj.'' ćeģa • ''n.'' ćana <br><br />
'''this''' ''adj, pron.'' (an.) sida; (inan.) soda <br><br />
'''though''' <br><br />
'''thought''' ''n.'' brêde <br><br />
'''thousand''' (no translation) <br><br />
'''three''' ''num.'' ći <br><br />
'''through''' <br><br />
'''throw''' ''v.'' cora <br><br />
'''thus''' <br><br />
'''till''' <br><br />
'''time''' <br><br />
'''times''' <br><br />
'''tired''' <br><br />
'''to''' <br><br />
'''tomorrow''' <br><br />
'''together''' <br> <br />
'''told''' <br><br />
'''tone''' <br><br />
'''tongue''' <br><br />
'''too''' <br><br />
'''took''' <br><br />
'''top''' <br><br />
'''touch''' <br><br />
'''touched''' <br><br />
'''towards''' <br><br />
'''town''' <br><br />
'''tree''' <br><br />
'''tried''' <br><br />
'''trouble''' <br><br />
'''true''' <br><br />
'''trust''' <br><br />
'''truth''' <br><br />
'''try''' <br><br />
'''turn''' ''v.'' zvela <br><br />
'''twenty''' ''num.'' vegți <br><br />
'''twice''' ''adj.'' daveća <br><br />
'''two''' ''num.'' da <br><br />
<br />
===U, V===<br />
'''uncle''' ''n.'' auțir </br><br />
'''under''' ''prep.'' vona </br><br />
'''understand''' ''v.'' gaja</br><br />
'''unless''' ''conj.'' </br><br />
'''until''' ''prep.'' pa</br><br />
'''up''' '''' </br><br />
'''upon''' ''prep.'' vor </br><br />
'''us''' ''pron.'' zna </br><br />
'''use''' ''v.'' arvera</br><br />
'''usual''' ''adj.'' ńata </br><br />
'''very''' ''adv.'' tra, az- </br><br />
'''view''' ''n.'' vełt </br><br />
'''visit''' ''v.'' </br><br />
'''voice''' ''n.'' gare </br><br />
<br />
===W===<br />
'''wait''' '''' </br><br />
'''waited''' '''' </br><br />
'''waiting''' '''' </br><br />
'''walk''' '''' </br><br />
'''walked''' '''' </br><br />
'''walking''' '''' </br><br />
'''wall''' '''' </br><br />
'''want''' '''' </br><br />
'''wanted''' '''' </br><br />
'''warm''' '''' </br><br />
'''was''' '''' </br><br />
'''watch''' '''' </br><br />
'''watched''' '''' </br><br />
'''water''' '''' </br><br />
'''way''' '''' </br><br />
'''ways''' '''' </br><br />
'''we''' '''' </br><br />
'''weather''' '''' </br><br />
'''week''' '''' </br><br />
'''weeks''' '''' </br><br />
'''well''' '''' </br><br />
'''went''' '''' </br><br />
'''were''' '''' </br><br />
'''what''' '''' </br><br />
'''whatever''' '''' </br><br />
'''when''' '''' </br><br />
'''whenever''' '''' </br><br />
'''where''' '''' </br><br />
'''whether''' '''' </br><br />
'''which''' '''' </br><br />
'''while''' '''' </br><br />
'''white''' '''' </br><br />
'''who''' '''' </br><br />
'''whole''' '''' </br><br />
'''whom''' '''' </br><br />
'''whose''' '''' </br><br />
'''why''' '''' </br><br />
'''wife''' '''' </br><br />
'''wild''' '''' </br><br />
'''will''' '''' </br><br />
'''willow''' '' ''n.'' saug </br><br />
'''wind''' '''' </br><br />
'''window''' '''' </br><br />
'''wine''' '''' </br><br />
'''wish''' '''' </br><br />
'''wished''' '''' </br><br />
'''with''' '''' </br><br />
'''within''' '''' </br><br />
'''without''' '''' </br><br />
'''woman''' '''' </br><br />
'''women''' '''' </br><br />
'''won't''' '''' </br><br />
'''wonder''' '''' </br><br />
'''wood''' '''' </br><br />
'''word''' '''' </br><br />
'''words''' '''' </br><br />
'''work''' '''' </br><br />
'''world''' '''' </br><br />
'''worse''' '''' </br><br />
'''worst''' '''' </br><br />
'''worth''' '''' </br><br />
'''worthy''' '''' </br><br />
'''would''' '''' </br><br />
'''wouldn't''' '''' </br><br />
'''write''' '''' </br><br />
'''writing''' '''' </br><br />
'''wrong''' '''' </br><br />
<br />
===X, Y, Z===<br />
'''ye''' ''pron.'' (see '''you''') <br><br />
'''year''' ''n.'' bjeda <br><br />
'''yes''' ''int.'' izma <br><br />
'''yet''' <br><br />
'''yew''' ''n.'' êva<br />
'''you''' ''pron.'' (sg.) tu (NA), ŝi (D), ta (G); (pl.) zvi (NA), zva (D), zvara (G.) <br><br />
'''young''' ''adj.'' jouca <br><br />
'''your''' (see '''you''')<br><br />
'''yourself''' ''pron.'' (sg.) tuzve; (pl.) zvizve <br><br />
'''youth''' ''n.'' (state) joucdud; (person) mava <br></div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bis_Burunko/Vocabulary&diff=323918
