https://linguifex.com/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Raistas&feedformat=atomLinguifex - User contributions [en]2024-03-28T09:23:36ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.39.1https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian/Phrasebook&diff=303236Carpathian/Phrasebook2023-05-06T17:05:35Z<p>Raistas: /* Greetings */</p>
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<div>This page lists some basic phrases in the [[Carpathian language]] with the corresponding English translation. Both Western and Eastern varieties are represented with phrases in Western Carpathian preceded by '''<sup>W</sup>''' and in Eastern Carpathian — by '''<sup>E</sup>'''.<br />
==Greetings== <br />
* '''Wéitāhū''' — “Hello!”, “Greetings!”. A formal greeting.<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Wèsū/Wèselī, <sup>E</sup>Kaĩlī/Wàsalī''' — “Hello!”, “Hi!”. An informal greeting.<br />
* '''Deinìs dàbis/Deinéis dabéis'' — “Good day”, neutral greeting.<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Hrītùs dàbas, <sup>E</sup>Har͂nas dàbas''' — “Good morning”<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Wèkeras dàbas, <sup>E</sup>Wàkaras dàbas''' — “Good evening” or “Good night” (when used as a greeting)<br />
* '''Kei essì''' — “How are you?”.<br />
* '''Kei tigī́wā/Kei gī́watwā''' — “How are you?” Literally: “How is your life?”. The latter phrase is dialectal, but can be used in the spoken language.<br />
* '''Kei iméi?/Kei iméisin?''' — “How are you?” Literally: “How is it having?”. A calque from Polish and Western Ukrainian, used in a neutral context.<br />
* '''Dàbai''' — “Fine”.<br />
* '''Dàbaimi, ō tū́?''' — “I’m fine, and you?”.<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Kei žuwañtiti, <sup>E</sup>Kei zuwéitisin''' — “What is your name?”, formal.<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Žuwañtimi _ _, <sup>E</sup>Zuweimisin _ _''' — “My name is _ _” (both the first and last names in the nominative form are expected).<br />
* '''Ka tijìmmi estì?/Ka immìtwa?''' — “What is your name?”, informal. The former is more formal, the latter form is dialectal and less formal.<br />
* '''Mijìmmi _''' — “My name is _” (Only the first name is usually expected). The first word may be omitted, saying only the name is sufficient.<br />
* '''Màlhimai surḗsteisin! — “Nice to meet you!”<br />
==Farewell==<br />
* '''Būs!''' — “Bye!”, informal.<br />
* '''Dàbai teibun͂dai!''' — “Good bye!”. Literally: “May it be well for you!”<br />
* '''Suwéidēsiwāsin/Suwéidēsimasin!''' — “See you!”. Literally: “We will see each other!” The first form is used with two people, the second — with three or more people.<br />
* '''Naktìs dàbis''' — “Good night” (when used as a good bye).<br />
==Basic phrases==<br />
* '''Bā/Nō/Āna''' — “yes”, informal, dialectal.<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Ā, <sup>E</sup>Jō''' — “yes”, formal.<br />
*'''Nē''' — “no”<br />
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<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian/Phrasebook&diff=303235Carpathian/Phrasebook2023-05-06T17:05:16Z<p>Raistas: Created page with "This page lists some basic phrases in the Carpathian language with the corresponding English translation. Both Western and Eastern varieties are represented with phrases in Western Carpathian preceded by '''<sup>W</sup>''' and in Eastern Carpathian — by '''<sup>E</sup>'''. ==Greetings== * '''Wéitāhū''' — “Hello!”, “Greetings!”. A formal greeting. * '''<sup>W</sup>Wèsū/Wèselī, <sup>E</sup>Kaĩlī/Wàsalī''' — “Hello!”, “Hi!”. An informal..."</p>
<hr />
<div>This page lists some basic phrases in the [[Carpathian language]] with the corresponding English translation. Both Western and Eastern varieties are represented with phrases in Western Carpathian preceded by '''<sup>W</sup>''' and in Eastern Carpathian — by '''<sup>E</sup>'''.<br />
==Greetings== <br />
* '''Wéitāhū''' — “Hello!”, “Greetings!”. A formal greeting.<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Wèsū/Wèselī, <sup>E</sup>Kaĩlī/Wàsalī''' — “Hello!”, “Hi!”. An informal greeting.<br />
* '''Deinìs dàbis/Deinéis dabéis'' — “Good day”, neutral greeting.<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Hrītùs dàbas, <sup>E</sup>Har͂nas dàbas''' — “Good morning”<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Wèkeras dàbas, <sup>E</sup>Wàkaras dàbas''' — “Good evening” or “Good night” (when used as a greeting)<br />
* '''Kei essì''' — “How are you?”.<br />
* '''Kei tigī́wā/Kei gī́watwā''' — “How are you?” Literally: “How is your life?”. The latter phrase is dialectal, but can be used in the spoken language.<br />
* '''Kei iméi?/Kei iméisin?'' — “How are you?” Literally: “How is it having?”. A calque from Polish and Western Ukrainian, used in a neutral context.<br />
* '''Dàbai''' — “Fine”.<br />
* '''Dàbaimi, ō tū́?''' — “I’m fine, and you?”.<br />
==Introduction==<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Kei žuwañtiti, <sup>E</sup>Kei zuwéitisin''' — “What is your name?”, formal.<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Žuwañtimi _ _, <sup>E</sup>Zuweimisin _ _''' — “My name is _ _” (both the first and last names in the nominative form are expected).<br />
* '''Ka tijìmmi estì?/Ka immìtwa?''' — “What is your name?”, informal. The former is more formal, the latter form is dialectal and less formal.<br />
* '''Mijìmmi _''' — “My name is _” (Only the first name is usually expected). The first word may be omitted, saying only the name is sufficient.<br />
* '''Màlhimai surḗsteisin! — “Nice to meet you!”<br />
==Farewell==<br />
* '''Būs!''' — “Bye!”, informal.<br />
* '''Dàbai teibun͂dai!''' — “Good bye!”. Literally: “May it be well for you!”<br />
* '''Suwéidēsiwāsin/Suwéidēsimasin!''' — “See you!”. Literally: “We will see each other!” The first form is used with two people, the second — with three or more people.<br />
* '''Naktìs dàbis''' — “Good night” (when used as a good bye).<br />
==Basic phrases==<br />
* '''Bā/Nō/Āna''' — “yes”, informal, dialectal.<br />
* '''<sup>W</sup>Ā, <sup>E</sup>Jō''' — “yes”, formal.<br />
*'''Nē''' — “no”<br />
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[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_language&diff=303232Carpathian language2023-05-06T14:45:17Z<p>Raistas: /* Vocabulary */</p>
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<div>{{Infobox language<br />
| image = File:Carpathian_language.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Map of Carpathian dialect groups:{{legend|#71A040|Western Carpathian}}{{legend|#C097FF|Eastern Carpathian}}<br />
| name = Carpathian<br />
| nativename = Karpātiška/Karpātiska<br />
| pronunciation = kar.ˈpāː.tiʂ.ka/kɑr.ˈpɑ̄ː.tis.kɑ<br />
| states = Slovakia, Ukraine, Poland<br />
| speakers = 800.000<br />
| date = 2018&ndash;2001<br />
| familycolor = Indo-European<br />
| ancestor2 = Proto-Carpathian<br />
| stand1 = Eastern Carpathian<br />
| stand2 = Western Carpathian<br />
| script = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[w:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]]<br />
* [[w:Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic alphabet]]<br />
}}<br />
| notice = IPA<br />
| protoname = Proto-Carpathian<br />
| ethnicity = Carpathians<br />
}}<br />
'''Carpathian''', (Western: ''Karpātiška tāris'' [kar.ˈpāː.tiʂ.ka. ˈtāː.ris]; Eastern: ''Karpātiska tāris'' [kɑr.ˈpɑ̄ː.tis.kɑ. ˈtɑ̄ː.ris]) forms an independent branch of the [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European languages]], closely related to [[w:Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic languages]]. It is spoken in the [[w:Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] region of Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine. Carpathian is written in the Latin alphabet, although Cyrillic had also been used during the Soviet period. The total number of Carpathian speakers worldwide is estimated between 760 and 840 thousand, including the Carpathian-speaking diaspora.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
''See also: [[Carpathian historical development]]''<br />
<br />
[[File:Carpathian_Primer.jpg|thumb|Wiltā Laziniskā’s “Eastern Carpathian Primer” published in Eastern Carpathian in 1924. Prior to that, the Western variety was the only written standard for the Carpathian language.]]<br />
===Classification and origins===<br />
[[File:Carpathian_language.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Map of Carpathian dialect groups:<br />
{{legend|#71A040|Western Carpathian}}<br />
{{legend|#C097FF|Eastern Carpathian}}]]<br />
Carpathian is classified as an independent branch of the Indo-European languages, although it shares many common features with the Balto-Slavic languages. Some linguists tentatively conclude that Carpathian was dialectally close to that subbranch and connect it to the [[w:Paleo-Balkan languages|extinct languages]] of the Balkans, [[w:Dacian language|Dacian]] in particular. It is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological conservatism among modern Indo-European languages. Just as the Balto-Slavic languages, Carpathian exhibits [[w:Centum and satem languages|satemization]] (''śum̃ta'' “hundred” from Proto-Indo-European ''*ḱm̥tóm''), although some words developed as in the centum languages, such as ''gansìs'' “goose” from *ǵʰh₂éns (same as Slavic *gǫ̑sь).<br />
<br />
The Carpathian region was a multilingual through its history, Carpathian vocabulary has historically been influenced by Paleo-Balkan, Slavic, Pannonian Avar and Hungarian, the latter two affected the language to a lesser extent. Contact with German during the Austro-Hungarian period also resulted in a number of loanwords, particularly vocabulary related to trade and industry. There are two standardised modern literary forms, Eastern Carpathian in Ukraine and Poland and Western Carpathian in Slovakia, with which most contemporary dialects are mutually intelligible. Although Carpathians were known to history much earlier, both forms were codified in the 19th century.<br />
<br />
===Early contacts===<br />
Several linguists throughout the late 20th century noted the presence of so called "Carpathian [[w:Stratum_(linguistics)#Substratum|substratum]]" – an unidentified, likely non-Indo-European language formerly spoken in the Carpathians. Because there are irregularities in Carpathian substrate words, they might have been borrowed from distinct, but closely related languages. In the west, the substrate languages probably had an š-type sibilant which corresponds to an s-type sibilant in the east. The speakers of the Proto-Carpathian language arrived in the region around 2500 BCE and fully assimilated the local [[w:Paleo-European languages|Paleo-European]] population by the middle of 1st millennium BCE. The detailed reconstruction of this language (or languages) is impossible. Some of the borrowed words have cognates in all dialects of Carpathian, and semantically the substrate consists primarily of basic geographic and botanical terminology as well as toponymy, they are better preserved in dialectal vocabulary of the Carpathian Highlands. Some aspects of the Carpathian phonology, such as pleophony and consonant gemination, and grammar (absence of the passive voice, polypersonal agreement of verbs) are associated with the substrate.<br />
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The hypothesis that Carpathian is the closest living relative to the Paleo-Balkan languages originated in 1944, based on the number of proposed lexical cognates being greater than that of between Dacian and any other Indo-European subfamily. The other more recent proposal is Carpathian being a divergent Baltic language, it found the most support in Lithuania; the proposal also includes the Paleo-Balkan languages as a closely related subbranch. Noting that Dacian-speaking peoples inhabited the Carpathian region till the fifth century CE, providing a substratum of abstract, geographical and biological terms such as ''ramùs'' “peaceful” ( ← Dac. ''*ramus''), ''kòpa/kàpa'' “mountain slope” ( ← Dac. ''*kapas''), ''kérbā'' “swamp” ( ← Dac. *kerba), ''burùkalā'' “cranberry” ( ← Dac. ''*brukla'') or ''tī́ras'' “blank, desolate” ( ← Dac. ''*tiras''). Other linguists have rejected the Dacian origins for many of these words and instead suggest native Carpathian etymologies, however some words, such as ''dìtas'' “bright” cannot be explained otherwise – PIE ''*dih₂tís'' “brightness” would have resulted in ''**dī́tas''.<br />
<br />
===Shared features with Balto-Slavic===<br />
The evidence points out to a long-term proximity between Carpathian and Balto-Slavic, and the two branches share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which suggests a common ancestor. Carpathian and Balto-Slavic share many close phonological, lexical, morphosyntactic and accentological similarities, and some scholars accept the division into three branches — Carpathic, Baltic and Slavic — as the default assumption, even though such a division faces many issues.<br />
<br />
Common sound changes include [[w:Winter's law|Winter's law]], [[w:Hirt's law|Hirt's law]] (often levelled by analogical restoration), [[w:Ruki sound law|Ruki law]], merging of PIE short *o and *a into *a (which in the Western dialects later gained a labialised allophone *å, resulting in new o-phoneme), development of syllabic sonorants into diphthongoids with the initial element being a high vowel (either *i or *u).<br />
<br />
Common grammatical feautures are the usage of the genitive case for the direct object of a negative verb, instead of the accusative case (may be a common substratum influence), the use of the ending ''*-mīs'' in the instrumental plural instead of ''-bhis'', ''*-ān'' of the instrumental singular in ā-stem nouns, the intrumental case for the predicate of the existential copula.<br />
<br />
Some examples of words shared between Carpathian and Balto-Slavic languages: “linden” — Carpathian ''léipā'', Lithuanian ''líepa'', Old Prussian ''līpa'', Common Slavic ''*lìpa''; “hand” — Carpathian ''rañkā'', Lithuanian ''rankà'', Old Prussian ''ranka'', Common Slavic ''*rǭkà''; “head” — Carpathian ''galwā́'', Lithuanian ''galvà'', Old Prussian ''galwa'', Common Slavic ''*golvà''.<br />
<br />
Many scholars instead prefer a dialect continuum model where the late PIE northeastern dialects developed into Balto-Slavic (or even separate Baltic and Slavic), while the southwestern dialect that had migrated into the mountains developed into Carpathian. This may explain many differences between the two branches, particularly in their corresponding verbal morphology and lexicon, as well as certain archaic Carpathian features, not found in Balto-Slavic, such as consonantal reflexes of Proto-Indo-European laryngeals *h₂ and *h₃, found only in the [[w:Anatolian languages|Anatolian]] languages and Armenian (irregularly): Carpathian ''harèlis<sup>W</sup>/harìlis<sup>E</sup>'' “eagle” (from PIE ''*h₃érō''), with some words having doublets in dialects ''hwḗjas/wḗjas'' “air” (PIE''*h₂weh₁-'' “to blow”), ''meibáheta'' “is telling me it” (*bʰéh₂ti “to speak”).<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
The sound system of Carpathian resembles the neighbouring Slavic languages: Ukrainian and Slovak. Some considerable variation exists among the Western and Eastern varieties.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
! <br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Glottal consonant|Glottal]]<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Nasal stop|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| ɲ<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Stop consonant|Stop]]<br />
| p b<br />
| t d<br />
| (t͡ʂ) (d͡ʐ)<br />
| c ɟ<br />
| k g<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
| (f)<br />
| s z<br />
| ʂ ʐ<br />
| ɕ ʑ<br />
|<br />
| h ~ ɦ<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
| ʋ ~ w<br />
| l<br />
|<br />
| ʎ j<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Trill consonant|Trill]]<br />
|<br />
| r<br />
|<br />
| rʲ*<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Phonetic details:<br />
*Western Carpathian [ʂ] and [ʐ], written "š" and "ž", correspond to Eastern Carpathian [s] and [z]. The Eastern variety still has these sounds in words written with "š" and "ž", while occasionally denoting the former with "ś" and "ź", used in both Western and Eastern varieties historically. Instead of retroflex, they may have a postalveolar articulation [ʃ] and [ʒ]. In many Eastern dialects these sounds merge with [ɕ] and [ʑ], neutralising as postalveolar fricatives.<br />
*There is no complete agreement about the phonetic nature of /ɦ/. According to some linguists, it can be voiceless [h] at least word-initially, while according to others, it is always voiced [ɦ]. In dialects it may disappear completely, which is common before /w/, after /r/ or between vowels. It disappeared after /l/ even in the standard — ''gèlhandis'' → Western ''gelandis'' “acorn” (the former spelling is allowed in the Eastern variety). In some dialects combinations "hw", "rh" and "lh" may be pronounced as [ʍ], [r̥] and [l̥], for example [wɛ̀.l̥is] ''welhis'' “ghost”.<br />
*/w/ is most commonly bilabial [β̞] in the Eastern Carpathian and labiodental [ʋ] in Western Carpathian (although bilabial or labiovelar pronunciation is possible in both varieties). If /w/ occurs after /h/, the voiceless articulation [ʍ] is also possible in some varieties.<br />
*/r/ is sometimes realized as a single tap [ɾ], particularly in fast speech. Its palatalised counterpart [rʲ] is obsolete in most dialects, where it either became [r] or broke into [rj], the former being a more common outcome. [rʲ] is still preserved in some remote Eastern dialects and is still the recommended pronunciation — ''giriā'' [gi.ˈrʲɑ̂ː], usually pronounced [gi.ˈrɑ̂ː] instead.<br />
*The consonants [t͡ʂ], [d͡ʐ] and [f], written "č" "dž" and "f" respectively, are not native to Carpathian and only appear in borrowings – ''čarka'' [t͡ʂɑr̀.kɑ] “dessert cup”, ''čekolada'' [t͡ʂɛ.ko.lɑ̀.dɑ] “chocolate”, ''džungliā'' [d͡ʐùŋg.ʎɑː] “jungle” (often pronounced [d͡ʐùn.gɑ.ʎɑː] because of the difficult consonant cluster), ''faika'' [fɑɪ̀.kɑ] “smoking pipe, cigarette” (often pronounced [ʍɑɪ̀.kɑ]). Some Western dialects, mostly those spoken in Poland and Eastern Slovakia have [t͡s] and [d͡z], in other dialects they are marginal phonemes: ''cerkwa'' [ˈt͡sɛr̀.kwɑ] “Orthodox church” (usually pronounced [sɛr̀.kwɑ]).<br />
*The velar fricative /x/ may be present in dialects, but not in the standard. It is not a native Carpathian phoneme and is usually replaced in writing (and pronunciation) by either "h" (''humelias'' “hop” from Slavic ''*xъmelь''.) or "k" (''kristijanas'' “Christian”).<br />
*The phoneme /n/ has an allophone [ŋ] before velar consonants. The allophone is not indicated in writing.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
Standard Western Carpathian has five short and five long monophthongs. Eastern Carpathian has four short monophthongs, lacking [o], and five long monophthongs. Carpathian dialects have [y] and [e] as separate phonemes, sometimes both long and short, but they are not a part of the standard language, for example: Eastern ''sǖtùs'' [ˈsyː.tʊ̀s] “loyal” (the standard spelling would be ''śiltus'' from PIE ''*ḱl̥tós'', but the word is not used in the standard language).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
! rowspan="2" |<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- class=small<br />
! short<br />
! long<br />
! short<br />
! long<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| align="center" | i<br />
| align="center" | iː<br />
| align="center" | u<br />
| align="center" | uː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
| align="center" | ɛ<br />
| align="center" | ɛː<br />
| align="center" | o<br />
| align="center" | oː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| align="center" | ɑ<br />
| align="center" | ɑː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[Diphthong]]s<br />
| colspan="4" align="center" | eɪ, ɑɪ, ɑʊ<br />
|}<br />
The standard language has three diphthongs, both short and long, depending on the pitch accent. Short diphthongs are falling, long diphthongs are rising. The fourth diphthong [uɪ] is common in dialects, but is not found in the standard. The diphthong "ai" is typically fronted to [aɪ], while "au" rounded to [ɒʊ], especially if the syllable receives rising pitch.<br />
<br />
The short high vowels are typically slightly more centralised, than their long counterparts, in some dialects all the way to [ɪ] and [ʊ]. Both short and long /ɛ/ are open-mid, not true mid, often coming closer to near-open [æ], especially if long and with rising intonation. The vowel [oː] is typically true mid, while its short counterpart in Western Carpathian can be either true mid [o] or open-mid [ɔ]. The vowel "a" is back /ɑ/, often slightly rounded in lowland dialects, south to the main Carpathian mountain range.<br />
===Pitch accent===<br />
Standard Carpathian and most of the Carpathian dialects, have mobile pitch accent. There are three types of tones:<br />
*Rising, acute or tone-1 — rising tone if followed by another syllable, or a brief rise followed by a long fall, if followed by a pause: ''dílgas'' [ˈdíl.gɑ́s] “long (masculine)” if followed by another word, or [ˈdíl.gɑ̀s] if followed by a pause; ''rankā́'' [ˈrɑ̂ŋ.kɑ́ː] “hand” if followed by a pause; The syllable preceding stressed syllable receives an [[w:Upstep|upstep]] , when the stressed syllable is followed by pause.<br />