Bis Burunko/Vocabulary
2023-08-26T17:45:39Z
<p>Psammead: Created page with "==Nouns== ===Gender and Age=== ===Kinship=== ===Colours== There are few primary words for colours in Bis Burunko, the majority of colour words being derivatives of something representing that colour, often in ''-re'' (particularly when a dark colour), or ''-kye''. {| class="wikitable" |- | style="width: 120px;" | '''colour''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''ĺû'' |- | style="background: #b31919;" | || ''xarre'' (blo..."</p>
<hr />
<div>==Nouns==<br />
===[[Bis Burunko/Gender and Age|Gender and Age]]===<br />
===[[Bis Burunko/Kinship|Kinship]]===<br />
===Colours==<br />
There are few primary words for colours in Bis Burunko, the majority of colour words being derivatives of something representing that colour, often in ''-re'' (particularly when a dark colour), or ''-kye''. <br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| style="width: 120px;" | '''colour''' || style="width: 400px;" | ''ĺû''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #b31919;" | || ''xarre'' (blood red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #ff0000" | || '''' (bright red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #cc2900;" | || '''' (orange red)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #ffcc00;" | || '''' (golden yellow)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #b38600;" | || '''' (brown yellow)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #59b300;" | || '''' (bright green)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #00664d;" | || '''' (sea green, blue)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #330066;" | || '''' (dark blue, purple)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: #4d3319;" | || '''' (brown, dusky)<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: black;" | || ''meus'' <br />
|-<br />
| style="background: gray;" | || ''''<br />
|-<br />
| style="background: white;" | || ''furi''<br />
|}</div>
Psammead
https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Bis_Burunko&diff=322623
Bis Burunko
2023-08-15T16:22:15Z
<p>Psammead: /* Orthography */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Bis Burunko''' (/bɨs bʉˈɾʉnkɔ/, literally 'the Burungian language'), also known as ''Burunko'' or ''Burungian'', is a language isolate spoken on the island of Burung in the north Atlantic. <br />
<br />
==Background==<br />
==Phonology and Orthography==<br />
Bis Burunko has a relatively simple phonology with 21 consonants, 5 pure vowels and 6 true diphthongs. The orthography is almost entirely regular and predictable, based on a 1:1 spelling to pronunciation system. <br />
<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 68px; "|<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar<br />
! style="width: 68px; " |Glottal<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Nasal<br />
| '''m''' /m/<br />
| '''n''' /n/ <br />
| <br />
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Plosive<br />
| '''p''' /p/ <br> '''b''' /b/<br />
| '''t''' /t/ <br> '''d''' /d/<br />
|<br />
| '''k''' /k/ <br> '''g''' /g/<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Sibilant<br />
| <br />
| '''s''' /s/<br />
| '''sh''' /ɕ/ <br> '''z''' /ʑ/<br />
|<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Fricative<br />
| '''f''' /ɸ/<br />
| <br />
| '''x''' /ç/ <br />
|<br />
| '''h''' /h/ <br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Affricate<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| '''ch''' /t͡ɕ/ <br> '''j''' /d͡ʑ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Flap or tap<br />
|<br />
| '''r''' /ɾ/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Approximant<br />
| '''w, u''' /w/<br />
|<br />
| '''y''' /j/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Lateral app.<br />
| <br />
| '''l''' /l/<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
'''Notes:'''<br />
* ''n'' is realised as /ŋ/ before ''g, k, ng''<br />
* medial ''h'' is often simply hiatus between vowels<br />
* /w/ is spelled ''u'' immediately after a consonant but ''w'' elsewhere<br />
* all consonants except fricatives and glides (''w, y'') may be doubled word-internally; note the trigraphs ''ssh, cch, nng'' <br />
For consonant clusters, see [[#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] below. <br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 300px; text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 90px; "|<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Front<br />
! style="width: 90px; " |Back<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Close<br />
| '''i''' /ɨ/<br />
| '''u''' /ʉ/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open-mid<br />
| '''e''' /ɛ/<br />
| '''o''' /ɔ/<br />
|-<br />
! style="" |Open<br />
| '''a''' /a/<br />
| <br />
|}<br />
<br />
Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in ''biitosh'' 'gender neutral person' /bɨ:'tɔɕ/. <br />
<br />
'''Note:''' word-initial sequences of ''i + i'' and ''u + uu'' are written ''yi-'', ''wu-''.<br />
<br />
===Diphthongs===<br />
There are six diphthongs proper: ''ai'' /aɨ/, ''ei'' /ɛɨ/, ''oi'' /ɔɨ/, ''au'' /aʉ/, ''eu'' /ɛʉ/ and ''ou'' /ɔʉ/, which may be considered sequences of vowels in measuring syllables. In addition, any vowel is permitted to occur following the 'glides' /w/ or /j/.<br />
<br />
===Phonotactics===<br />
Bis Burunko has a relatively restricted syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or part of a diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are also restrictions on the other elements. The table below shows the rules governing each position in the syllable:<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! style="width: 200px; " |C<sup>1</sup><br />
! style="width: 200px; " |G<br />
! style="width: 200px; " |V<sup>1</sup><br />
! style="width: 200px; " |V<sup>2</sup><br />
! style="width: 200px; " |C<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" |<br />
* optional <br />
* any consonant but ''sh, r'' word-initially (''s'' and ''p'' only occur before ''u'')<br />
* any consonant word-medially<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " | <br />
* optional<br />
*only ''y'' or ''w/u''<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | <br />
* mandatory <br />
* any vowel<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | <br />
* optional <br />
* only ''i, u'' or the preceding vowel repeated<br />
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;" | <br />
* optional <br />
* only ''s, sh, ng'' or ''z'' word-finally <br />
* only ''n'' or ''m'' before a consonant, except in the case of geminates<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The word-final consonants ''s, sh, ng'' and ''z'' are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added:<br />
<br />
* ''-s'' is lost, the preceding vowel is doubled and a following voiced plosive or ''j'' is devoiced: <br />
:: ''gis'' 'man' + ''-do'' (collective) = ''giito'' 'group, band'<br />
* ''-sh'' becomes ''-i-'', forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel, and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: <br />
:: ''sush'' 'empty' + ''bupung'' 'person' = ''suipupung'' 'vain person'<br />
:: ''arash'' 'night' + ''-te'' (time) = ''araite'' 'night-time'<br />
* ''-ng'' becomes ''-m'' before ''p, b, f'' and ''n'' before any other consonant: <br />
:: ''gyong'' 'man' + ''-bu'' (collective) = ''gyombu'' 'warrior class'<br />
:: ''yong'' 'foot' + ''-ko'' (adjectival) = ''yonko'' 'sock'<br />
* ''-z'' is lost and causes a following consonant to double, except ''x'' which becomes ''s'' and ''h'' which is lost, while ''z'' remains: <br />
:: ''az'' 'male' + ''-chi'' (adjectival) = ''acchi'' 'masculine'<br />
:: ''haz'' 'old' + ''kora'' 'bitch' = ''hakkora'' 'hag'<br />
:: ''buaz'' 'sun' + ''xu'' 'fire' = ''buasu'' 'heat of the sun'<br />
:: ''fuz'' 'tree' + ''HUZ'' 'lack' = ''fuzuz'' 'treeless'<br />