*Level, circumflex or tone-2 — mid tone, steady throughout the syllable: ''tāris'' [ˈtɑ̄ː.rīs] “language” if followed by another word, or [ˈtɑ̄ː.rìs] if followed by a pause. The stressed syllable receives a [[w:Downstep|downstep]], if the preceeding word has rising pitch.<br />
*Falling or tone-3 – short falling or low tone: ''ràgas'' [ˈrɑ̀.gɑ̀s] (Western ''rògas'' [ˈrò.gɑ̀s]) “horn”. The stressed syllable receives a downstep if the preceding word has either tone-1 or tone-2.<br />
<br />
Tones 1 and 2 are only possible for long syllables – those containing either a long monophthong, a diphthong, or a short vowel followed by a sonorant in a closed syllable. Short stressed syllables receive tone-3 by default, historically the distinction in pitch neutralised in short syllables to a low tone. Unstressed syllables (both short and long) harmonise with the stressed syllable, they do not receive a distinct tone on their own, but keep the pitch height of the stressed syllable. Historically some unstressed long syllables could receive rising pitch (tone-1), which used to be independent from the stress position, while all other long syllables received tone-2. However, the pitch distinction was later lost on all unaccented syllables, turning into the intonation distinction that spreads through the whole accented word.<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
[[File:Carpathian_Grammar.png|thumb|Jānas Paišutis’ ''Karpātiškās Gramatika'' (“Carpathian Grammar”) written in Western Carpathian in 1901]]<br />
The first prescriptive printed grammar of the Carpathian language – Grammatica Carpathica was published in 1771 in Vienna, written in Latin.<br />
<br />
The first comprehensive dictionary and grammar of the Carpathian language was published in German in 1867 at Charles University in Prague. It later became the foundation of modern standard Carpathian. In 1876, a standardised orthography was proposed, which remains practically unchanged to the modern day. In 1949 a standardised orthography, based on the Cyrillic alphabet, was proposed, but gained no support among the Carpathians themselves. Nevertheless, it remained in use, and in 1961 a Carpathian grammar book and a primer, based on the Eastern dialects, were published in Cyrillic.<br />
<br />
Carpathian is a highly inflected language. There are four grammatical genders for nouns, adjectives, pronouns, some participles and the numeral one: masculine feminine, common and neuter. Every attribute must agree with the gender and number of the noun. There are three numbers: singular, dual and plural.<br />
<br />
The nouns are grouped into seven declensions and three accentual paradigms, adjectives are grouped into two declensions, according to their stress pattern, and participles have one declension (four, if each gender forms a separate declension).<br />
<br />
All parts of nominal morphology, except pronouns, are declined in seven cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and vocative (pronouns lack the vocative case). <br />
<br />
Carpathian verbal morphology shows a number of innovations, when compared to other Indo-European languages, such as Balto-Slavic or Germanic; namely, the loss of passive, reduplication in perfect and aorist and the augment; having only relics of the imperative mood instead relying on optative in most dialects; polypersonal agreement of transitive verbs (both monotransitive and ditransitive), the existence of inactive verbs as a separate class. The synthetic form of the future (or rather desiderative) tense and the aorist with the ''-s-'' suffix (which later merged with preterit) and four principal verbal forms with the present tense stem employing the ''-n-'' infix are features, inherited from Proto-Indo-European.<br />
<br />
There are two types of verbal conjugation: athematic and thematic, though the latter is much more common, than the former, and is the only productive type. Every verb is conjugated for person (person and number of its subject and objects if the latter is present) and tense (or rather tense, aspect and mood or the TAM). There are five tenses in the indicative mood: present, aorist, imperfect, perfect and future. The optative mood has no tenses and the subjunctive is compound, formed by a non-finite verb form and the auxiliary verb.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
Carpathian retained many of the grammatical features present in Proto-Indo-European. Its nominal morphology makes use of seven [[w:Grammatical case|cases]]:<br />
* [[w:Nominative case|Nominative]] – subject<br />
* [[w:Accusative case|Accusative]] – direct object<br />
* [[w:Genitive case|Genitive]] – possession or relation; direct object of negated verbs<br />
* [[w:Locative case|Locative]] – stationary location<br />
* [[w:Dative case|Dative]] – indirect object, recipient<br />
* [[w:Instrumental case|Instrumental]] – tool, means by which, accompanying<br />
* [[w:Vocative case|Vocative]] – direct address<br />
<br />
Carpathian nouns have three [[w:Grammatical number|numbers]]: '''singular''' (for one item), '''dual''' (for two items) and '''plural''' (for three or more items). The dual number generally has a more limited use, than the other two, but it remains productive in the standard language.<br />
<br />
Carpathian is unique among its neighbouring languages, in the way it distinguishes four [[w:Grammatical_gender#Gender_contrasts|genders]]: masculine, feminine, common and neuter. Many originally masculine nouns in PIE had become common in modern Carpathian. The neuter gender is mostly associated with inanimate or diminutive nouns, while the common gender refers to abstract nouns and animate nouns with no clear gender distinction. The gender of a noun is clear from its nominative case ending: ''-as'', ''-us'' and (rarely) ''-ū'' for masculine, ''-ā'', ''-ū'' and ''-ī'' for feminine, ''-is'' for common and ''-a'', ''-i'' and ''-ēn'' for neuter. The "ū"-stem can be either masculine (consonant "n"-declension) or feminine (true "ū"-declension), the distinction is visible in the oblique cases.<br />
===Ablaut===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian ablaut]]''<br />
<br />
Carpathian has both qualitative and quantitative ablaut, inherited from Proto-Indo-European, but later extended to form new alternations. In most morphemes only two grades were represented, but some could have as many as five. Most of the reasons for the rise of vowel alternations were phonetic, connected to the prosody. On the other hand, the tendency to level out irregular or excess phonetic alternations resulted in simplifying the paradigms and eliminating the previous vowel alternations. In word derivation a certain percentage of words became obsolescent, fossilising some forms and making them obscure for ablaut. Numerous remnants of such former patterns exist in the language, for example: ''skalàndas'' “rod” – ''skōlangā'' “fence” – ''skèliaugas'' “osier” one may establish a pattern "a-ō-e", but there are no ē- or zero-forms, which either never existed or didn't survive. Such disconnected patterns exist solely as independent words, no new forms arise from that pattern. Different dialects may preserve different "parts" of the pattern: ''kalaušītei'' and ''kilūšītei'' “to listen”; ''bèberas'' and ''bàbaras'' “beaver”, ''iskùs'' and ''aiskùs'' “bright”.<br />
===Nouns===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian nouns]]''<br />
<br />
Most of the Proto-Indo-European declensional classes were retained in Carpathian with only the consonant-stem nouns being altered and reduced in number, since they no longer form a productive class. All nouns belong to one of the three accentuation classes, called acute-static ('''AS''') with a fixed acute accent on the first syllable, circumflex-static ('''CS''') with a fixed circumflex accent on the first or second syllable, and mobile ('''M''') with the accent shifting between initial and final syllables. Similar accent types exist for verbs.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian adjectives]]''<br />
<br />
In Carpathian, adjectives have two declensions determined by the singular and plural nominative case inflections. Adjectives agree with nouns in number, gender, and case, but adjectives lack vocative and use their nominative forms in those cases.<br />
<br />
A Carpathian innovation to the inflection of adjectives was the creation of a pronominal inflection by affixing forms of the object pronominal clitics to existing adjective forms. The inflection had a function resembling [[w:Predicate (grammar)|predication]] or [[w:Definiteness|definiteness]]: ''nawas'' “new” — ''nawasis'' “the new one”, “nawasmi” “I am new”. When declining for case, only the adjective changes: ''nawaimi'' “for me being new”. Pronominal forms often indicate something unique, and they are usually used with proper names: ''Kiršanajis mari'' “the Black Sea”, ''Nawājis Zelandijā'' “New Zealand”; as well as in scientific terminology: ''diskas tvirtasis'' “hard disk”, ''ellis abitisis<sup>W</sup>/allis aukarisis<sup>E</sup>'' “common spruce”.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
Carpathian pronouns has a distinct grammatical category of [[w:Animacy|animacy]]: ''Kan waistai'' “Whom have you seen?” (animate), but ''ki waistai'' “What have you seen?” (inanimate). ''inakan aidaini'' “I have seen something” ''inaki waidaita'' “I have seen something”.<br />
<br />
There are five personal pronouns: ''ēžu<sup>W</sup>/ās<sup>E</sup>'' “I”, ''tū'' “you”, ''jis'' “he, she”, ''ji'' “it” and ''sēn'' “self”. There is no gender distinction in personal pronouns, only the third person pronoun has the animacy distinction. They are declined as follows (Western and Eastern Carpathian forms are represented side by side):<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=3 | !! Nominative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Accusative !! Instrumental !! Locative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | Singular !! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| ēžù/ā̃s || mène/màne || meĩ|| mḗn/mā́n || mùnajūn || munái<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| tū́ || tèwe/tàwe || teĩ || tḗn/tā́n || twàjūn || twái<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 3rd person !! Animate<br />
| jìs || jī̃ || jái || jiñ || jū || jamái<br />
|-<br />
! Inaninate<br />
| jì || jī̃ || jeĩ || jiñ || jū || jamái<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=3 | [[w:Reflexive pronoun|Reflexive pronoun]]<br />
| – || séwe || sebái || sḗn || sàbūn || sabái<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | Dual<br />
! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| wā́ || nṓjau || nṓmā || nū́ || nṓmā || nṓjau<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| wū́ || wṓjau || wṓmā || wū́ || wṓmā || wṓjau<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 3rd person<br />
| jī́ || ejáu || eimā̃ || jī́ || eimā̃ || ejáu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | Plural<br />
! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| mū́s || nṓsun || nṓmas || nṓnas || nṓmīs || nṓsu<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| jū́s || wṓsun || wṓmas || wṓnas || wṓmīs || wṓsu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 3rd person !! Animate<br />
| jī́s || jū̃n || eĩmas || jiñs || eĩmīs || eĩšu<br />
|-<br />
! Inanimate<br />
| jī́ || jū̃n || eĩmas || jī́ || eĩmīs || eĩšu<br />
|}<br />
The personal pronouns are usually used only for emphasis, since the information about the person is already indicated on a verb. The reflexive pronoun ''sēn'' can be used with any person for both reflexive and intensive meaning, although the latter is uncommon and is considered to be Slavic influence, as it is more common to use the third person pronoun instead. Here are the example of reflexive and intensive usage: ''Janas '''sebai''' kunīgān kaupījesa'' “John bought '''himself''' a book” (reflexive); ''Janas '''jis''' kunīgān kaupījesa'' “John '''himself''' bought a book” (intensive).<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian verbs]]''<br />
<br />
Carpathian verbs are traditionally divided into three classes: [[w:Transitive verb|transitive]] verbs, [[w:Intransitive verb|intransitive]] verbs and [[w:Stative verb|inactive]] verbs. The same verbal root can be conjugated as any of the classes, although not every root manifests as all possible verbs and verb forms. There are several [[w:Regular and irregular verbs|irregular]] verbs, the conjugation of which does not align with any of the three classes.<br />
<br />
The Carpathian language preserves the archaic Proto-Indo-European distinction between athematic and thematic, but athematic verbs were gradually reduced in number. The primary first-person singular endings, athematic ''*-mi'' and thematic ''*-oh₂'', were kept distinct, giving Carpathian subject conjugation ''-mi'' and ''-ū'' respectively. The Proto-Carpathian second-person thematic ending ''*-ēi'' was altered by its athematic counterpart, becoming ''-sei'' in some Eastern dialects of Carpathian, but remaining ''-ei'' in the two standards.<br />
<br />
In terms of grammatical tense, it is more accurate to speak of an aspectual distinction in Carpathian, although its aspects overlap with a more common use of tense in other European languages. The Carpathian aspectual system includes present or [[w:Imperfective aspect|imperfective]], [[w:Aorist|aorist]], [[w:Imperfect|imperfect]], [[w:Perfect (grammar)|perfect]] and [[w:Future tense|future]]. Although still present, the stative is no longer a separate productive category, becoming instead a subclass of inactive verbs. There are three moods: [[w:Realis mood|indicative]], [[w:Optative mood|optative]] and [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] with optative often replacing the old [[w:Imperative mood|imperative]] in the standard as well as in most dialects.<br />
<br />
Unlike many European languages, Carpathian lacks [[w:Passive voice|passive]] voice in finite verbs, but it preserves passive participles, reanalysed as inactive or [[w:Stative verb|stative]]. Passive constructions are usually expressed by inactive verbs: ''kartamun teikirtājata'' “I have written a letter to you” (active); ''kartamas teikirtājasasin'' “the letter has been written to you” (inactive); ''kartamas kirtājatas'' “the letter, which has been written” (passive, non-finite).<br />
<br />
The [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] is formed by the addition of the suffix ''-tei'', which likely arose as a participle in the dative case. The [[w:Supine|supine]] is formed by the addition of the suffix ''-tun'', which might have the same origin, as the infinitive, but as the accusative case instead. Both forms are unconjugated and usually used with finite verbs to indicate a specific occasion, goal or purpose, which is also true for participles. They can also be used independently as a main element of a subordinate clause.<br />
<br />
Finite transitive verbs take more than one personal suffix to mark both the subject and the direct object of a clause. Some verbs additionally take the indirect object prefix (also called the recipient). This is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], and it is rare among the Indo-European languages.<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Carpathian has an '''SVO''' (subject–verb–object) or '''SOV''' (subject–object-verb) as the most neutral word orders: Adjunct (temporal, locative, causal) + Subject + Object(s) + Verb + Infinitive + other parts. At the same time Carpathian as a highly [[w:Fusional language|inflected]] language is considered to have the free word order. The [[w:Topic and comment|topic]] is usually placed first in the sentence, with everything else following it with the comment being the final part. Depending on its relevancy, the [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] may be either initial or final in a sentence. The verb usually follows the subject, but the reverse order is common as well, especially in questions or quotes. Adjectives typically follow the noun, if they have a pronominal clitic, but otherwise their placement in the sentence is relatively free, as they may even be disconnected from the noun they modify: ''zelhanis nōtirpunsa ābalun'' “I found a green apple” (literally: “green I found apple”).<br />
<br />
'''Prepositions''' is the only part of speech that tends to precede the noun they modify. [[w:Preposition and postposition|Prepositions]] provide additional information about the position of an object or the direction it is moving. Certain prepositions are used with certain cases, some prepositions may be used with more than one case. The list of Carpathian prepositions:<br />
<br />
With genitive case:<br />
* '''is''' – out of<br />
* '''han''' – on<br />
* '''da''' – till<br />
* '''at''' – away, from<br />
* '''pa''' – after, past<br />
* '''pire''' – near, at<br />
* '''zō''' – for the sake of<br />
* '''habi''' – around<br />
* '''be''' – without<br />
<br />
With instrumental case:<br />
* '''pō''' – under<br />
* '''sun''' – with<br />
* '''ker''' – through, over, via<br />
* '''zō''' – behind<br />
<br />
With dative case:<br />
* '''pas''' – on the surface<br />
<br />
With accusative case:<br />
* '''in''' – in<br />
* '''pas''' – to, at<br />
* '''per''' – across, by, during<br />
* '''par''' – through, because of<br />
* '''api''' – about<br />
In some cases, prepositions can be used after the noun they modify, in which case they become postpositions: ''Esti penkīs penkiū pas'' “It’s five past five”. In case, when a verb of motion is used with a prefix, the preposition is usually dropped, but not in cases, when the preposition is different from the verb prefix: '''''Zō'''jeimi '''in''' damanmi'' “I walk into my house from behind”, but '''''In'''eimi midamun'' “I enter my house”. [[w:Preposition stranding|Stranding]] can seldom occur in dialects, but it is not allowed in the standard language.<br />
<br />
'''Conjunctions''' are used to link together clauses in a sentence. Some common Carpathian [[w:Conjunction (grammar)|conjunctions]] are:<br />
* '''ō/ei''' – and<br />
* '''be/nu''' – but<br />
* '''har''' – or, question starter<br />
* '''jilei/lei''' – if<br />
* '''kai''' – that<br />
* '''dakai''' – until<br />
* '''ali''' – or/but<br />
* '''ba''' – because<br />
* '''parta''' – however<br />
<br />
Some conjunctions can follow the clause they modify: ''weidēsa be ne weidēsa '''lei''', ne zinōhū'' “'''Whether''' he saw it or not, I don’t know”.<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian vocabulary]]''<br />
<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian/Phrasebook]]''<br />
<br />
Although the Carpathian language is Indo-European, one can identify many words that do not have cognates within the Indo-European language family. Carpathian has borrowed a large portion of its vocabulary from the Balto-Slavic languages, mainly from Slovak, Polish, Ukrainian, as well as some words from Hungarian, a Uralic language, and an extinct Oghuric language, called Avar, that used to be spoken south of the Carpathian Mountains. The percentage of [[w:Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan]] loanwords can be estimated at approximately 5%, which is comparable to Romanian and Hungarian loanwords in Southern Lowlands dialects of Carpathian, but they constitute a specific portion of vocabulary, such as topographical features and plants. The [[w:Pre-Indo-European languages|Pre-Indo-European substrate]] is more well-preserved in Eastern Carpathian, particularly in the Highland dialects. In these borrowings, the voiced plosives are unstable or non-existent, which may indicate that the original languages lacked voicing distinction. The initial "s" before another consonant (often called the [[w:Indo-European s-mobile|s-mobile]]) is often dropped before a plosive, with some exceptions, such as ''stogas<sup>W</sup>/stagas<sup>E</sup>'' “stack” from PIE ''*stógos'' (which is also an example, where [[w:Winter's law|Winter's law]] failed to apply, suggesting that the word may be a loanword).<br />
<br />
<br />
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[[Category:Languages]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_language&diff=303231Carpathian language2023-05-06T14:44:03Z<p>Raistas: /* Vocabulary */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
| image = File:Carpathian_language.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Map of Carpathian dialect groups:{{legend|#71A040|Western Carpathian}}{{legend|#C097FF|Eastern Carpathian}}<br />
| name = Carpathian<br />
| nativename = Karpātiška/Karpātiska<br />
| pronunciation = kar.ˈpāː.tiʂ.ka/kɑr.ˈpɑ̄ː.tis.kɑ<br />
| states = Slovakia, Ukraine, Poland<br />
| speakers = 800.000<br />
| date = 2018&ndash;2001<br />
| familycolor = Indo-European<br />
| ancestor2 = Proto-Carpathian<br />
| stand1 = Eastern Carpathian<br />
| stand2 = Western Carpathian<br />
| script = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[w:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]]<br />
* [[w:Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic alphabet]]<br />
}}<br />
| notice = IPA<br />
| protoname = Proto-Carpathian<br />
| ethnicity = Carpathians<br />
}}<br />