<br />
In some cases a word ending in a vowel + ''-i'' will alter to vowel + ''-u'' when a suffix or the second element of a compound begins with a consonant:<br />
:: ''mei'' 'dark' + ''kezi'' 'stone' = ''meukézi'' 'obsidian'<br />
<br />
Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings.<br />
<br />
===Stress===<br />
Syllables may be defined as either heavy or light:<br />
* a heavy syllable being either ends in a consonant ('''''az''''', '''''gyom-'''bu'', '''''ut'''-te'') or contains a long vowel ('''''bii''''', '''''gii'''-to'') or diphthong ('''''mei''''', ''a-'''rai'''-te'')<br />
* a light syllable ends in a single vowel ('''''fa-be''''', '''''xu''''').<br />
<br />
Monosyllabic words carry stress. In polysyllables, stress is attracted to heavy syllables. In words containing more than one heavy syllable, primary stress is placed on the last such syllable, with secondary stress on the penultimate heavy syllable. In words with no heavy syllables, primary stress falls on the first syllable.<br />
<br />
In some instances, stress does not follow these rules and is marked with an acute accent (e.g. ''béyong'' "knee", ''búrus'' "iriji person", ''ugáras'' "breast").<br />
<br />
===Orthography===<br />
Bis Burunko was traditionally written in a semi-syllabary called '''''higomido''''', which was originally a rune-like system carved into stone, wood and bone but later developed a more calligraphic style used on paper-like sheets of wood. <br />
<br />
The ''higomido'' consist of five specific vowel graphs, 41 consonant-vowel combinations (plosives, fricatives and affricates) and 7 individual consonant symbols (finals ''s, sh, ng'' and the remaining nasals and liquids ''m, n, l, r''). <br />
<br />
Other sequences of sounds are formed using these 53 symbols in combination:<br />
* diphthongs and double vowels are written using either a vowel + vowel combination (e.g. ''a + i = ai''), or the relevant syllabic + vowel combination (''ba + i = bai''). <br />
* glide + vowel combinations are written using ''i/u'' + vowel (e.g. ''i + a = ya''), or ''Ci/Cu'' + vowel (e.g. ''bi + a = bya'').<br />
* sequences of ''ch''V and ''j''V are written with the symbols for ''chi'' and ''ji'' + the relevant vowel (e.g. ''chi + a = cha'').<br />
* nasals and liquids are simply followed by the relevant vowel (e.g. ''m + a = ma''). <br />
* while there is a specific symbol for ''pu'', other combinations of ''pV'' - which only occur as a result of devoicing by a preceding (former) sibilant - are formed with the b-syllabics preceded by either ''s'' or ''sh'' (e.g. )<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
===Natural Gender on Burung===<br />
Grammatical gender does not occur in Bis Burunko, but natural gender is frequently marked on nominals, either by employing different words (e.g. ''az'' 'male', ''deme'' 'female', ''biitosh'' '''iriji'' person') or by derivation (e.g. with the honorative suffixes ''-osh'' (m.) and ''-ez'' (f.), ''-ai'' (mid.)). The concept of natural gender differs somewhat from the usual Western concept.<br />
<br />
All things are considered to be either '''animate''' (''bui'') or '''inanimate''' (''nabui''), the primary distinction being whether a thing is capable of acting under its own power. This means humans, deities/spirits, most animals and some natural features, such as the sun and the sea, are considered ''bui'' while plants, rocks and most abstracts are ''nabui''.<br />
<br />
Within the category of animate nouns, all things are then considered to be '''masculine''' (''acchi''), '''feminine''' (''demechi'') or '''middle''' (''iriji''). The relevant gender is based partly on biological sex, partly on particular characteristics and partly on social roles. All children are considered ''iriji'' until puberty when they will be assigned one of the three genders.<br />
<br />
Each of the four categories has a complex series of associations and is considered an equal part of a harmonious whole.<br />