'''Carpathian''', (Western: ''Karpātiška tāris'' [kar.ˈpāː.tiʂ.ka. ˈtāː.ris]; Eastern: ''Karpātiska tāris'' [kɑr.ˈpɑ̄ː.tis.kɑ. ˈtɑ̄ː.ris]) forms an independent branch of the [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European languages]], closely related to [[w:Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic languages]]. It is spoken in the [[w:Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] region of Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine. Carpathian is written in the Latin alphabet, although Cyrillic had also been used during the Soviet period. The total number of Carpathian speakers worldwide is estimated between 760 and 840 thousand, including the Carpathian-speaking diaspora.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
''See also: [[Carpathian historical development]]''<br />
<br />
[[File:Carpathian_Primer.jpg|thumb|Wiltā Laziniskā’s “Eastern Carpathian Primer” published in Eastern Carpathian in 1924. Prior to that, the Western variety was the only written standard for the Carpathian language.]]<br />
===Classification and origins===<br />
[[File:Carpathian_language.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Map of Carpathian dialect groups:<br />
{{legend|#71A040|Western Carpathian}}<br />
{{legend|#C097FF|Eastern Carpathian}}]]<br />
Carpathian is classified as an independent branch of the Indo-European languages, although it shares many common features with the Balto-Slavic languages. Some linguists tentatively conclude that Carpathian was dialectally close to that subbranch and connect it to the [[w:Paleo-Balkan languages|extinct languages]] of the Balkans, [[w:Dacian language|Dacian]] in particular. It is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological conservatism among modern Indo-European languages. Just as the Balto-Slavic languages, Carpathian exhibits [[w:Centum and satem languages|satemization]] (''śum̃ta'' “hundred” from Proto-Indo-European ''*ḱm̥tóm''), although some words developed as in the centum languages, such as ''gansìs'' “goose” from *ǵʰh₂éns (same as Slavic *gǫ̑sь).<br />
<br />
The Carpathian region was a multilingual through its history, Carpathian vocabulary has historically been influenced by Paleo-Balkan, Slavic, Pannonian Avar and Hungarian, the latter two affected the language to a lesser extent. Contact with German during the Austro-Hungarian period also resulted in a number of loanwords, particularly vocabulary related to trade and industry. There are two standardised modern literary forms, Eastern Carpathian in Ukraine and Poland and Western Carpathian in Slovakia, with which most contemporary dialects are mutually intelligible. Although Carpathians were known to history much earlier, both forms were codified in the 19th century.<br />
<br />
===Early contacts===<br />
Several linguists throughout the late 20th century noted the presence of so called "Carpathian [[w:Stratum_(linguistics)#Substratum|substratum]]" – an unidentified, likely non-Indo-European language formerly spoken in the Carpathians. Because there are irregularities in Carpathian substrate words, they might have been borrowed from distinct, but closely related languages. In the west, the substrate languages probably had an š-type sibilant which corresponds to an s-type sibilant in the east. The speakers of the Proto-Carpathian language arrived in the region around 2500 BCE and fully assimilated the local [[w:Paleo-European languages|Paleo-European]] population by the middle of 1st millennium BCE. The detailed reconstruction of this language (or languages) is impossible. Some of the borrowed words have cognates in all dialects of Carpathian, and semantically the substrate consists primarily of basic geographic and botanical terminology as well as toponymy, they are better preserved in dialectal vocabulary of the Carpathian Highlands. Some aspects of the Carpathian phonology, such as pleophony and consonant gemination, and grammar (absence of the passive voice, polypersonal agreement of verbs) are associated with the substrate.<br />
<br />
The hypothesis that Carpathian is the closest living relative to the Paleo-Balkan languages originated in 1944, based on the number of proposed lexical cognates being greater than that of between Dacian and any other Indo-European subfamily. The other more recent proposal is Carpathian being a divergent Baltic language, it found the most support in Lithuania; the proposal also includes the Paleo-Balkan languages as a closely related subbranch. Noting that Dacian-speaking peoples inhabited the Carpathian region till the fifth century CE, providing a substratum of abstract, geographical and biological terms such as ''ramùs'' “peaceful” ( ← Dac. ''*ramus''), ''kòpa/kàpa'' “mountain slope” ( ← Dac. ''*kapas''), ''kérbā'' “swamp” ( ← Dac. *kerba), ''burùkalā'' “cranberry” ( ← Dac. ''*brukla'') or ''tī́ras'' “blank, desolate” ( ← Dac. ''*tiras''). Other linguists have rejected the Dacian origins for many of these words and instead suggest native Carpathian etymologies, however some words, such as ''dìtas'' “bright” cannot be explained otherwise – PIE ''*dih₂tís'' “brightness” would have resulted in ''**dī́tas''.<br />
<br />
===Shared features with Balto-Slavic===<br />
The evidence points out to a long-term proximity between Carpathian and Balto-Slavic, and the two branches share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which suggests a common ancestor. Carpathian and Balto-Slavic share many close phonological, lexical, morphosyntactic and accentological similarities, and some scholars accept the division into three branches — Carpathic, Baltic and Slavic — as the default assumption, even though such a division faces many issues.<br />
<br />
Common sound changes include [[w:Winter's law|Winter's law]], [[w:Hirt's law|Hirt's law]] (often levelled by analogical restoration), [[w:Ruki sound law|Ruki law]], merging of PIE short *o and *a into *a (which in the Western dialects later gained a labialised allophone *å, resulting in new o-phoneme), development of syllabic sonorants into diphthongoids with the initial element being a high vowel (either *i or *u).<br />
<br />
Common grammatical feautures are the usage of the genitive case for the direct object of a negative verb, instead of the accusative case (may be a common substratum influence), the use of the ending ''*-mīs'' in the instrumental plural instead of ''-bhis'', ''*-ān'' of the instrumental singular in ā-stem nouns, the intrumental case for the predicate of the existential copula.<br />
<br />
Some examples of words shared between Carpathian and Balto-Slavic languages: “linden” — Carpathian ''léipā'', Lithuanian ''líepa'', Old Prussian ''līpa'', Common Slavic ''*lìpa''; “hand” — Carpathian ''rañkā'', Lithuanian ''rankà'', Old Prussian ''ranka'', Common Slavic ''*rǭkà''; “head” — Carpathian ''galwā́'', Lithuanian ''galvà'', Old Prussian ''galwa'', Common Slavic ''*golvà''.<br />
<br />
Many scholars instead prefer a dialect continuum model where the late PIE northeastern dialects developed into Balto-Slavic (or even separate Baltic and Slavic), while the southwestern dialect that had migrated into the mountains developed into Carpathian. This may explain many differences between the two branches, particularly in their corresponding verbal morphology and lexicon, as well as certain archaic Carpathian features, not found in Balto-Slavic, such as consonantal reflexes of Proto-Indo-European laryngeals *h₂ and *h₃, found only in the [[w:Anatolian languages|Anatolian]] languages and Armenian (irregularly): Carpathian ''harèlis<sup>W</sup>/harìlis<sup>E</sup>'' “eagle” (from PIE ''*h₃érō''), with some words having doublets in dialects ''hwḗjas/wḗjas'' “air” (PIE''*h₂weh₁-'' “to blow”), ''meibáheta'' “is telling me it” (*bʰéh₂ti “to speak”).<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
The sound system of Carpathian resembles the neighbouring Slavic languages: Ukrainian and Slovak. Some considerable variation exists among the Western and Eastern varieties.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
! <br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Glottal consonant|Glottal]]<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Nasal stop|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| ɲ<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Stop consonant|Stop]]<br />
| p b<br />
| t d<br />
| (t͡ʂ) (d͡ʐ)<br />
| c ɟ<br />
| k g<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
| (f)<br />
| s z<br />
| ʂ ʐ<br />
| ɕ ʑ<br />
|<br />
| h ~ ɦ<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
| ʋ ~ w<br />
| l<br />
|<br />
| ʎ j<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Trill consonant|Trill]]<br />
|<br />
| r<br />
|<br />
| rʲ*<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Phonetic details:<br />
*Western Carpathian [ʂ] and [ʐ], written "š" and "ž", correspond to Eastern Carpathian [s] and [z]. The Eastern variety still has these sounds in words written with "š" and "ž", while occasionally denoting the former with "ś" and "ź", used in both Western and Eastern varieties historically. Instead of retroflex, they may have a postalveolar articulation [ʃ] and [ʒ]. In many Eastern dialects these sounds merge with [ɕ] and [ʑ], neutralising as postalveolar fricatives.<br />
*There is no complete agreement about the phonetic nature of /ɦ/. According to some linguists, it can be voiceless [h] at least word-initially, while according to others, it is always voiced [ɦ]. In dialects it may disappear completely, which is common before /w/, after /r/ or between vowels. It disappeared after /l/ even in the standard — ''gèlhandis'' → Western ''gelandis'' “acorn” (the former spelling is allowed in the Eastern variety). In some dialects combinations "hw", "rh" and "lh" may be pronounced as [ʍ], [r̥] and [l̥], for example [wɛ̀.l̥is] ''welhis'' “ghost”.<br />
*/w/ is most commonly bilabial [β̞] in the Eastern Carpathian and labiodental [ʋ] in Western Carpathian (although bilabial or labiovelar pronunciation is possible in both varieties). If /w/ occurs after /h/, the voiceless articulation [ʍ] is also possible in some varieties.<br />
*/r/ is sometimes realized as a single tap [ɾ], particularly in fast speech. Its palatalised counterpart [rʲ] is obsolete in most dialects, where it either became [r] or broke into [rj], the former being a more common outcome. [rʲ] is still preserved in some remote Eastern dialects and is still the recommended pronunciation — ''giriā'' [gi.ˈrʲɑ̂ː], usually pronounced [gi.ˈrɑ̂ː] instead.<br />
*The consonants [t͡ʂ], [d͡ʐ] and [f], written "č" "dž" and "f" respectively, are not native to Carpathian and only appear in borrowings – ''čarka'' [t͡ʂɑr̀.kɑ] “dessert cup”, ''čekolada'' [t͡ʂɛ.ko.lɑ̀.dɑ] “chocolate”, ''džungliā'' [d͡ʐùŋg.ʎɑː] “jungle” (often pronounced [d͡ʐùn.gɑ.ʎɑː] because of the difficult consonant cluster), ''faika'' [fɑɪ̀.kɑ] “smoking pipe, cigarette” (often pronounced [ʍɑɪ̀.kɑ]). Some Western dialects, mostly those spoken in Poland and Eastern Slovakia have [t͡s] and [d͡z], in other dialects they are marginal phonemes: ''cerkwa'' [ˈt͡sɛr̀.kwɑ] “Orthodox church” (usually pronounced [sɛr̀.kwɑ]).<br />
*The velar fricative /x/ may be present in dialects, but not in the standard. It is not a native Carpathian phoneme and is usually replaced in writing (and pronunciation) by either "h" (''humelias'' “hop” from Slavic ''*xъmelь''.) or "k" (''kristijanas'' “Christian”).<br />
*The phoneme /n/ has an allophone [ŋ] before velar consonants. The allophone is not indicated in writing.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
Standard Western Carpathian has five short and five long monophthongs. Eastern Carpathian has four short monophthongs, lacking [o], and five long monophthongs. Carpathian dialects have [y] and [e] as separate phonemes, sometimes both long and short, but they are not a part of the standard language, for example: Eastern ''sǖtùs'' [ˈsyː.tʊ̀s] “loyal” (the standard spelling would be ''śiltus'' from PIE ''*ḱl̥tós'', but the word is not used in the standard language).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
! rowspan="2" |<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- class=small<br />
! short<br />
! long<br />
! short<br />
! long<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| align="center" | i<br />
| align="center" | iː<br />
| align="center" | u<br />
| align="center" | uː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
| align="center" | ɛ<br />
| align="center" | ɛː<br />
| align="center" | o<br />
| align="center" | oː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| align="center" | ɑ<br />
| align="center" | ɑː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[Diphthong]]s<br />
| colspan="4" align="center" | eɪ, ɑɪ, ɑʊ<br />
|}<br />
The standard language has three diphthongs, both short and long, depending on the pitch accent. Short diphthongs are falling, long diphthongs are rising. The fourth diphthong [uɪ] is common in dialects, but is not found in the standard. The diphthong "ai" is typically fronted to [aɪ], while "au" rounded to [ɒʊ], especially if the syllable receives rising pitch.<br />
<br />
The short high vowels are typically slightly more centralised, than their long counterparts, in some dialects all the way to [ɪ] and [ʊ]. Both short and long /ɛ/ are open-mid, not true mid, often coming closer to near-open [æ], especially if long and with rising intonation. The vowel [oː] is typically true mid, while its short counterpart in Western Carpathian can be either true mid [o] or open-mid [ɔ]. The vowel "a" is back /ɑ/, often slightly rounded in lowland dialects, south to the main Carpathian mountain range.<br />
===Pitch accent===<br />
Standard Carpathian and most of the Carpathian dialects, have mobile pitch accent. There are three types of tones:<br />
*Rising, acute or tone-1 — rising tone if followed by another syllable, or a brief rise followed by a long fall, if followed by a pause: ''dílgas'' [ˈdíl.gɑ́s] “long (masculine)” if followed by another word, or [ˈdíl.gɑ̀s] if followed by a pause; ''rankā́'' [ˈrɑ̂ŋ.kɑ́ː] “hand” if followed by a pause; The syllable preceding stressed syllable receives an [[w:Upstep|upstep]] , when the stressed syllable is followed by pause.<br />
*Level, circumflex or tone-2 — mid tone, steady throughout the syllable: ''tāris'' [ˈtɑ̄ː.rīs] “language” if followed by another word, or [ˈtɑ̄ː.rìs] if followed by a pause. The stressed syllable receives a [[w:Downstep|downstep]], if the preceeding word has rising pitch.<br />
*Falling or tone-3 – short falling or low tone: ''ràgas'' [ˈrɑ̀.gɑ̀s] (Western ''rògas'' [ˈrò.gɑ̀s]) “horn”. The stressed syllable receives a downstep if the preceding word has either tone-1 or tone-2.<br />
<br />
Tones 1 and 2 are only possible for long syllables – those containing either a long monophthong, a diphthong, or a short vowel followed by a sonorant in a closed syllable. Short stressed syllables receive tone-3 by default, historically the distinction in pitch neutralised in short syllables to a low tone. Unstressed syllables (both short and long) harmonise with the stressed syllable, they do not receive a distinct tone on their own, but keep the pitch height of the stressed syllable. Historically some unstressed long syllables could receive rising pitch (tone-1), which used to be independent from the stress position, while all other long syllables received tone-2. However, the pitch distinction was later lost on all unaccented syllables, turning into the intonation distinction that spreads through the whole accented word.<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
[[File:Carpathian_Grammar.png|thumb|Jānas Paišutis’ ''Karpātiškās Gramatika'' (“Carpathian Grammar”) written in Western Carpathian in 1901]]<br />
The first prescriptive printed grammar of the Carpathian language – Grammatica Carpathica was published in 1771 in Vienna, written in Latin.<br />
<br />
The first comprehensive dictionary and grammar of the Carpathian language was published in German in 1867 at Charles University in Prague. It later became the foundation of modern standard Carpathian. In 1876, a standardised orthography was proposed, which remains practically unchanged to the modern day. In 1949 a standardised orthography, based on the Cyrillic alphabet, was proposed, but gained no support among the Carpathians themselves. Nevertheless, it remained in use, and in 1961 a Carpathian grammar book and a primer, based on the Eastern dialects, were published in Cyrillic.<br />
<br />
Carpathian is a highly inflected language. There are four grammatical genders for nouns, adjectives, pronouns, some participles and the numeral one: masculine feminine, common and neuter. Every attribute must agree with the gender and number of the noun. There are three numbers: singular, dual and plural.<br />
<br />
The nouns are grouped into seven declensions and three accentual paradigms, adjectives are grouped into two declensions, according to their stress pattern, and participles have one declension (four, if each gender forms a separate declension).<br />
<br />
All parts of nominal morphology, except pronouns, are declined in seven cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and vocative (pronouns lack the vocative case). <br />
<br />
Carpathian verbal morphology shows a number of innovations, when compared to other Indo-European languages, such as Balto-Slavic or Germanic; namely, the loss of passive, reduplication in perfect and aorist and the augment; having only relics of the imperative mood instead relying on optative in most dialects; polypersonal agreement of transitive verbs (both monotransitive and ditransitive), the existence of inactive verbs as a separate class. The synthetic form of the future (or rather desiderative) tense and the aorist with the ''-s-'' suffix (which later merged with preterit) and four principal verbal forms with the present tense stem employing the ''-n-'' infix are features, inherited from Proto-Indo-European.<br />
<br />
There are two types of verbal conjugation: athematic and thematic, though the latter is much more common, than the former, and is the only productive type. Every verb is conjugated for person (person and number of its subject and objects if the latter is present) and tense (or rather tense, aspect and mood or the TAM). There are five tenses in the indicative mood: present, aorist, imperfect, perfect and future. The optative mood has no tenses and the subjunctive is compound, formed by a non-finite verb form and the auxiliary verb.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
Carpathian retained many of the grammatical features present in Proto-Indo-European. Its nominal morphology makes use of seven [[w:Grammatical case|cases]]:<br />
* [[w:Nominative case|Nominative]] – subject<br />
* [[w:Accusative case|Accusative]] – direct object<br />
* [[w:Genitive case|Genitive]] – possession or relation; direct object of negated verbs<br />
* [[w:Locative case|Locative]] – stationary location<br />
* [[w:Dative case|Dative]] – indirect object, recipient<br />
* [[w:Instrumental case|Instrumental]] – tool, means by which, accompanying<br />
* [[w:Vocative case|Vocative]] – direct address<br />
<br />
Carpathian nouns have three [[w:Grammatical number|numbers]]: '''singular''' (for one item), '''dual''' (for two items) and '''plural''' (for three or more items). The dual number generally has a more limited use, than the other two, but it remains productive in the standard language.<br />
<br />
Carpathian is unique among its neighbouring languages, in the way it distinguishes four [[w:Grammatical_gender#Gender_contrasts|genders]]: masculine, feminine, common and neuter. Many originally masculine nouns in PIE had become common in modern Carpathian. The neuter gender is mostly associated with inanimate or diminutive nouns, while the common gender refers to abstract nouns and animate nouns with no clear gender distinction. The gender of a noun is clear from its nominative case ending: ''-as'', ''-us'' and (rarely) ''-ū'' for masculine, ''-ā'', ''-ū'' and ''-ī'' for feminine, ''-is'' for common and ''-a'', ''-i'' and ''-ēn'' for neuter. The "ū"-stem can be either masculine (consonant "n"-declension) or feminine (true "ū"-declension), the distinction is visible in the oblique cases.<br />
===Ablaut===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian ablaut]]''<br />
<br />
Carpathian has both qualitative and quantitative ablaut, inherited from Proto-Indo-European, but later extended to form new alternations. In most morphemes only two grades were represented, but some could have as many as five. Most of the reasons for the rise of vowel alternations were phonetic, connected to the prosody. On the other hand, the tendency to level out irregular or excess phonetic alternations resulted in simplifying the paradigms and eliminating the previous vowel alternations. In word derivation a certain percentage of words became obsolescent, fossilising some forms and making them obscure for ablaut. Numerous remnants of such former patterns exist in the language, for example: ''skalàndas'' “rod” – ''skōlangā'' “fence” – ''skèliaugas'' “osier” one may establish a pattern "a-ō-e", but there are no ē- or zero-forms, which either never existed or didn't survive. Such disconnected patterns exist solely as independent words, no new forms arise from that pattern. Different dialects may preserve different "parts" of the pattern: ''kalaušītei'' and ''kilūšītei'' “to listen”; ''bèberas'' and ''bàbaras'' “beaver”, ''iskùs'' and ''aiskùs'' “bright”.<br />