<br />
===Case===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! width="100px;" | <big>'''ba'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Topicaliser || colspan="2;" | marks a subject or object as the focus of the utterance<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''ze'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Nominative || colspan="2;" | marks the subject of a verb (where it is not the topic)<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''ke'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Accusative || colspan="2;" | marks the direct object of a verb (where it is not the topic)<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''na'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Possessive || colspan="2;" | marks the (animate) possessor of an (inanimate) object. Used only for alienable possession.<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''le'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Genitive || colspan="2;" | marks the possessor of an inalienable object, or marks an object related to another. <br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''i'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Dative || colspan="2;" | marks the indirect object of a verb (where it is not the topic)<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''la'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Allative || colspan="2;" | marks motion towards 'to'<br />
|- <br />
! <big>'''chi'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Ablative || colspan="2;" | marks movement away 'from, of, through'<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''ang'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Locative || colspan="2;" | marks location 'in, on, at'<br />
|-<br />
! <big>'''mi'''<big> <br />
| Example || Example<br />
|-<br />
| Instrumental || colspan="2;" | marks use of, 'with, by'.<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Nouns===<br />
Nouns are non-inflecting and do not mark grammatical gender, number or definiteness, so e.g. ''puz'' can mean 'dog/dogs/a dog/(some) dogs/the dog/the dogs' etc. Grammatical case is indicated by the particles above after the noun.<br />
<br />
Though grammatical number is not marked, nouns may take the following affixes to show a collective sense:<br />
* ''-do'' indicates a discrete group of things, usually located together, e.g. ''binjido'' 'mountain ridge' (''binji'' 'mountain'), ''fuddo'' 'copse, small wood' (''fuz'' 'tree'), ''gyondo'' 'band' (''gyong'' 'man').<br />
* ''-bu'' indicates a totality of things, a class, and also the absract state of being a member of that class, e.g. ''binjibu'' 'mountains; mountain-hood', ''fubbu'' 'trees; treehood', ''gyombu'' 'men; manhood, masculinity'.<br />
* ''i-'' indicates a mass of things, ''ibinji'' 'mountain range', ''ifuz'' 'forest', ''igyong'' 'population'. <br />
<br />
Reduplication is used to indicate intensity and in some cases can take on a collective meaning, e.g. ''gyongyong'' 'crowd, throng', ''yaiyai'' 'storm' (''yai'' 'wind').<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
Adjectives are of two types. Verbal adjectives are the participles in ''-ng/na'' or ''-i'' (e.g. ''ekonna'' "growing", ''ewai'' "tired, exhausted, spent"). Nominal adjectives are either primary adjectives (e.g. ''haz'' "old", ''ong'' "good") or derived from a noun, other adjective or a verb (e.g. ''acchi'' "masculine", ''ukko'' "watery, aquatic", ''eyiking'' "pessimistic, defeatist" < ''exi'' "despair"). <br />
<br />
Any of these adjectives may occur attributively by preceding the noun they qualify unmodified, e.g. ''haz gyong to'' "that old man", ''ekonna fuz'' "a growing tree", ''eyiking heni chiri'' "three pessimistic guards".<br />
<br />
When used predicatively, both types of adjective follow the entire noun phrase and precede the relevant form of ''yita'' "to be". Verbal adjectives are unmodified in this usage and, as often with English, the adjectival function of the participle is indistinguishable from the verbal function, e.g. ''fuz tong ba ekonna xiniteng'' "this tree wasn't growing", ''haz gyong to ba ewai jaite'' "that old man is tired".<br />