===Nouns===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian nouns]]''<br />
<br />
Most of the Proto-Indo-European declensional classes were retained in Carpathian with only the consonant-stem nouns being altered and reduced in number, since they no longer form a productive class. All nouns belong to one of the three accentuation classes, called acute-static ('''AS''') with a fixed acute accent on the first syllable, circumflex-static ('''CS''') with a fixed circumflex accent on the first or second syllable, and mobile ('''M''') with the accent shifting between initial and final syllables. Similar accent types exist for verbs.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian adjectives]]''<br />
<br />
In Carpathian, adjectives have two declensions determined by the singular and plural nominative case inflections. Adjectives agree with nouns in number, gender, and case, but adjectives lack vocative and use their nominative forms in those cases.<br />
<br />
A Carpathian innovation to the inflection of adjectives was the creation of a pronominal inflection by affixing forms of the object pronominal clitics to existing adjective forms. The inflection had a function resembling [[w:Predicate (grammar)|predication]] or [[w:Definiteness|definiteness]]: ''nawas'' “new” — ''nawasis'' “the new one”, “nawasmi” “I am new”. When declining for case, only the adjective changes: ''nawaimi'' “for me being new”. Pronominal forms often indicate something unique, and they are usually used with proper names: ''Kiršanajis mari'' “the Black Sea”, ''Nawājis Zelandijā'' “New Zealand”; as well as in scientific terminology: ''diskas tvirtasis'' “hard disk”, ''ellis abitisis<sup>W</sup>/allis aukarisis<sup>E</sup>'' “common spruce”.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
Carpathian pronouns has a distinct grammatical category of [[w:Animacy|animacy]]: ''Kan waistai'' “Whom have you seen?” (animate), but ''ki waistai'' “What have you seen?” (inanimate). ''inakan aidaini'' “I have seen something” ''inaki waidaita'' “I have seen something”.<br />
<br />
There are five personal pronouns: ''ēžu<sup>W</sup>/ās<sup>E</sup>'' “I”, ''tū'' “you”, ''jis'' “he, she”, ''ji'' “it” and ''sēn'' “self”. There is no gender distinction in personal pronouns, only the third person pronoun has the animacy distinction. They are declined as follows (Western and Eastern Carpathian forms are represented side by side):<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=3 | !! Nominative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Accusative !! Instrumental !! Locative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | Singular !! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| ēžù/ā̃s || mène/màne || meĩ|| mḗn/mā́n || mùnajūn || munái<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| tū́ || tèwe/tàwe || teĩ || tḗn/tā́n || twàjūn || twái<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 3rd person !! Animate<br />
| jìs || jī̃ || jái || jiñ || jū || jamái<br />
|-<br />
! Inaninate<br />
| jì || jī̃ || jeĩ || jiñ || jū || jamái<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=3 | [[w:Reflexive pronoun|Reflexive pronoun]]<br />
| – || séwe || sebái || sḗn || sàbūn || sabái<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | Dual<br />
! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| wā́ || nṓjau || nṓmā || nū́ || nṓmā || nṓjau<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| wū́ || wṓjau || wṓmā || wū́ || wṓmā || wṓjau<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 3rd person<br />
| jī́ || ejáu || eimā̃ || jī́ || eimā̃ || ejáu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | Plural<br />
! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| mū́s || nṓsun || nṓmas || nṓnas || nṓmīs || nṓsu<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| jū́s || wṓsun || wṓmas || wṓnas || wṓmīs || wṓsu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 3rd person !! Animate<br />
| jī́s || jū̃n || eĩmas || jiñs || eĩmīs || eĩšu<br />
|-<br />
! Inanimate<br />
| jī́ || jū̃n || eĩmas || jī́ || eĩmīs || eĩšu<br />
|}<br />
The personal pronouns are usually used only for emphasis, since the information about the person is already indicated on a verb. The reflexive pronoun ''sēn'' can be used with any person for both reflexive and intensive meaning, although the latter is uncommon and is considered to be Slavic influence, as it is more common to use the third person pronoun instead. Here are the example of reflexive and intensive usage: ''Janas '''sebai''' kunīgān kaupījesa'' “John bought '''himself''' a book” (reflexive); ''Janas '''jis''' kunīgān kaupījesa'' “John '''himself''' bought a book” (intensive).<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian verbs]]''<br />
<br />
Carpathian verbs are traditionally divided into three classes: [[w:Transitive verb|transitive]] verbs, [[w:Intransitive verb|intransitive]] verbs and [[w:Stative verb|inactive]] verbs. The same verbal root can be conjugated as any of the classes, although not every root manifests as all possible verbs and verb forms. There are several [[w:Regular and irregular verbs|irregular]] verbs, the conjugation of which does not align with any of the three classes.<br />
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The Carpathian language preserves the archaic Proto-Indo-European distinction between athematic and thematic, but athematic verbs were gradually reduced in number. The primary first-person singular endings, athematic ''*-mi'' and thematic ''*-oh₂'', were kept distinct, giving Carpathian subject conjugation ''-mi'' and ''-ū'' respectively. The Proto-Carpathian second-person thematic ending ''*-ēi'' was altered by its athematic counterpart, becoming ''-sei'' in some Eastern dialects of Carpathian, but remaining ''-ei'' in the two standards.<br />
<br />
In terms of grammatical tense, it is more accurate to speak of an aspectual distinction in Carpathian, although its aspects overlap with a more common use of tense in other European languages. The Carpathian aspectual system includes present or [[w:Imperfective aspect|imperfective]], [[w:Aorist|aorist]], [[w:Imperfect|imperfect]], [[w:Perfect (grammar)|perfect]] and [[w:Future tense|future]]. Although still present, the stative is no longer a separate productive category, becoming instead a subclass of inactive verbs. There are three moods: [[w:Realis mood|indicative]], [[w:Optative mood|optative]] and [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] with optative often replacing the old [[w:Imperative mood|imperative]] in the standard as well as in most dialects.<br />
<br />
Unlike many European languages, Carpathian lacks [[w:Passive voice|passive]] voice in finite verbs, but it preserves passive participles, reanalysed as inactive or [[w:Stative verb|stative]]. Passive constructions are usually expressed by inactive verbs: ''kartamun teikirtājata'' “I have written a letter to you” (active); ''kartamas teikirtājasasin'' “the letter has been written to you” (inactive); ''kartamas kirtājatas'' “the letter, which has been written” (passive, non-finite).<br />
<br />
The [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] is formed by the addition of the suffix ''-tei'', which likely arose as a participle in the dative case. The [[w:Supine|supine]] is formed by the addition of the suffix ''-tun'', which might have the same origin, as the infinitive, but as the accusative case instead. Both forms are unconjugated and usually used with finite verbs to indicate a specific occasion, goal or purpose, which is also true for participles. They can also be used independently as a main element of a subordinate clause.<br />
<br />
Finite transitive verbs take more than one personal suffix to mark both the subject and the direct object of a clause. Some verbs additionally take the indirect object prefix (also called the recipient). This is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], and it is rare among the Indo-European languages.<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Carpathian has an '''SVO''' (subject–verb–object) or '''SOV''' (subject–object-verb) as the most neutral word orders: Adjunct (temporal, locative, causal) + Subject + Object(s) + Verb + Infinitive + other parts. At the same time Carpathian as a highly [[w:Fusional language|inflected]] language is considered to have the free word order. The [[w:Topic and comment|topic]] is usually placed first in the sentence, with everything else following it with the comment being the final part. Depending on its relevancy, the [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] may be either initial or final in a sentence. The verb usually follows the subject, but the reverse order is common as well, especially in questions or quotes. Adjectives typically follow the noun, if they have a pronominal clitic, but otherwise their placement in the sentence is relatively free, as they may even be disconnected from the noun they modify: ''zelhanis nōtirpunsa ābalun'' “I found a green apple” (literally: “green I found apple”).<br />
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'''Prepositions''' is the only part of speech that tends to precede the noun they modify. [[w:Preposition and postposition|Prepositions]] provide additional information about the position of an object or the direction it is moving. Certain prepositions are used with certain cases, some prepositions may be used with more than one case. The list of Carpathian prepositions:<br />
<br />
With genitive case:<br />
* '''is''' – out of<br />
* '''han''' – on<br />
* '''da''' – till<br />
* '''at''' – away, from<br />
* '''pa''' – after, past<br />
* '''pire''' – near, at<br />
* '''zō''' – for the sake of<br />
* '''habi''' – around<br />
* '''be''' – without<br />
<br />
With instrumental case:<br />
* '''pō''' – under<br />
* '''sun''' – with<br />
* '''ker''' – through, over, via<br />
* '''zō''' – behind<br />
<br />
With dative case:<br />
* '''pas''' – on the surface<br />
<br />
With accusative case:<br />
* '''in''' – in<br />
* '''pas''' – to, at<br />
* '''per''' – across, by, during<br />
* '''par''' – through, because of<br />
* '''api''' – about<br />
In some cases, prepositions can be used after the noun they modify, in which case they become postpositions: ''Esti penkīs penkiū pas'' “It’s five past five”. In case, when a verb of motion is used with a prefix, the preposition is usually dropped, but not in cases, when the preposition is different from the verb prefix: '''''Zō'''jeimi '''in''' damanmi'' “I walk into my house from behind”, but '''''In'''eimi midamun'' “I enter my house”. [[w:Preposition stranding|Stranding]] can seldom occur in dialects, but it is not allowed in the standard language.<br />
<br />
'''Conjunctions''' are used to link together clauses in a sentence. Some common Carpathian [[w:Conjunction (grammar)|conjunctions]] are:<br />
* '''ō/ei''' – and<br />
* '''be/nu''' – but<br />
* '''har''' – or, question starter<br />
* '''jilei/lei''' – if<br />
* '''kai''' – that<br />
* '''dakai''' – until<br />
* '''ali''' – or/but<br />
* '''ba''' – because<br />
* '''parta''' – however<br />
<br />
Some conjunctions can follow the clause they modify: ''weidēsa be ne weidēsa '''lei''', ne zinōhū'' “'''Whether''' he saw it or not, I don’t know”.<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian vocabulary]]''<br />
<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian phrasebook]]''<br />
<br />
Although the Carpathian language is Indo-European, one can identify many words that do not have cognates within the Indo-European language family. Carpathian has borrowed a large portion of its vocabulary from the Balto-Slavic languages, mainly from Slovak, Polish, Ukrainian, as well as some words from Hungarian, a Uralic language, and an extinct Oghuric language, called Avar, that used to be spoken south of the Carpathian Mountains. The percentage of [[w:Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan]] loanwords can be estimated at approximately 5%, which is comparable to Romanian and Hungarian loanwords in Southern Lowlands dialects of Carpathian, but they constitute a specific portion of vocabulary, such as topographical features and plants. The [[w:Pre-Indo-European languages|Pre-Indo-European substrate]] is more well-preserved in Eastern Carpathian, particularly in the Highland dialects. In these borrowings, the voiced plosives are unstable or non-existent, which may indicate that the original languages lacked voicing distinction. The initial "s" before another consonant (often called the [[w:Indo-European s-mobile|s-mobile]]) is often dropped before a plosive, with some exceptions, such as ''stogas<sup>W</sup>/stagas<sup>E</sup>'' “stack” from PIE ''*stógos'' (which is also an example, where [[w:Winter's law|Winter's law]] failed to apply, suggesting that the word may be a loanword).<br />
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[[Category:Languages]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_language&diff=303230Carpathian language2023-05-06T14:40:39Z<p>Raistas: /* Pitch accent */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
| image = File:Carpathian_language.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Map of Carpathian dialect groups:{{legend|#71A040|Western Carpathian}}{{legend|#C097FF|Eastern Carpathian}}<br />
| name = Carpathian<br />
| nativename = Karpātiška/Karpātiska<br />
| pronunciation = kar.ˈpāː.tiʂ.ka/kɑr.ˈpɑ̄ː.tis.kɑ<br />
| states = Slovakia, Ukraine, Poland<br />
| speakers = 800.000<br />
| date = 2018&ndash;2001<br />
| familycolor = Indo-European<br />
| ancestor2 = Proto-Carpathian<br />
| stand1 = Eastern Carpathian<br />
| stand2 = Western Carpathian<br />
| script = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[w:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]]<br />
* [[w:Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic alphabet]]<br />
}}<br />
| notice = IPA<br />
| protoname = Proto-Carpathian<br />
| ethnicity = Carpathians<br />
}}<br />
'''Carpathian''', (Western: ''Karpātiška tāris'' [kar.ˈpāː.tiʂ.ka. ˈtāː.ris]; Eastern: ''Karpātiska tāris'' [kɑr.ˈpɑ̄ː.tis.kɑ. ˈtɑ̄ː.ris]) forms an independent branch of the [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European languages]], closely related to [[w:Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic languages]]. It is spoken in the [[w:Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] region of Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine. Carpathian is written in the Latin alphabet, although Cyrillic had also been used during the Soviet period. The total number of Carpathian speakers worldwide is estimated between 760 and 840 thousand, including the Carpathian-speaking diaspora.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
''See also: [[Carpathian historical development]]''<br />
<br />
[[File:Carpathian_Primer.jpg|thumb|Wiltā Laziniskā’s “Eastern Carpathian Primer” published in Eastern Carpathian in 1924. Prior to that, the Western variety was the only written standard for the Carpathian language.]]<br />
===Classification and origins===<br />
[[File:Carpathian_language.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Map of Carpathian dialect groups:<br />
{{legend|#71A040|Western Carpathian}}<br />
{{legend|#C097FF|Eastern Carpathian}}]]<br />
Carpathian is classified as an independent branch of the Indo-European languages, although it shares many common features with the Balto-Slavic languages. Some linguists tentatively conclude that Carpathian was dialectally close to that subbranch and connect it to the [[w:Paleo-Balkan languages|extinct languages]] of the Balkans, [[w:Dacian language|Dacian]] in particular. It is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological conservatism among modern Indo-European languages. Just as the Balto-Slavic languages, Carpathian exhibits [[w:Centum and satem languages|satemization]] (''śum̃ta'' “hundred” from Proto-Indo-European ''*ḱm̥tóm''), although some words developed as in the centum languages, such as ''gansìs'' “goose” from *ǵʰh₂éns (same as Slavic *gǫ̑sь).<br />
<br />
The Carpathian region was a multilingual through its history, Carpathian vocabulary has historically been influenced by Paleo-Balkan, Slavic, Pannonian Avar and Hungarian, the latter two affected the language to a lesser extent. Contact with German during the Austro-Hungarian period also resulted in a number of loanwords, particularly vocabulary related to trade and industry. There are two standardised modern literary forms, Eastern Carpathian in Ukraine and Poland and Western Carpathian in Slovakia, with which most contemporary dialects are mutually intelligible. Although Carpathians were known to history much earlier, both forms were codified in the 19th century.<br />
<br />
===Early contacts===<br />
Several linguists throughout the late 20th century noted the presence of so called "Carpathian [[w:Stratum_(linguistics)#Substratum|substratum]]" – an unidentified, likely non-Indo-European language formerly spoken in the Carpathians. Because there are irregularities in Carpathian substrate words, they might have been borrowed from distinct, but closely related languages. In the west, the substrate languages probably had an š-type sibilant which corresponds to an s-type sibilant in the east. The speakers of the Proto-Carpathian language arrived in the region around 2500 BCE and fully assimilated the local [[w:Paleo-European languages|Paleo-European]] population by the middle of 1st millennium BCE. The detailed reconstruction of this language (or languages) is impossible. Some of the borrowed words have cognates in all dialects of Carpathian, and semantically the substrate consists primarily of basic geographic and botanical terminology as well as toponymy, they are better preserved in dialectal vocabulary of the Carpathian Highlands. Some aspects of the Carpathian phonology, such as pleophony and consonant gemination, and grammar (absence of the passive voice, polypersonal agreement of verbs) are associated with the substrate.<br />
<br />
The hypothesis that Carpathian is the closest living relative to the Paleo-Balkan languages originated in 1944, based on the number of proposed lexical cognates being greater than that of between Dacian and any other Indo-European subfamily. The other more recent proposal is Carpathian being a divergent Baltic language, it found the most support in Lithuania; the proposal also includes the Paleo-Balkan languages as a closely related subbranch. Noting that Dacian-speaking peoples inhabited the Carpathian region till the fifth century CE, providing a substratum of abstract, geographical and biological terms such as ''ramùs'' “peaceful” ( ← Dac. ''*ramus''), ''kòpa/kàpa'' “mountain slope” ( ← Dac. ''*kapas''), ''kérbā'' “swamp” ( ← Dac. *kerba), ''burùkalā'' “cranberry” ( ← Dac. ''*brukla'') or ''tī́ras'' “blank, desolate” ( ← Dac. ''*tiras''). Other linguists have rejected the Dacian origins for many of these words and instead suggest native Carpathian etymologies, however some words, such as ''dìtas'' “bright” cannot be explained otherwise – PIE ''*dih₂tís'' “brightness” would have resulted in ''**dī́tas''.<br />
<br />
===Shared features with Balto-Slavic===<br />
The evidence points out to a long-term proximity between Carpathian and Balto-Slavic, and the two branches share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which suggests a common ancestor. Carpathian and Balto-Slavic share many close phonological, lexical, morphosyntactic and accentological similarities, and some scholars accept the division into three branches — Carpathic, Baltic and Slavic — as the default assumption, even though such a division faces many issues.<br />
<br />
Common sound changes include [[w:Winter's law|Winter's law]], [[w:Hirt's law|Hirt's law]] (often levelled by analogical restoration), [[w:Ruki sound law|Ruki law]], merging of PIE short *o and *a into *a (which in the Western dialects later gained a labialised allophone *å, resulting in new o-phoneme), development of syllabic sonorants into diphthongoids with the initial element being a high vowel (either *i or *u).<br />
<br />
Common grammatical feautures are the usage of the genitive case for the direct object of a negative verb, instead of the accusative case (may be a common substratum influence), the use of the ending ''*-mīs'' in the instrumental plural instead of ''-bhis'', ''*-ān'' of the instrumental singular in ā-stem nouns, the intrumental case for the predicate of the existential copula.<br />
<br />
Some examples of words shared between Carpathian and Balto-Slavic languages: “linden” — Carpathian ''léipā'', Lithuanian ''líepa'', Old Prussian ''līpa'', Common Slavic ''*lìpa''; “hand” — Carpathian ''rañkā'', Lithuanian ''rankà'', Old Prussian ''ranka'', Common Slavic ''*rǭkà''; “head” — Carpathian ''galwā́'', Lithuanian ''galvà'', Old Prussian ''galwa'', Common Slavic ''*golvà''.<br />
<br />
Many scholars instead prefer a dialect continuum model where the late PIE northeastern dialects developed into Balto-Slavic (or even separate Baltic and Slavic), while the southwestern dialect that had migrated into the mountains developed into Carpathian. This may explain many differences between the two branches, particularly in their corresponding verbal morphology and lexicon, as well as certain archaic Carpathian features, not found in Balto-Slavic, such as consonantal reflexes of Proto-Indo-European laryngeals *h₂ and *h₃, found only in the [[w:Anatolian languages|Anatolian]] languages and Armenian (irregularly): Carpathian ''harèlis<sup>W</sup>/harìlis<sup>E</sup>'' “eagle” (from PIE ''*h₃érō''), with some words having doublets in dialects ''hwḗjas/wḗjas'' “air” (PIE''*h₂weh₁-'' “to blow”), ''meibáheta'' “is telling me it” (*bʰéh₂ti “to speak”).<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
The sound system of Carpathian resembles the neighbouring Slavic languages: Ukrainian and Slovak. Some considerable variation exists among the Western and Eastern varieties.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
! <br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Glottal consonant|Glottal]]<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Nasal stop|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| ɲ<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Stop consonant|Stop]]<br />
| p b<br />
| t d<br />
| (t͡ʂ) (d͡ʐ)<br />
| c ɟ<br />
| k g<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
| (f)<br />
| s z<br />
| ʂ ʐ<br />
| ɕ ʑ<br />
|<br />
| h ~ ɦ<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
| ʋ ~ w<br />
| l<br />
|<br />
| ʎ j<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Trill consonant|Trill]]<br />
|<br />
| r<br />
|<br />
| rʲ*<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Phonetic details:<br />
*Western Carpathian [ʂ] and [ʐ], written "š" and "ž", correspond to Eastern Carpathian [s] and [z]. The Eastern variety still has these sounds in words written with "š" and "ž", while occasionally denoting the former with "ś" and "ź", used in both Western and Eastern varieties historically. Instead of retroflex, they may have a postalveolar articulation [ʃ] and [ʒ]. In many Eastern dialects these sounds merge with [ɕ] and [ʑ], neutralising as postalveolar fricatives.<br />
*There is no complete agreement about the phonetic nature of /ɦ/. According to some linguists, it can be voiceless [h] at least word-initially, while according to others, it is always voiced [ɦ]. In dialects it may disappear completely, which is common before /w/, after /r/ or between vowels. It disappeared after /l/ even in the standard — ''gèlhandis'' → Western ''gelandis'' “acorn” (the former spelling is allowed in the Eastern variety). In some dialects combinations "hw", "rh" and "lh" may be pronounced as [ʍ], [r̥] and [l̥], for example [wɛ̀.l̥is] ''welhis'' “ghost”.<br />
*/w/ is most commonly bilabial [β̞] in the Eastern Carpathian and labiodental [ʋ] in Western Carpathian (although bilabial or labiovelar pronunciation is possible in both varieties). If /w/ occurs after /h/, the voiceless articulation [ʍ] is also possible in some varieties.<br />
*/r/ is sometimes realized as a single tap [ɾ], particularly in fast speech. Its palatalised counterpart [rʲ] is obsolete in most dialects, where it either became [r] or broke into [rj], the former being a more common outcome. [rʲ] is still preserved in some remote Eastern dialects and is still the recommended pronunciation — ''giriā'' [gi.ˈrʲɑ̂ː], usually pronounced [gi.ˈrɑ̂ː] instead.<br />
*The consonants [t͡ʂ], [d͡ʐ] and [f], written "č" "dž" and "f" respectively, are not native to Carpathian and only appear in borrowings – ''čarka'' [t͡ʂɑr̀.kɑ] “dessert cup”, ''čekolada'' [t͡ʂɛ.ko.lɑ̀.dɑ] “chocolate”, ''džungliā'' [d͡ʐùŋg.ʎɑː] “jungle” (often pronounced [d͡ʐùn.gɑ.ʎɑː] because of the difficult consonant cluster), ''faika'' [fɑɪ̀.kɑ] “smoking pipe, cigarette” (often pronounced [ʍɑɪ̀.kɑ]). Some Western dialects, mostly those spoken in Poland and Eastern Slovakia have [t͡s] and [d͡z], in other dialects they are marginal phonemes: ''cerkwa'' [ˈt͡sɛr̀.kwɑ] “Orthodox church” (usually pronounced [sɛr̀.kwɑ]).<br />
*The velar fricative /x/ may be present in dialects, but not in the standard. It is not a native Carpathian phoneme and is usually replaced in writing (and pronunciation) by either "h" (''humelias'' “hop” from Slavic ''*xъmelь''.) or "k" (''kristijanas'' “Christian”).<br />
*The phoneme /n/ has an allophone [ŋ] before velar consonants. The allophone is not indicated in writing.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
Standard Western Carpathian has five short and five long monophthongs. Eastern Carpathian has four short monophthongs, lacking [o], and five long monophthongs. Carpathian dialects have [y] and [e] as separate phonemes, sometimes both long and short, but they are not a part of the standard language, for example: Eastern ''sǖtùs'' [ˈsyː.tʊ̀s] “loyal” (the standard spelling would be ''śiltus'' from PIE ''*ḱl̥tós'', but the word is not used in the standard language).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
! rowspan="2" |<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- class=small<br />
! short<br />
! long<br />
! short<br />
! long<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| align="center" | i<br />
| align="center" | iː<br />
| align="center" | u<br />
| align="center" | uː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
| align="center" | ɛ<br />
| align="center" | ɛː<br />
| align="center" | o<br />
| align="center" | oː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| align="center" | ɑ<br />
| align="center" | ɑː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[Diphthong]]s<br />
| colspan="4" align="center" | eɪ, ɑɪ, ɑʊ<br />
|}<br />
The standard language has three diphthongs, both short and long, depending on the pitch accent. Short diphthongs are falling, long diphthongs are rising. The fourth diphthong [uɪ] is common in dialects, but is not found in the standard. The diphthong "ai" is typically fronted to [aɪ], while "au" rounded to [ɒʊ], especially if the syllable receives rising pitch.<br />
<br />
The short high vowels are typically slightly more centralised, than their long counterparts, in some dialects all the way to [ɪ] and [ʊ]. Both short and long /ɛ/ are open-mid, not true mid, often coming closer to near-open [æ], especially if long and with rising intonation. The vowel [oː] is typically true mid, while its short counterpart in Western Carpathian can be either true mid [o] or open-mid [ɔ]. The vowel "a" is back /ɑ/, often slightly rounded in lowland dialects, south to the main Carpathian mountain range.<br />
===Pitch accent===<br />
Standard Carpathian and most of the Carpathian dialects, have mobile pitch accent. There are three types of tones:<br />
*Rising, acute or tone-1 — rising tone if followed by another syllable, or a brief rise followed by a long fall, if followed by a pause: ''dílgas'' [ˈdíl.gɑ́s] “long (masculine)” if followed by another word, or [ˈdíl.gɑ̀s] if followed by a pause; ''rankā́'' [ˈrɑ̂ŋ.kɑ́ː] “hand” if followed by a pause; The syllable preceding stressed syllable receives an [[w:Upstep|upstep]] , when the stressed syllable is followed by pause.<br />
*Level, circumflex or tone-2 — mid tone, steady throughout the syllable: ''tāris'' [ˈtɑ̄ː.rīs] “language” if followed by another word, or [ˈtɑ̄ː.rìs] if followed by a pause. The stressed syllable receives a [[w:Downstep|downstep]], if the preceeding word has rising pitch.<br />
*Falling or tone-3 – short falling or low tone: ''ràgas'' [ˈrɑ̀.gɑ̀s] (Western ''rògas'' [ˈrò.gɑ̀s]) “horn”. The stressed syllable receives a downstep if the preceding word has either tone-1 or tone-2.<br />
<br />
Tones 1 and 2 are only possible for long syllables – those containing either a long monophthong, a diphthong, or a short vowel followed by a sonorant in a closed syllable. Short stressed syllables receive tone-3 by default, historically the distinction in pitch neutralised in short syllables to a low tone. Unstressed syllables (both short and long) harmonise with the stressed syllable, they do not receive a distinct tone on their own, but keep the pitch height of the stressed syllable. Historically some unstressed long syllables could receive rising pitch (tone-1), which used to be independent from the stress position, while all other long syllables received tone-2. However, the pitch distinction was later lost on all unaccented syllables, turning into the intonation distinction that spreads through the whole accented word.<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
[[File:Carpathian_Grammar.png|thumb|Jānas Paišutis’ ''Karpātiškās Gramatika'' (“Carpathian Grammar”) written in Western Carpathian in 1901]]<br />
The first prescriptive printed grammar of the Carpathian language – Grammatica Carpathica was published in 1771 in Vienna, written in Latin.<br />
<br />
The first comprehensive dictionary and grammar of the Carpathian language was published in German in 1867 at Charles University in Prague. It later became the foundation of modern standard Carpathian. In 1876, a standardised orthography was proposed, which remains practically unchanged to the modern day. In 1949 a standardised orthography, based on the Cyrillic alphabet, was proposed, but gained no support among the Carpathians themselves. Nevertheless, it remained in use, and in 1961 a Carpathian grammar book and a primer, based on the Eastern dialects, were published in Cyrillic.<br />
<br />
Carpathian is a highly inflected language. There are four grammatical genders for nouns, adjectives, pronouns, some participles and the numeral one: masculine feminine, common and neuter. Every attribute must agree with the gender and number of the noun. There are three numbers: singular, dual and plural.<br />
<br />
The nouns are grouped into seven declensions and three accentual paradigms, adjectives are grouped into two declensions, according to their stress pattern, and participles have one declension (four, if each gender forms a separate declension).<br />
<br />
All parts of nominal morphology, except pronouns, are declined in seven cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and vocative (pronouns lack the vocative case). <br />
<br />
Carpathian verbal morphology shows a number of innovations, when compared to other Indo-European languages, such as Balto-Slavic or Germanic; namely, the loss of passive, reduplication in perfect and aorist and the augment; having only relics of the imperative mood instead relying on optative in most dialects; polypersonal agreement of transitive verbs (both monotransitive and ditransitive), the existence of inactive verbs as a separate class. The synthetic form of the future (or rather desiderative) tense and the aorist with the ''-s-'' suffix (which later merged with preterit) and four principal verbal forms with the present tense stem employing the ''-n-'' infix are features, inherited from Proto-Indo-European.<br />
<br />
There are two types of verbal conjugation: athematic and thematic, though the latter is much more common, than the former, and is the only productive type. Every verb is conjugated for person (person and number of its subject and objects if the latter is present) and tense (or rather tense, aspect and mood or the TAM). There are five tenses in the indicative mood: present, aorist, imperfect, perfect and future. The optative mood has no tenses and the subjunctive is compound, formed by a non-finite verb form and the auxiliary verb.<br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
Carpathian retained many of the grammatical features present in Proto-Indo-European. Its nominal morphology makes use of seven [[w:Grammatical case|cases]]:<br />
* [[w:Nominative case|Nominative]] – subject<br />
* [[w:Accusative case|Accusative]] – direct object<br />
* [[w:Genitive case|Genitive]] – possession or relation; direct object of negated verbs<br />
* [[w:Locative case|Locative]] – stationary location<br />
* [[w:Dative case|Dative]] – indirect object, recipient<br />
* [[w:Instrumental case|Instrumental]] – tool, means by which, accompanying<br />
* [[w:Vocative case|Vocative]] – direct address<br />
<br />
Carpathian nouns have three [[w:Grammatical number|numbers]]: '''singular''' (for one item), '''dual''' (for two items) and '''plural''' (for three or more items). The dual number generally has a more limited use, than the other two, but it remains productive in the standard language.<br />
<br />
Carpathian is unique among its neighbouring languages, in the way it distinguishes four [[w:Grammatical_gender#Gender_contrasts|genders]]: masculine, feminine, common and neuter. Many originally masculine nouns in PIE had become common in modern Carpathian. The neuter gender is mostly associated with inanimate or diminutive nouns, while the common gender refers to abstract nouns and animate nouns with no clear gender distinction. The gender of a noun is clear from its nominative case ending: ''-as'', ''-us'' and (rarely) ''-ū'' for masculine, ''-ā'', ''-ū'' and ''-ī'' for feminine, ''-is'' for common and ''-a'', ''-i'' and ''-ēn'' for neuter. The "ū"-stem can be either masculine (consonant "n"-declension) or feminine (true "ū"-declension), the distinction is visible in the oblique cases.<br />
===Ablaut===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian ablaut]]''<br />
<br />
Carpathian has both qualitative and quantitative ablaut, inherited from Proto-Indo-European, but later extended to form new alternations. In most morphemes only two grades were represented, but some could have as many as five. Most of the reasons for the rise of vowel alternations were phonetic, connected to the prosody. On the other hand, the tendency to level out irregular or excess phonetic alternations resulted in simplifying the paradigms and eliminating the previous vowel alternations. In word derivation a certain percentage of words became obsolescent, fossilising some forms and making them obscure for ablaut. Numerous remnants of such former patterns exist in the language, for example: ''skalàndas'' “rod” – ''skōlangā'' “fence” – ''skèliaugas'' “osier” one may establish a pattern "a-ō-e", but there are no ē- or zero-forms, which either never existed or didn't survive. Such disconnected patterns exist solely as independent words, no new forms arise from that pattern. Different dialects may preserve different "parts" of the pattern: ''kalaušītei'' and ''kilūšītei'' “to listen”; ''bèberas'' and ''bàbaras'' “beaver”, ''iskùs'' and ''aiskùs'' “bright”.<br />
===Nouns===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian nouns]]''<br />
<br />
Most of the Proto-Indo-European declensional classes were retained in Carpathian with only the consonant-stem nouns being altered and reduced in number, since they no longer form a productive class. All nouns belong to one of the three accentuation classes, called acute-static ('''AS''') with a fixed acute accent on the first syllable, circumflex-static ('''CS''') with a fixed circumflex accent on the first or second syllable, and mobile ('''M''') with the accent shifting between initial and final syllables. Similar accent types exist for verbs.<br />
<br />
===Adjectives===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian adjectives]]''<br />
<br />
In Carpathian, adjectives have two declensions determined by the singular and plural nominative case inflections. Adjectives agree with nouns in number, gender, and case, but adjectives lack vocative and use their nominative forms in those cases.<br />
<br />
A Carpathian innovation to the inflection of adjectives was the creation of a pronominal inflection by affixing forms of the object pronominal clitics to existing adjective forms. The inflection had a function resembling [[w:Predicate (grammar)|predication]] or [[w:Definiteness|definiteness]]: ''nawas'' “new” — ''nawasis'' “the new one”, “nawasmi” “I am new”. When declining for case, only the adjective changes: ''nawaimi'' “for me being new”. Pronominal forms often indicate something unique, and they are usually used with proper names: ''Kiršanajis mari'' “the Black Sea”, ''Nawājis Zelandijā'' “New Zealand”; as well as in scientific terminology: ''diskas tvirtasis'' “hard disk”, ''ellis abitisis<sup>W</sup>/allis aukarisis<sup>E</sup>'' “common spruce”.<br />
<br />
===Pronouns===<br />
Carpathian pronouns has a distinct grammatical category of [[w:Animacy|animacy]]: ''Kan waistai'' “Whom have you seen?” (animate), but ''ki waistai'' “What have you seen?” (inanimate). ''inakan aidaini'' “I have seen something” ''inaki waidaita'' “I have seen something”.<br />
<br />
There are five personal pronouns: ''ēžu<sup>W</sup>/ās<sup>E</sup>'' “I”, ''tū'' “you”, ''jis'' “he, she”, ''ji'' “it” and ''sēn'' “self”. There is no gender distinction in personal pronouns, only the third person pronoun has the animacy distinction. They are declined as follows (Western and Eastern Carpathian forms are represented side by side):<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=3 | !! Nominative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Accusative !! Instrumental !! Locative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | Singular !! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| ēžù/ā̃s || mène/màne || meĩ|| mḗn/mā́n || mùnajūn || munái<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| tū́ || tèwe/tàwe || teĩ || tḗn/tā́n || twàjūn || twái<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 3rd person !! Animate<br />
| jìs || jī̃ || jái || jiñ || jū || jamái<br />
|-<br />
! Inaninate<br />
| jì || jī̃ || jeĩ || jiñ || jū || jamái<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=3 | [[w:Reflexive pronoun|Reflexive pronoun]]<br />
| – || séwe || sebái || sḗn || sàbūn || sabái<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | Dual<br />
! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| wā́ || nṓjau || nṓmā || nū́ || nṓmā || nṓjau<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| wū́ || wṓjau || wṓmā || wū́ || wṓmā || wṓjau<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 3rd person<br />
| jī́ || ejáu || eimā̃ || jī́ || eimā̃ || ejáu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | Plural<br />
! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| mū́s || nṓsun || nṓmas || nṓnas || nṓmīs || nṓsu<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| jū́s || wṓsun || wṓmas || wṓnas || wṓmīs || wṓsu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 3rd person !! Animate<br />
| jī́s || jū̃n || eĩmas || jiñs || eĩmīs || eĩšu<br />
|-<br />
! Inanimate<br />
| jī́ || jū̃n || eĩmas || jī́ || eĩmīs || eĩšu<br />
|}<br />
The personal pronouns are usually used only for emphasis, since the information about the person is already indicated on a verb. The reflexive pronoun ''sēn'' can be used with any person for both reflexive and intensive meaning, although the latter is uncommon and is considered to be Slavic influence, as it is more common to use the third person pronoun instead. Here are the example of reflexive and intensive usage: ''Janas '''sebai''' kunīgān kaupījesa'' “John bought '''himself''' a book” (reflexive); ''Janas '''jis''' kunīgān kaupījesa'' “John '''himself''' bought a book” (intensive).<br />
<br />
===Verbs===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian verbs]]''<br />
<br />
Carpathian verbs are traditionally divided into three classes: [[w:Transitive verb|transitive]] verbs, [[w:Intransitive verb|intransitive]] verbs and [[w:Stative verb|inactive]] verbs. The same verbal root can be conjugated as any of the classes, although not every root manifests as all possible verbs and verb forms. There are several [[w:Regular and irregular verbs|irregular]] verbs, the conjugation of which does not align with any of the three classes.<br />
<br />
The Carpathian language preserves the archaic Proto-Indo-European distinction between athematic and thematic, but athematic verbs were gradually reduced in number. The primary first-person singular endings, athematic ''*-mi'' and thematic ''*-oh₂'', were kept distinct, giving Carpathian subject conjugation ''-mi'' and ''-ū'' respectively. The Proto-Carpathian second-person thematic ending ''*-ēi'' was altered by its athematic counterpart, becoming ''-sei'' in some Eastern dialects of Carpathian, but remaining ''-ei'' in the two standards.<br />
<br />
In terms of grammatical tense, it is more accurate to speak of an aspectual distinction in Carpathian, although its aspects overlap with a more common use of tense in other European languages. The Carpathian aspectual system includes present or [[w:Imperfective aspect|imperfective]], [[w:Aorist|aorist]], [[w:Imperfect|imperfect]], [[w:Perfect (grammar)|perfect]] and [[w:Future tense|future]]. Although still present, the stative is no longer a separate productive category, becoming instead a subclass of inactive verbs. There are three moods: [[w:Realis mood|indicative]], [[w:Optative mood|optative]] and [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] with optative often replacing the old [[w:Imperative mood|imperative]] in the standard as well as in most dialects.<br />
<br />
Unlike many European languages, Carpathian lacks [[w:Passive voice|passive]] voice in finite verbs, but it preserves passive participles, reanalysed as inactive or [[w:Stative verb|stative]]. Passive constructions are usually expressed by inactive verbs: ''kartamun teikirtājata'' “I have written a letter to you” (active); ''kartamas teikirtājasasin'' “the letter has been written to you” (inactive); ''kartamas kirtājatas'' “the letter, which has been written” (passive, non-finite).<br />
<br />
The [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] is formed by the addition of the suffix ''-tei'', which likely arose as a participle in the dative case. The [[w:Supine|supine]] is formed by the addition of the suffix ''-tun'', which might have the same origin, as the infinitive, but as the accusative case instead. Both forms are unconjugated and usually used with finite verbs to indicate a specific occasion, goal or purpose, which is also true for participles. They can also be used independently as a main element of a subordinate clause.<br />