<br />
===Numerals===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Cardinal Numbers<br />
|-<br />
| width="25px;" | '''1''' || width="100px;" | ''su(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''11''' || width="100px;" | ''xassu(ng)'' || width="25px;" | '''21''' || width="100px;" | ''hatorunsu''<br />
|-<br />
| '''2''' || ''hai'' || '''12''' || ''xazai'' || '''22''' || ''hatorunhai''<br />
|-<br />
| '''3''' || ''gi'' || '''13''' || ''xaggi''|| '''30''' || ''gyauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''4''' || ''xa'' || '''14''' || ''xasa'' || '''40''' || ''xauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''5''' || ''maka'' || '''15''' || ''xammaka'' || '''50''' || ''makauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''6''' || ''ute'' || '''16''' || ''xazute'' || '''60''' || ''utauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''7''' || ''gyeng'' || '''17''' || ''xaggyeng'' || '''70''' || ''gyengauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''8''' || ''eileng'' || '''18''' || ''xazeileng'' || '''80''' || ''eilengauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''9''' || ''suneng'' || '''19''' || ''xassuneng'' || '''90''' || ''sunengauka''<br />
|-<br />
| '''10''' || ''haz'' || '''20''' || ''hatrung'' || '''100''' || ''inung''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Numbers are based on a decimal system, though numbers above 10 are, in reality, rarely used. The word ''inung'', translated here as '100', is generally used for any large number. Higher numbers can be created, somewhat artificially, in the form ''su le inung'' '101', ''xaggyeng le inung'' '117'.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Ordinal Numbers<br />
|-<br />
| width="25px;" | '''1st''' || width="100px;" | ''sus'' <br />
|-<br />
| '''2nd''' || ''haus'' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''3rd''' || ''gish'' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''4th''' || ''xash'' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''5''' || ''makachi'' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''6''' || ''utechi'' ||<br />
|-<br />
| '''7''' || ''gyenchi'' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''8''' || ''eilenchi'' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''9''' || ''sunenchi'' || <br />
|-<br />
| '''10''' || ''hacchi'' ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
====Personal====<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"<br />
! !! colspan="2;" | Standard !! Colspan="2;" | Emphatic<br />
|-<br />
! width="100;" | !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural !! width="100;" | Singular !! width="100;" | Plural<br />
|-<br />
! 1st<br />
| ''ni'' || ''bi'' (excl.) <br> ''bu'' (incl.) || ''nibez'' || ''bibez'' (excl.) <br> ''bubez'' (incl.)<br />
|-<br />
! 2nd<br />
| ''chi'' || ''fu'' || ''chibez'' || ''fubez''<br />
|-<br />
! Indefinite<br />
| colspan="2;" | ''yeka'' || colspan="2;" | ''yekabez''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Personal pronouns only truly exist for the 1st and 2nd persons, the 3rd person pronouns being demonstratives. There is also an '''indefinite''' pronoun ''yeka'', often used as a formal 1st singular.<br />
<br />
Note that the 1st person plural has both exclusive ''bi'' 'us (but not you)' and inclusive ''bu'' 'us all'.<br />
<br />
No distinctions of gender case are made, the pronouns being followed by the case particles like nouns. To form possessive pronouns, the forms are followed by the possessive particle ''na'' (when referring to alienable possession) or the genitive particle ''le'' (when inalienable), e.g. ''ni na hato'' 'my knife' but ''ni le ata'' 'my father'. <br />
<br />
'''Emphatic''' forms of the personal pronouns are created with the suffix ''-bez'', i.