<br />
Finite transitive verbs take more than one personal suffix to mark both the subject and the direct object of a clause. Some verbs additionally take the indirect object prefix (also called the recipient). This is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], and it is rare among the Indo-European languages.<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Carpathian has an '''SVO''' (subject–verb–object) or '''SOV''' (subject–object-verb) as the most neutral word orders: Adjunct (temporal, locative, causal) + Subject + Object(s) + Verb + Infinitive + other parts. At the same time Carpathian as a highly [[w:Fusional language|inflected]] language is considered to have the free word order. The [[w:Topic and comment|topic]] is usually placed first in the sentence, with everything else following it with the comment being the final part. Depending on its relevancy, the [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] may be either initial or final in a sentence. The verb usually follows the subject, but the reverse order is common as well, especially in questions or quotes. Adjectives typically follow the noun, if they have a pronominal clitic, but otherwise their placement in the sentence is relatively free, as they may even be disconnected from the noun they modify: ''zelhanis nōtirpunsa ābalun'' “I found a green apple” (literally: “green I found apple”).<br />
<br />
'''Prepositions''' is the only part of speech that tends to precede the noun they modify. [[w:Preposition and postposition|Prepositions]] provide additional information about the position of an object or the direction it is moving. Certain prepositions are used with certain cases, some prepositions may be used with more than one case. The list of Carpathian prepositions:<br />
<br />
With genitive case:<br />
* '''is''' – out of<br />
* '''han''' – on<br />
* '''da''' – till<br />
* '''at''' – away, from<br />
* '''pa''' – after, past<br />
* '''pire''' – near, at<br />
* '''zō''' – for the sake of<br />
* '''habi''' – around<br />
* '''be''' – without<br />
<br />
With instrumental case:<br />
* '''pō''' – under<br />
* '''sun''' – with<br />
* '''ker''' – through, over, via<br />
* '''zō''' – behind<br />
<br />
With dative case:<br />
* '''pas''' – on the surface<br />
<br />
With accusative case:<br />
* '''in''' – in<br />
* '''pas''' – to, at<br />
* '''per''' – across, by, during<br />
* '''par''' – through, because of<br />
* '''api''' – about<br />
In some cases, prepositions can be used after the noun they modify, in which case they become postpositions: ''Esti penkīs penkiū pas'' “It’s five past five”. In case, when a verb of motion is used with a prefix, the preposition is usually dropped, but not in cases, when the preposition is different from the verb prefix: '''''Zō'''jeimi '''in''' damanmi'' “I walk into my house from behind”, but '''''In'''eimi midamun'' “I enter my house”. [[w:Preposition stranding|Stranding]] can seldom occur in dialects, but it is not allowed in the standard language.<br />
<br />
'''Conjunctions''' are used to link together clauses in a sentence. Some common Carpathian [[w:Conjunction (grammar)|conjunctions]] are:<br />
* '''ō/ei''' – and<br />
* '''be/nu''' – but<br />
* '''har''' – or, question starter<br />
* '''jilei/lei''' – if<br />
* '''kai''' – that<br />
* '''dakai''' – until<br />
* '''ali''' – or/but<br />
* '''ba''' – because<br />
* '''parta''' – however<br />
<br />
Some conjunctions can follow the clause they modify: ''weidēsa be ne weidēsa '''lei''', ne zinōhū'' “'''Whether''' he saw it or not, I don’t know”.<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian vocabulary]]''<br />
<br />
Although the Carpathian language is Indo-European, one can identify many words that do not have cognates within the Indo-European language family. Carpathian has borrowed a large portion of its vocabulary from the Balto-Slavic languages, mainly from Slovak, Polish, Ukrainian, as well as some words from Hungarian, a Uralic language, and an extinct Oghuric language, called Avar, that used to be spoken south of the Carpathian Mountains. The percentage of [[w:Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan]] loanwords can be estimated at approximately 5%, which is comparable to Romanian and Hungarian loanwords in Southern Lowlands dialects of Carpathian, but they constitute a specific portion of vocabulary, such as topographical features and plants. The [[w:Pre-Indo-European languages|Pre-Indo-European substrate]] is more well-preserved in Eastern Carpathian, particularly in the Highland dialects. In these borrowings, the voiced plosives are unstable or non-existent, which may indicate that the original languages lacked voicing distinction. The initial "s" before another consonant (often called the [[w:Indo-European s-mobile|s-mobile]]) is often dropped before a plosive, with some exceptions, such as ''stogas<sup>W</sup>/stagas<sup>E</sup>'' “stack” from PIE ''*stógos'' (which is also an example, where [[w:Winter's law|Winter's law]] failed to apply, suggesting that the word may be a loanword).<br />
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[[Category:Languages]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_language&diff=303229Carpathian language2023-05-06T14:39:57Z<p>Raistas: /* Pitch accent */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
| image = File:Carpathian_language.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Map of Carpathian dialect groups:{{legend|#71A040|Western Carpathian}}{{legend|#C097FF|Eastern Carpathian}}<br />
| name = Carpathian<br />
| nativename = Karpātiška/Karpātiska<br />
| pronunciation = kar.ˈpāː.tiʂ.ka/kɑr.ˈpɑ̄ː.tis.kɑ<br />
| states = Slovakia, Ukraine, Poland<br />
| speakers = 800.000<br />
| date = 2018&ndash;2001<br />
| familycolor = Indo-European<br />
| ancestor2 = Proto-Carpathian<br />
| stand1 = Eastern Carpathian<br />
| stand2 = Western Carpathian<br />
| script = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[w:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]]<br />
* [[w:Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic alphabet]]<br />
}}<br />
| notice = IPA<br />
| protoname = Proto-Carpathian<br />
| ethnicity = Carpathians<br />
}}<br />
'''Carpathian''', (Western: ''Karpātiška tāris'' [kar.ˈpāː.tiʂ.ka. ˈtāː.ris]; Eastern: ''Karpātiska tāris'' [kɑr.ˈpɑ̄ː.tis.kɑ. ˈtɑ̄ː.ris]) forms an independent branch of the [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European languages]], closely related to [[w:Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic languages]]. It is spoken in the [[w:Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] region of Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine. Carpathian is written in the Latin alphabet, although Cyrillic had also been used during the Soviet period. The total number of Carpathian speakers worldwide is estimated between 760 and 840 thousand, including the Carpathian-speaking diaspora.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
''See also: [[Carpathian historical development]]''<br />
<br />
[[File:Carpathian_Primer.jpg|thumb|Wiltā Laziniskā’s “Eastern Carpathian Primer” published in Eastern Carpathian in 1924. Prior to that, the Western variety was the only written standard for the Carpathian language.]]<br />
===Classification and origins===<br />
[[File:Carpathian_language.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Map of Carpathian dialect groups:<br />
{{legend|#71A040|Western Carpathian}}<br />
{{legend|#C097FF|Eastern Carpathian}}]]<br />
Carpathian is classified as an independent branch of the Indo-European languages, although it shares many common features with the Balto-Slavic languages. Some linguists tentatively conclude that Carpathian was dialectally close to that subbranch and connect it to the [[w:Paleo-Balkan languages|extinct languages]] of the Balkans, [[w:Dacian language|Dacian]] in particular. It is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological conservatism among modern Indo-European languages. Just as the Balto-Slavic languages, Carpathian exhibits [[w:Centum and satem languages|satemization]] (''śum̃ta'' “hundred” from Proto-Indo-European ''*ḱm̥tóm''), although some words developed as in the centum languages, such as ''gansìs'' “goose” from *ǵʰh₂éns (same as Slavic *gǫ̑sь).<br />
<br />
The Carpathian region was a multilingual through its history, Carpathian vocabulary has historically been influenced by Paleo-Balkan, Slavic, Pannonian Avar and Hungarian, the latter two affected the language to a lesser extent. Contact with German during the Austro-Hungarian period also resulted in a number of loanwords, particularly vocabulary related to trade and industry. There are two standardised modern literary forms, Eastern Carpathian in Ukraine and Poland and Western Carpathian in Slovakia, with which most contemporary dialects are mutually intelligible. Although Carpathians were known to history much earlier, both forms were codified in the 19th century.<br />
<br />
===Early contacts===<br />
Several linguists throughout the late 20th century noted the presence of so called "Carpathian [[w:Stratum_(linguistics)#Substratum|substratum]]" – an unidentified, likely non-Indo-European language formerly spoken in the Carpathians. Because there are irregularities in Carpathian substrate words, they might have been borrowed from distinct, but closely related languages. In the west, the substrate languages probably had an š-type sibilant which corresponds to an s-type sibilant in the east. The speakers of the Proto-Carpathian language arrived in the region around 2500 BCE and fully assimilated the local [[w:Paleo-European languages|Paleo-European]] population by the middle of 1st millennium BCE. The detailed reconstruction of this language (or languages) is impossible. Some of the borrowed words have cognates in all dialects of Carpathian, and semantically the substrate consists primarily of basic geographic and botanical terminology as well as toponymy, they are better preserved in dialectal vocabulary of the Carpathian Highlands. Some aspects of the Carpathian phonology, such as pleophony and consonant gemination, and grammar (absence of the passive voice, polypersonal agreement of verbs) are associated with the substrate.<br />
<br />
The hypothesis that Carpathian is the closest living relative to the Paleo-Balkan languages originated in 1944, based on the number of proposed lexical cognates being greater than that of between Dacian and any other Indo-European subfamily. The other more recent proposal is Carpathian being a divergent Baltic language, it found the most support in Lithuania; the proposal also includes the Paleo-Balkan languages as a closely related subbranch. Noting that Dacian-speaking peoples inhabited the Carpathian region till the fifth century CE, providing a substratum of abstract, geographical and biological terms such as ''ramùs'' “peaceful” ( ← Dac. ''*ramus''), ''kòpa/kàpa'' “mountain slope” ( ← Dac. ''*kapas''), ''kérbā'' “swamp” ( ← Dac. *kerba), ''burùkalā'' “cranberry” ( ← Dac. ''*brukla'') or ''tī́ras'' “blank, desolate” ( ← Dac. ''*tiras''). Other linguists have rejected the Dacian origins for many of these words and instead suggest native Carpathian etymologies, however some words, such as ''dìtas'' “bright” cannot be explained otherwise – PIE ''*dih₂tís'' “brightness” would have resulted in ''**dī́tas''.<br />
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===Shared features with Balto-Slavic===<br />
The evidence points out to a long-term proximity between Carpathian and Balto-Slavic, and the two branches share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which suggests a common ancestor. Carpathian and Balto-Slavic share many close phonological, lexical, morphosyntactic and accentological similarities, and some scholars accept the division into three branches — Carpathic, Baltic and Slavic — as the default assumption, even though such a division faces many issues.<br />
<br />
Common sound changes include [[w:Winter's law|Winter's law]], [[w:Hirt's law|Hirt's law]] (often levelled by analogical restoration), [[w:Ruki sound law|Ruki law]], merging of PIE short *o and *a into *a (which in the Western dialects later gained a labialised allophone *å, resulting in new o-phoneme), development of syllabic sonorants into diphthongoids with the initial element being a high vowel (either *i or *u).<br />
<br />
Common grammatical feautures are the usage of the genitive case for the direct object of a negative verb, instead of the accusative case (may be a common substratum influence), the use of the ending ''*-mīs'' in the instrumental plural instead of ''-bhis'', ''*-ān'' of the instrumental singular in ā-stem nouns, the intrumental case for the predicate of the existential copula.<br />
<br />
Some examples of words shared between Carpathian and Balto-Slavic languages: “linden” — Carpathian ''léipā'', Lithuanian ''líepa'', Old Prussian ''līpa'', Common Slavic ''*lìpa''; “hand” — Carpathian ''rañkā'', Lithuanian ''rankà'', Old Prussian ''ranka'', Common Slavic ''*rǭkà''; “head” — Carpathian ''galwā́'', Lithuanian ''galvà'', Old Prussian ''galwa'', Common Slavic ''*golvà''.<br />
<br />
Many scholars instead prefer a dialect continuum model where the late PIE northeastern dialects developed into Balto-Slavic (or even separate Baltic and Slavic), while the southwestern dialect that had migrated into the mountains developed into Carpathian. This may explain many differences between the two branches, particularly in their corresponding verbal morphology and lexicon, as well as certain archaic Carpathian features, not found in Balto-Slavic, such as consonantal reflexes of Proto-Indo-European laryngeals *h₂ and *h₃, found only in the [[w:Anatolian languages|Anatolian]] languages and Armenian (irregularly): Carpathian ''harèlis<sup>W</sup>/harìlis<sup>E</sup>'' “eagle” (from PIE ''*h₃érō''), with some words having doublets in dialects ''hwḗjas/wḗjas'' “air” (PIE''*h₂weh₁-'' “to blow”), ''meibáheta'' “is telling me it” (*bʰéh₂ti “to speak”).<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
The sound system of Carpathian resembles the neighbouring Slavic languages: Ukrainian and Slovak. Some considerable variation exists among the Western and Eastern varieties.<br />
===Consonants===<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
! <br />
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! [[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]<br />
! [[w:Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br />
! [[w:Palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br />
! [[w:Velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! [[w:Glottal consonant|Glottal]]<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Nasal stop|Nasal]]<br />
| m<br />
| n<br />
| <br />
| ɲ<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Stop consonant|Stop]]<br />
| p b<br />
| t d<br />
| (t͡ʂ) (d͡ʐ)<br />
| c ɟ<br />
| k g<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
| (f)<br />
| s z<br />
| ʂ ʐ<br />
| ɕ ʑ<br />
|<br />
| h ~ ɦ<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
| ʋ ~ w<br />
| l<br />
|<br />
| ʎ j<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Trill consonant|Trill]]<br />
|<br />
| r<br />
|<br />
| rʲ*<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Phonetic details:<br />
*Western Carpathian [ʂ] and [ʐ], written "š" and "ž", correspond to Eastern Carpathian [s] and [z]. The Eastern variety still has these sounds in words written with "š" and "ž", while occasionally denoting the former with "ś" and "ź", used in both Western and Eastern varieties historically. Instead of retroflex, they may have a postalveolar articulation [ʃ] and [ʒ]. In many Eastern dialects these sounds merge with [ɕ] and [ʑ], neutralising as postalveolar fricatives.<br />
*There is no complete agreement about the phonetic nature of /ɦ/. According to some linguists, it can be voiceless [h] at least word-initially, while according to others, it is always voiced [ɦ]. In dialects it may disappear completely, which is common before /w/, after /r/ or between vowels. It disappeared after /l/ even in the standard — ''gèlhandis'' → Western ''gelandis'' “acorn” (the former spelling is allowed in the Eastern variety). In some dialects combinations "hw", "rh" and "lh" may be pronounced as [ʍ], [r̥] and [l̥], for example [wɛ̀.l̥is] ''welhis'' “ghost”.<br />
*/w/ is most commonly bilabial [β̞] in the Eastern Carpathian and labiodental [ʋ] in Western Carpathian (although bilabial or labiovelar pronunciation is possible in both varieties). If /w/ occurs after /h/, the voiceless articulation [ʍ] is also possible in some varieties.<br />
*/r/ is sometimes realized as a single tap [ɾ], particularly in fast speech. Its palatalised counterpart [rʲ] is obsolete in most dialects, where it either became [r] or broke into [rj], the former being a more common outcome. [rʲ] is still preserved in some remote Eastern dialects and is still the recommended pronunciation — ''giriā'' [gi.ˈrʲɑ̂ː], usually pronounced [gi.ˈrɑ̂ː] instead.<br />
*The consonants [t͡ʂ], [d͡ʐ] and [f], written "č" "dž" and "f" respectively, are not native to Carpathian and only appear in borrowings – ''čarka'' [t͡ʂɑr̀.kɑ] “dessert cup”, ''čekolada'' [t͡ʂɛ.ko.lɑ̀.dɑ] “chocolate”, ''džungliā'' [d͡ʐùŋg.ʎɑː] “jungle” (often pronounced [d͡ʐùn.gɑ.ʎɑː] because of the difficult consonant cluster), ''faika'' [fɑɪ̀.kɑ] “smoking pipe, cigarette” (often pronounced [ʍɑɪ̀.kɑ]). Some Western dialects, mostly those spoken in Poland and Eastern Slovakia have [t͡s] and [d͡z], in other dialects they are marginal phonemes: ''cerkwa'' [ˈt͡sɛr̀.kwɑ] “Orthodox church” (usually pronounced [sɛr̀.kwɑ]).<br />
*The velar fricative /x/ may be present in dialects, but not in the standard. It is not a native Carpathian phoneme and is usually replaced in writing (and pronunciation) by either "h" (''humelias'' “hop” from Slavic ''*xъmelь''.) or "k" (''kristijanas'' “Christian”).<br />
*The phoneme /n/ has an allophone [ŋ] before velar consonants. The allophone is not indicated in writing.<br />
<br />
===Vowels===<br />
Standard Western Carpathian has five short and five long monophthongs. Eastern Carpathian has four short monophthongs, lacking [o], and five long monophthongs. Carpathian dialects have [y] and [e] as separate phonemes, sometimes both long and short, but they are not a part of the standard language, for example: Eastern ''sǖtùs'' [ˈsyː.tʊ̀s] “loyal” (the standard spelling would be ''śiltus'' from PIE ''*ḱl̥tós'', but the word is not used in the standard language).<br />
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center<br />
! rowspan="2" |<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Front vowel|Front]]<br />
! colspan="2" | [[w:Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|- class=small<br />
! short<br />
! long<br />
! short<br />
! long<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[w:Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| align="center" | i<br />
| align="center" | iː<br />
| align="center" | u<br />
| align="center" | uː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[w:Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
| align="center" | ɛ<br />
| align="center" | ɛː<br />
| align="center" | o<br />
| align="center" | oː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| align="center" | ɑ<br />
| align="center" | ɑː<br />
|-<br />
! align="left" | [[Diphthong]]s<br />
| colspan="4" align="center" | eɪ, ɑɪ, ɑʊ<br />
|}<br />
The standard language has three diphthongs, both short and long, depending on the pitch accent. Short diphthongs are falling, long diphthongs are rising. The fourth diphthong [uɪ] is common in dialects, but is not found in the standard. The diphthong "ai" is typically fronted to [aɪ], while "au" rounded to [ɒʊ], especially if the syllable receives rising pitch.<br />
<br />
The short high vowels are typically slightly more centralised, than their long counterparts, in some dialects all the way to [ɪ] and [ʊ]. Both short and long /ɛ/ are open-mid, not true mid, often coming closer to near-open [æ], especially if long and with rising intonation. The vowel [oː] is typically true mid, while its short counterpart in Western Carpathian can be either true mid [o] or open-mid [ɔ]. The vowel "a" is back /ɑ/, often slightly rounded in lowland dialects, south to the main Carpathian mountain range.<br />
===Pitch accent===<br />
Standard Carpathian and most of the Carpathian dialects, have mobile pitch accent. There are three types of tones:<br />
*Rising, acute or tone-1 — rising tone if followed by another syllable, or a brief rise followed by a long fall, if followed by a pause: ''dílgas'' [ˈdíl.gɑ̄s] “long (masculine)” if followed by another word, or [ˈdíl.gɑ̀s] if followed by a pause; ''rankā́'' [ˈrɑ̂ŋ.kɑ́ː] “hand” if followed by a pause; The syllable preceding stressed syllable receives an [[w:Upstep|upstep]] , when the stressed syllable is followed by pause.<br />
*Level, circumflex or tone-2 — mid tone, steady throughout the syllable: ''tāris'' [ˈtɑ̄ː.rīs] “language” if followed by another word, or [ˈtɑ̄ː.rìs] if followed by a pause. The stressed syllable receives a [[w:Downstep|downstep]], if the preceeding word has rising pitch.<br />
*Falling or tone-3 – short falling or low tone: ''ràgas'' [ˈrɑ̀.gɑ̀s] (Western ''rògas'' [ˈrò.gɑ̀s]) “horn”. The stressed syllable receives a downstep if the preceding word has either tone-1 or tone-2.<br />
<br />
Tones 1 and 2 are only possible for long syllables – those containing either a long monophthong, a diphthong, or a short vowel followed by a sonorant in a closed syllable. Short stressed syllables receive tone-3 by default, historically the distinction in pitch neutralised in short syllables to a low tone. Unstressed syllables (both short and long) harmonise with the stressed syllable, they do not receive a distinct tone on their own, but keep the pitch height of the stressed syllable. Historically some unstressed long syllables could receive rising pitch (tone-1), which used to be independent from the stress position, while all other long syllables received tone-2. However, the pitch distinction was later lost on all unaccented syllables, turning into the intonation distinction that spreads through the whole accented word.<br />
<br />
==Grammar==<br />
[[File:Carpathian_Grammar.png|thumb|Jānas Paišutis’ ''Karpātiškās Gramatika'' (“Carpathian Grammar”) written in Western Carpathian in 1901]]<br />
The first prescriptive printed grammar of the Carpathian language – Grammatica Carpathica was published in 1771 in Vienna, written in Latin.<br />
<br />
The first comprehensive dictionary and grammar of the Carpathian language was published in German in 1867 at Charles University in Prague. It later became the foundation of modern standard Carpathian. In 1876, a standardised orthography was proposed, which remains practically unchanged to the modern day. In 1949 a standardised orthography, based on the Cyrillic alphabet, was proposed, but gained no support among the Carpathians themselves. Nevertheless, it remained in use, and in 1961 a Carpathian grammar book and a primer, based on the Eastern dialects, were published in Cyrillic.<br />
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Carpathian is a highly inflected language. There are four grammatical genders for nouns, adjectives, pronouns, some participles and the numeral one: masculine feminine, common and neuter. Every attribute must agree with the gender and number of the noun. There are three numbers: singular, dual and plural.<br />
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The nouns are grouped into seven declensions and three accentual paradigms, adjectives are grouped into two declensions, according to their stress pattern, and participles have one declension (four, if each gender forms a separate declension).<br />
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All parts of nominal morphology, except pronouns, are declined in seven cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and vocative (pronouns lack the vocative case). <br />
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Carpathian verbal morphology shows a number of innovations, when compared to other Indo-European languages, such as Balto-Slavic or Germanic; namely, the loss of passive, reduplication in perfect and aorist and the augment; having only relics of the imperative mood instead relying on optative in most dialects; polypersonal agreement of transitive verbs (both monotransitive and ditransitive), the existence of inactive verbs as a separate class. The synthetic form of the future (or rather desiderative) tense and the aorist with the ''-s-'' suffix (which later merged with preterit) and four principal verbal forms with the present tense stem employing the ''-n-'' infix are features, inherited from Proto-Indo-European.<br />
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There are two types of verbal conjugation: athematic and thematic, though the latter is much more common, than the former, and is the only productive type. Every verb is conjugated for person (person and number of its subject and objects if the latter is present) and tense (or rather tense, aspect and mood or the TAM). There are five tenses in the indicative mood: present, aorist, imperfect, perfect and future. The optative mood has no tenses and the subjunctive is compound, formed by a non-finite verb form and the auxiliary verb.<br />
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==Morphology==<br />
Carpathian retained many of the grammatical features present in Proto-Indo-European. Its nominal morphology makes use of seven [[w:Grammatical case|cases]]:<br />
* [[w:Nominative case|Nominative]] – subject<br />
* [[w:Accusative case|Accusative]] – direct object<br />
* [[w:Genitive case|Genitive]] – possession or relation; direct object of negated verbs<br />
* [[w:Locative case|Locative]] – stationary location<br />
* [[w:Dative case|Dative]] – indirect object, recipient<br />
* [[w:Instrumental case|Instrumental]] – tool, means by which, accompanying<br />
* [[w:Vocative case|Vocative]] – direct address<br />
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Carpathian nouns have three [[w:Grammatical number|numbers]]: '''singular''' (for one item), '''dual''' (for two items) and '''plural''' (for three or more items). The dual number generally has a more limited use, than the other two, but it remains productive in the standard language.<br />
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Carpathian is unique among its neighbouring languages, in the way it distinguishes four [[w:Grammatical_gender#Gender_contrasts|genders]]: masculine, feminine, common and neuter. Many originally masculine nouns in PIE had become common in modern Carpathian. The neuter gender is mostly associated with inanimate or diminutive nouns, while the common gender refers to abstract nouns and animate nouns with no clear gender distinction. The gender of a noun is clear from its nominative case ending: ''-as'', ''-us'' and (rarely) ''-ū'' for masculine, ''-ā'', ''-ū'' and ''-ī'' for feminine, ''-is'' for common and ''-a'', ''-i'' and ''-ēn'' for neuter. The "ū"-stem can be either masculine (consonant "n"-declension) or feminine (true "ū"-declension), the distinction is visible in the oblique cases.<br />
===Ablaut===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian ablaut]]''<br />
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Carpathian has both qualitative and quantitative ablaut, inherited from Proto-Indo-European, but later extended to form new alternations. In most morphemes only two grades were represented, but some could have as many as five. Most of the reasons for the rise of vowel alternations were phonetic, connected to the prosody. On the other hand, the tendency to level out irregular or excess phonetic alternations resulted in simplifying the paradigms and eliminating the previous vowel alternations. In word derivation a certain percentage of words became obsolescent, fossilising some forms and making them obscure for ablaut. Numerous remnants of such former patterns exist in the language, for example: ''skalàndas'' “rod” – ''skōlangā'' “fence” – ''skèliaugas'' “osier” one may establish a pattern "a-ō-e", but there are no ē- or zero-forms, which either never existed or didn't survive. Such disconnected patterns exist solely as independent words, no new forms arise from that pattern. Different dialects may preserve different "parts" of the pattern: ''kalaušītei'' and ''kilūšītei'' “to listen”; ''bèberas'' and ''bàbaras'' “beaver”, ''iskùs'' and ''aiskùs'' “bright”.<br />
===Nouns===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian nouns]]''<br />
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Most of the Proto-Indo-European declensional classes were retained in Carpathian with only the consonant-stem nouns being altered and reduced in number, since they no longer form a productive class. All nouns belong to one of the three accentuation classes, called acute-static ('''AS''') with a fixed acute accent on the first syllable, circumflex-static ('''CS''') with a fixed circumflex accent on the first or second syllable, and mobile ('''M''') with the accent shifting between initial and final syllables. Similar accent types exist for verbs.<br />
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===Adjectives===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian adjectives]]''<br />
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In Carpathian, adjectives have two declensions determined by the singular and plural nominative case inflections. Adjectives agree with nouns in number, gender, and case, but adjectives lack vocative and use their nominative forms in those cases.<br />
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A Carpathian innovation to the inflection of adjectives was the creation of a pronominal inflection by affixing forms of the object pronominal clitics to existing adjective forms. The inflection had a function resembling [[w:Predicate (grammar)|predication]] or [[w:Definiteness|definiteness]]: ''nawas'' “new” — ''nawasis'' “the new one”, “nawasmi” “I am new”. When declining for case, only the adjective changes: ''nawaimi'' “for me being new”. Pronominal forms often indicate something unique, and they are usually used with proper names: ''Kiršanajis mari'' “the Black Sea”, ''Nawājis Zelandijā'' “New Zealand”; as well as in scientific terminology: ''diskas tvirtasis'' “hard disk”, ''ellis abitisis<sup>W</sup>/allis aukarisis<sup>E</sup>'' “common spruce”.<br />
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===Pronouns===<br />
Carpathian pronouns has a distinct grammatical category of [[w:Animacy|animacy]]: ''Kan waistai'' “Whom have you seen?” (animate), but ''ki waistai'' “What have you seen?” (inanimate). ''inakan aidaini'' “I have seen something” ''inaki waidaita'' “I have seen something”.<br />
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There are five personal pronouns: ''ēžu<sup>W</sup>/ās<sup>E</sup>'' “I”, ''tū'' “you”, ''jis'' “he, she”, ''ji'' “it” and ''sēn'' “self”. There is no gender distinction in personal pronouns, only the third person pronoun has the animacy distinction. They are declined as follows (Western and Eastern Carpathian forms are represented side by side):<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=3 | !! Nominative !! Genitive !! Dative !! Accusative !! Instrumental !! Locative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | Singular !! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| ēžù/ā̃s || mène/màne || meĩ|| mḗn/mā́n || mùnajūn || munái<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| tū́ || tèwe/tàwe || teĩ || tḗn/tā́n || twàjūn || twái<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 3rd person !! Animate<br />
| jìs || jī̃ || jái || jiñ || jū || jamái<br />
|-<br />
! Inaninate<br />
| jì || jī̃ || jeĩ || jiñ || jū || jamái<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=3 | [[w:Reflexive pronoun|Reflexive pronoun]]<br />
| – || séwe || sebái || sḗn || sàbūn || sabái<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | Dual<br />
! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| wā́ || nṓjau || nṓmā || nū́ || nṓmā || nṓjau<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| wū́ || wṓjau || wṓmā || wū́ || wṓmā || wṓjau<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 3rd person<br />
| jī́ || ejáu || eimā̃ || jī́ || eimā̃ || ejáu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=4 | Plural<br />
! colspan=2 | 1st person<br />
| mū́s || nṓsun || nṓmas || nṓnas || nṓmīs || nṓsu<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | 2nd person<br />
| jū́s || wṓsun || wṓmas || wṓnas || wṓmīs || wṓsu<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | 3rd person !! Animate<br />
| jī́s || jū̃n || eĩmas || jiñs || eĩmīs || eĩšu<br />
|-<br />
! Inanimate<br />
| jī́ || jū̃n || eĩmas || jī́ || eĩmīs || eĩšu<br />
|}<br />
The personal pronouns are usually used only for emphasis, since the information about the person is already indicated on a verb. The reflexive pronoun ''sēn'' can be used with any person for both reflexive and intensive meaning, although the latter is uncommon and is considered to be Slavic influence, as it is more common to use the third person pronoun instead. Here are the example of reflexive and intensive usage: ''Janas '''sebai''' kunīgān kaupījesa'' “John bought '''himself''' a book” (reflexive); ''Janas '''jis''' kunīgān kaupījesa'' “John '''himself''' bought a book” (intensive).<br />
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===Verbs===<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian verbs]]''<br />
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Carpathian verbs are traditionally divided into three classes: [[w:Transitive verb|transitive]] verbs, [[w:Intransitive verb|intransitive]] verbs and [[w:Stative verb|inactive]] verbs. The same verbal root can be conjugated as any of the classes, although not every root manifests as all possible verbs and verb forms. There are several [[w:Regular and irregular verbs|irregular]] verbs, the conjugation of which does not align with any of the three classes.<br />
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The Carpathian language preserves the archaic Proto-Indo-European distinction between athematic and thematic, but athematic verbs were gradually reduced in number. The primary first-person singular endings, athematic ''*-mi'' and thematic ''*-oh₂'', were kept distinct, giving Carpathian subject conjugation ''-mi'' and ''-ū'' respectively. The Proto-Carpathian second-person thematic ending ''*-ēi'' was altered by its athematic counterpart, becoming ''-sei'' in some Eastern dialects of Carpathian, but remaining ''-ei'' in the two standards.<br />
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In terms of grammatical tense, it is more accurate to speak of an aspectual distinction in Carpathian, although its aspects overlap with a more common use of tense in other European languages. The Carpathian aspectual system includes present or [[w:Imperfective aspect|imperfective]], [[w:Aorist|aorist]], [[w:Imperfect|imperfect]], [[w:Perfect (grammar)|perfect]] and [[w:Future tense|future]]. Although still present, the stative is no longer a separate productive category, becoming instead a subclass of inactive verbs. There are three moods: [[w:Realis mood|indicative]], [[w:Optative mood|optative]] and [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] with optative often replacing the old [[w:Imperative mood|imperative]] in the standard as well as in most dialects.<br />
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Unlike many European languages, Carpathian lacks [[w:Passive voice|passive]] voice in finite verbs, but it preserves passive participles, reanalysed as inactive or [[w:Stative verb|stative]]. Passive constructions are usually expressed by inactive verbs: ''kartamun teikirtājata'' “I have written a letter to you” (active); ''kartamas teikirtājasasin'' “the letter has been written to you” (inactive); ''kartamas kirtājatas'' “the letter, which has been written” (passive, non-finite).<br />
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The [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] is formed by the addition of the suffix ''-tei'', which likely arose as a participle in the dative case. The [[w:Supine|supine]] is formed by the addition of the suffix ''-tun'', which might have the same origin, as the infinitive, but as the accusative case instead. Both forms are unconjugated and usually used with finite verbs to indicate a specific occasion, goal or purpose, which is also true for participles. They can also be used independently as a main element of a subordinate clause.<br />
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Finite transitive verbs take more than one personal suffix to mark both the subject and the direct object of a clause. Some verbs additionally take the indirect object prefix (also called the recipient). This is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], and it is rare among the Indo-European languages.<br />
==Syntax==<br />
Carpathian has an '''SVO''' (subject–verb–object) or '''SOV''' (subject–object-verb) as the most neutral word orders: Adjunct (temporal, locative, causal) + Subject + Object(s) + Verb + Infinitive + other parts. At the same time Carpathian as a highly [[w:Fusional language|inflected]] language is considered to have the free word order. The [[w:Topic and comment|topic]] is usually placed first in the sentence, with everything else following it with the comment being the final part. Depending on its relevancy, the [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] may be either initial or final in a sentence. The verb usually follows the subject, but the reverse order is common as well, especially in questions or quotes. Adjectives typically follow the noun, if they have a pronominal clitic, but otherwise their placement in the sentence is relatively free, as they may even be disconnected from the noun they modify: ''zelhanis nōtirpunsa ābalun'' “I found a green apple” (literally: “green I found apple”).<br />
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'''Prepositions''' is the only part of speech that tends to precede the noun they modify. [[w:Preposition and postposition|Prepositions]] provide additional information about the position of an object or the direction it is moving. Certain prepositions are used with certain cases, some prepositions may be used with more than one case. The list of Carpathian prepositions:<br />
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With genitive case:<br />
* '''is''' – out of<br />
* '''han''' – on<br />
* '''da''' – till<br />
* '''at''' – away, from<br />
* '''pa''' – after, past<br />
* '''pire''' – near, at<br />
* '''zō''' – for the sake of<br />
* '''habi''' – around<br />
* '''be''' – without<br />
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With instrumental case:<br />
* '''pō''' – under<br />
* '''sun''' – with<br />
* '''ker''' – through, over, via<br />
* '''zō''' – behind<br />
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With dative case:<br />
* '''pas''' – on the surface<br />
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With accusative case:<br />
* '''in''' – in<br />
* '''pas''' – to, at<br />
* '''per''' – across, by, during<br />
* '''par''' – through, because of<br />
* '''api''' – about<br />
In some cases, prepositions can be used after the noun they modify, in which case they become postpositions: ''Esti penkīs penkiū pas'' “It’s five past five”. In case, when a verb of motion is used with a prefix, the preposition is usually dropped, but not in cases, when the preposition is different from the verb prefix: '''''Zō'''jeimi '''in''' damanmi'' “I walk into my house from behind”, but '''''In'''eimi midamun'' “I enter my house”. [[w:Preposition stranding|Stranding]] can seldom occur in dialects, but it is not allowed in the standard language.<br />
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'''Conjunctions''' are used to link together clauses in a sentence. Some common Carpathian [[w:Conjunction (grammar)|conjunctions]] are:<br />
* '''ō/ei''' – and<br />
* '''be/nu''' – but<br />
* '''har''' – or, question starter<br />
* '''jilei/lei''' – if<br />
* '''kai''' – that<br />
* '''dakai''' – until<br />
* '''ali''' – or/but<br />
* '''ba''' – because<br />
* '''parta''' – however<br />
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Some conjunctions can follow the clause they modify: ''weidēsa be ne weidēsa '''lei''', ne zinōhū'' “'''Whether''' he saw it or not, I don’t know”.<br />
==Vocabulary==<br />
''Main article: [[Carpathian vocabulary]]''<br />
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Although the Carpathian language is Indo-European, one can identify many words that do not have cognates within the Indo-European language family. Carpathian has borrowed a large portion of its vocabulary from the Balto-Slavic languages, mainly from Slovak, Polish, Ukrainian, as well as some words from Hungarian, a Uralic language, and an extinct Oghuric language, called Avar, that used to be spoken south of the Carpathian Mountains. The percentage of [[w:Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan]] loanwords can be estimated at approximately 5%, which is comparable to Romanian and Hungarian loanwords in Southern Lowlands dialects of Carpathian, but they constitute a specific portion of vocabulary, such as topographical features and plants. The [[w:Pre-Indo-European languages|Pre-Indo-European substrate]] is more well-preserved in Eastern Carpathian, particularly in the Highland dialects. In these borrowings, the voiced plosives are unstable or non-existent, which may indicate that the original languages lacked voicing distinction. The initial "s" before another consonant (often called the [[w:Indo-European s-mobile|s-mobile]]) is often dropped before a plosive, with some exceptions, such as ''stogas<sup>W</sup>/stagas<sup>E</sup>'' “stack” from PIE ''*stógos'' (which is also an example, where [[w:Winter's law|Winter's law]] failed to apply, suggesting that the word may be a loanword).<br />
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[[Category:Languages]]<br />
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[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_verbs&diff=298243Carpathian verbs2023-03-15T17:04:15Z<p>Raistas: /* Aspectual and deictic affixes */</p>
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<div>Carpathian '''verbs''' reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called [[w:Tense–aspect–mood|TAM]]. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as [[w:Participle|participles]], [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] and [[w:Supine|supine]] are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its [[w:Argument (linguistics)|arguments]], which is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ''ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi'' “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").<br />
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Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — ''sēdē-'' (infinitive and aorist), ''sēdi-'' (imperfective) and ''sōd-'' (perfect); “remain” — ''lik-'' (infinitive), ''leik-'' (present), ''likā-'' (aorist) ''laik-'' (perfect).<br />
==Personal Endings==<br />
Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: '''athematic''' and '''thematic''', the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Present<br />
! colspan="2" | Aorist<br />
! colspan="2" | Perfect<br />
! colspan="2" | Optative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ū''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ai''<br />
| ''-a''<br />
| ''-(j)ēn''<br />
| ''-(j)ain''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-si''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-s''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
| ''-(j)ēs''<br />
| ''-(j)ais''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-ti<br />
| ''-e<br />
| ''-∅/-a''<br />
| ''-e''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-i''<br />
| ''-(j)ē''<br />
| ''-(j)ai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(e)wā́''<br />
| ''-awā́''<br />
| ''-(a)wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗwā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩwā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(e)tā́''<br />
| ''-atā́''<br />
| ''-(a)tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(e)tìs<br />
| ''-atìs<br />
| ''-(a)tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtis''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mès''<br />
| ''-(e)mùn/-mà''<br />
| ''-amè''<br />
| ''-(a)mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗmes''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩma''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(e)tè''<br />
| ''-atè''<br />
| ''-(a)tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗte''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩte''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-eñti<br />
| ''-añti<br />
| ''-iñ''<br />
| ''-añ''<br />
| ''-ínti''<br />
| ''-ín''<br />
| ''-(j)énti''<br />
| ''-ajín''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
*In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is ''-mun'' and ''-aimun'', while in Eastern Carpathian it is ''-ma'' and ''-aima''.<br />
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==Conjugation==<br />
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē/ī''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩmi''<br />
|''stèrhū''<br />
|''turiū́''<br />
|''gidā́hū''<br />
|''zirhḗjū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsi''<br />
|''stèrhei''<br />
|''turiéi''<br />
|''gidā́hei''<br />
|''zirhḗjei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsti''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitwā́''<br />
|''sterhewā́''<br />
|''turiewā́''<br />
|''gidewā́''<br />
|''zirhējewā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turietā́''<br />
|''gidetā́''<br />
|''zirhējetā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turietìs''<br />
|''gidetìs''<br />
|''zirhējetìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeimès''<br />
|''sterhemà''<br />
|''turiemà''<br />
|''gidemà''<br />
|''zirhējemà''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turietè''<br />
|''gidetè''<br />
|''zirhējetè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeiteñti''<br />
|''sterhañti''<br />
|''turiañti''<br />
|''gidañti''<br />
|''zirhējañti''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''stèrhetei'' “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ''ster̃hetei''. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: ''l'''ì'''ktei'' “to remain” — ''l'''eĩ'''kū'' “I remain”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Aorist|Aorist]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩtun''<br />
|''stèrhun''<br />
|''turḗjun''<br />
|''gidā́sun''<br />
|''zirhḗjun''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗjis''<br />
|''gidā́sis''<br />
|''zirhḗjis''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩ''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''turḗ''<br />
|''gidā́se''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitawā́''<br />
|''sterhawā́''<br />
|''turēwā́''<br />
|''gidāsawā́''<br />
|''zirhēwā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeitatā́''<br />
|''sterhatā́''<br />
|''turētā́''<br />
|''gidāsatā́''<br />
|''zirhētā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeitatìs''<br />
|''sterhatìs''<br />
|''turētìs''<br />
|''gidāsatìs''<br />
|''zirhētìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeitamè''<br />
|''sterhamè''<br />
|''turēmè''<br />
|''gidāsamè''<br />
|''zirhēmè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeitatè''<br />
|''sterhatè''<br />
|''turētè''<br />
|''gidāsatè''<br />
|''zirhētè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeitiñ''<br />
|''sterhañ''<br />
|''turējañ''<br />
|''gidāsañ''<br />
|''zirhējañ''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kúr'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).<br />
<br />
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperfect|Imperfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skéitun''<br />
|''stirhán''<br />
|''turián''<br />
|''gidián''<br />
|''zirhḗjan''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skéis''<br />
|''stirhē̃s''<br />
|''turiḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗjēs''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skéi''<br />
|''stirhē̃''<br />
|''turiḗ''<br />
|''gidā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjē''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitē̃wā''<br />
|''stirhē̃wā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhējḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tā''<br />
|''stirhē̃tā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhējḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tis''<br />
|''stirhē̃tis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhējḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃me''<br />
|''stirhē̃me''<br />
|''turiḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhējḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃te''<br />
|''stirhē̃te''<br />
|''turiḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhējḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiteñ''<br />
|''stirheñ''<br />
|''turējeñ''<br />
|''gidāseñ''<br />
|''zirhējeñ''<br />
|}<br />
The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: ''"bē"'' + infinitive — ''bē skeistei'' “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: ''sk'''i'''tēwā'' “we two were reading” but ''sk'''ei'''twā'' “we two are reading”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Perfect (grammar)|Perfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtai''<br />
|''stàrha''<br />
|''turḗja''<br />
|''gidā́ha''<br />
|''zirhḗja''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩstai''<br />
|''stàrta''<br />
|''turḗta''<br />
|''gidā́ta''<br />
|''zirhḗta''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtei''<br />
|''stàrhe''<br />
|''turḗje''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skaitwā́''<br />
|''stárwā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skaistā́''<br />
|''stártā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skaistìs''<br />
|''stártis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skaimè''<br />
|''stárme''<br />
|''turḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skaistè''<br />
|''stárte''<br />
|''turḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skaitínti''<br />
|''starhin''<br />
|''turḗjin''<br />
|''gidā́hin''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: ''l'''ei'''kū'' “I remain” — ''l'''ai'''ka'' “I have remained/I am preserved”; ''pasad'''ḗ'''demi'' “I’m putting it down” — ''pasad'''ṓ'''dai'' “I’ve put it down”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Future tense|Future]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiū''<br />
|''stèrhesiū''<br />
|''turḗsiū''<br />
|''gidā́siū''<br />
|''zirhḗsiū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiei''<br />
|''stèrhesiei''<br />
|''turḗsiei''<br />
|''gidā́siei''<br />
|''zirhḗsiei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeĩsiwā''<br />
|''stèrhesiwā''<br />
|''turḗsiwā''<br />
|''gidā́siwā''<br />
|''zirhḗsiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitā''<br />
|''stèrhesitā''<br />
|''turḗsitā''<br />
|''gidā́sitā''<br />
|''zirhḗsitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitis''<br />
|''stèrhesitis''<br />
|''turḗsitis''<br />
|''gidā́sitis''<br />
|''zirhḗsitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsima''<br />
|''stèrhesima''<br />
|''turḗsima''<br />
|''gidā́sima''<br />
|''zirhḗsima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsite''<br />
|''stèrhesite''<br />
|''turḗsite''<br />
|''gidā́site''<br />
|''zirhḗsite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsianti''<br />
|''stèrhesianti''<br />
|''turḗsianti''<br />
|''gidā́sianti''<br />
|''zirhḗsianti''<br />
|}<br />
The future tense in Carpathian still retains its connection to the [[w:Desiderative mood|desiderative]] aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: ''skeisiū'' “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: ''skitiēn'' “I am to read”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Optative mood|Optative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēn''<br />
|''stèrhain''<br />
|''tùriain''<br />
|''gidā́hain''<br />
|''zirhḗjain''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhais''<br />
|''tùriais''<br />
|''gidā́hais''<br />
|''zirhḗjais''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhai''<br />
|''tùriai''<br />
|''gidā́hai''<br />
|''zirhḗjai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitiḗwā''<br />
|''sterhaĩwā''<br />
|''turiaĩwā''<br />
|''gidahaĩwā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtā''<br />
|''sterhaĩtā''<br />
|''turiaĩtā''<br />
|''gidahaĩtā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtis''<br />
|''sterhaĩtis''<br />
|''turiaĩtis''<br />
|''gidahaĩtis''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗmes''<br />
|''sterhaĩma''<br />
|''turiaĩma''<br />
|''gidahaĩma''<br />
|''zirhḗjaima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗte''<br />
|''stèrhaĩte''<br />
|''turiaĩte''<br />
|''gidahaĩte''<br />
|''zirhḗjaite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skitiénti''<br />
|''sterhajín''<br />
|''turējín''<br />
|''gidāhín''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In Carpathian the optative forms are used as imperative. The original imperative is used only for direct orders or commands and may be perceived as informal or rude. The Eastern dialects generally preserve a separate imperative better, than the Western ones, some of which lost it completely.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperative mood|Imperative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skitiè''<br />
|''stèrhi''<br />
|''tùri''<br />
|''gidā́hi''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩstu''<br />
|''stèrhie''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turitā́''<br />
|''giditā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjetā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turitìs''<br />
|''giditìs''<br />
|''zirhḗjetis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turitè''<br />
|''giditè''<br />
|''zirhḗjete''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiténtu''<br />
|''sterhañtu''<br />
|''turiañtu''<br />
|''gidañtu''<br />
|''zirhḗjantu''<br />
|}<br />
*Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.<br />
===Inactive verbs===<br />
The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of [[w:Autocausative verb|autocausative]] verbs are ''supāteisin'' “to sleep”, ''dōmāteisin'' “to suppose”, ''wōjāteisin'' “to believe” and ''tinkāteisin'' “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The [[w:Impersonal verb|impersonal]] verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being ''snigetei'' “to snow”, ''zarētei'' “to dawn”, ''lītei''. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |<br />
! colspan="3" | Impersonal<br />
! Autocausative<br />
|-<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''j''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
|-<br />
!''snigetéi'' “to snow”<br />
!''zarḗtei'' “to dawn”<br />
!''lī́tei'' “to rain”<br />
!''supā́teisin'' “to sleep”<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
|''sniñgi''<br />
|''zarḗ''<br />
|''lī́ji''<br />
|''supéimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
|''snìgā''<br />
|''zàriā''<br />
|''lìjā''<br />
|''supā́misin''<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|''snìgḗ''<br />
|''zàriḗ''<br />
|''lìjḗ''<br />
|''supḗmisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Perfect<br />
|''snìga''<br />
|''zària''<br />
|''lìja''<br />
|''supā́jamisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
|''snìgis''<br />
|''zarḗs''<br />
|''lī́s''<br />
|''supā́smisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Optative<br />
|''snìgai''<br />
|''zàriai''<br />
|''lī́jai''<br />
|''supā́jaimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|''snìge''<br />
|''zàre''<br />
|''lìje''<br />
|''sùpemisin''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Object markers===<br />
One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the [[w:Subject (grammar)|subject]], and affected persons are [[w:Object (grammar)|objects]] (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] is not indicated.<br />
<br />
Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Direct Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ti''<br />
| ''-(j)i''<br />
| ''-ni''<br />
| ''-sa''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''-nū''<br />
| ''-wū''<br />
| ''-(j)ī''<br />
| ''-nai''<br />
| ''-sai''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''-nas''<br />
| ''-was''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-nan''<br />
| ''-sā''<br />
| ''-tā''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Indirect Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''mei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
| ''ei-''<br />
| ''nai-''<br />
| ''sai-''<br />
| ''tai-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''wō-''<br />
| ''ī-''<br />
| ''nan-''<br />
| ''san-''<br />
| ''tan-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''us-''<br />
| ''īn-''<br />
| ''nei-''<br />
| ''sei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: '''''ei'''dṓdan'''ta''''' “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: ''turi'''ū'''-'' “I hold” and ''turēj'''u'''n-'' “I held” become ''turi'''ō'''sa'' “I’m holding it” and ''turēj'''a'''nsa'' “I held it”.<br />
<br />
==Aspectual and deictic affixes==<br />
Carpathian verbs form [[w:Lexical aspect|lexical aspect]] using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:<br />
*Suffixes, which make imperfective ([[w:Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]]) or [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]] verbs from simple perfective verbs: ''nestei'' “to carry” — ''nasītei'' “to be carrying”, ''nasiōtei'' “to carry often”.<br />
*A suffix, which makes [[w:Inchoative aspect|inchoative]] verbs, from imperfective verbs: ''stahētei'' “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.<br />
*Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, [[w:Iterative aspect|iterative]] verbs: ''peistei'' “to write” — ''kirtātei'' “to write” — ''nōkirtātei'' “to write down”, ''pakirtātei'' “to write several times (iterative)”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. ''bēgetei'' “run”, ''eitei'' “go”, ''nestei'' “carry”, ''westei'' “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the ''pernestei per hapān'' “to carry through a river (once)” — ''pernasītei'' “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.<br />
<br />
Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Suffix<br />
! 3sg Present<br />
! Infinitive<br />
! Examples<br />
! Function<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''-na''<br />
| ''-ne''<br />
| ''-natei''<br />
| ''kun'''na'''tei'' “to throw”<br>''lim'''na'''tei “to get stuck”<br />
| [[w:Inchoative aspect|Inchoative]], [[w:Momentane|momentaneous]]<br />
| The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-je''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''mautei'' “to wash”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| Transitive imperfective Not productive.<br />
| The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-ie''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''siltei'' “to send”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| [[w:Dynamic verb|fientive]] verbs.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ēj''<br />
| ''-ēje''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''hauj'''ē'''tei'' “to be aware”<br/>''leg'''ē'''tei'' “to lie (be situated)”<br/>''bil'''ē'''tei'' “to be white”<br/>''dih'''ē'''tei'' “to think”<br />
| [[w:Stative verb|Stative]] verbs, often continuous.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. [[w:Deadjectival verb|Deadjectival]] inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ā''<br />
| ''-āhe''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''kēj'''ā'''tei'' “to observe”<br/>''taup'''ā'''tei'' “to stamp”<br/>''harb'''ā'''tei'' “to work”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]], [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]], [[w:Intensive word form|intensive]].<br />
| Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ō''<br />
| ''-ōhe''<br />
| ''-ōtei''<br />
| ''wan'''ō'''tei'' “to become violet”<br/><br />
| [[w:Deadjectival verb|deadjectival]] inchoative verbs.<br />
| Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-au''<br />
| ''-auje''<br />
| ''-autei''<br />
| ''ōg'''au'''tei'' “to gather berries”<br/>''mīl'''au'''tei'' “to endear”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]] progressive verbs.<br />
| The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ī''<br />
| ''-ī''<br />
| ''-ītei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kail'''ī'''tei'' “to cure”<br/>''parg'''ī'''tei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The vowel "-ī-" becomes "-ei", when final.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-jē''<br />
| ''-iei''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''milk'''ē'''tei'' “to be silent”<br/>''mud'''ē'''tei'' “to be weak”<br/>''girb'''ē'''tei'' “to have a need for something”<br />
| Inactive imperfective denominal verbs.<br />
| The vowel "-e-" becomes "-ei-", when final.<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: ''legetei'' “to lie down” — ''li'''n'''gū'' “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: ''slūnautei'' “to be famous”, ''kurnautei'' “to prepare”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian prefixes:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Examples<br />
! Approximate<br>meaning<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''ar-''<br />
| ''arkaltei'' “to break apart”<br />
| “dis-”, “un-”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''at-''<br />
| ''addōtei'' “to give back”<br />
| “from”, “back”.<br />
| Has a form ''ati-'' before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ap-''<br />
| ''apeitei'' “to walk around”<br />
| “around”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''ep-'' instead. Has a form ''api-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''da-''<br />
| ''dajeitei'' “to go to”<br />
| “towards”, “till”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''au-''<br />
| ''aweitei'' “to walk between”<br />
| “between”, “at”.<br />
| Has a form ''aw-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “in”, “into”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''is-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “out of”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''iš-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ni-''<br />
| ''nijeitei'' “to descend”<br />
| “down”, “below”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''nōjeitei'' “to walk upwards”<br />
| “up”, “over”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''pō-''<br />
| ''pōmintei'' “to recall”, ''pōjeitei'' “to come later”<br />
| “later”.<br />
| Some Western dialects have ''pā-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pa-''<br />
| ''pamintei'' “to remember”, ''panestei'' “to carry away”<br />
| “at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs.<br />
| Has a form ''paj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ''per-''<br />
| ''perdōtei'' “to pass over”, ''pereitei'' “to cross”<br />
| “over”, “re-”, “through”.<br />
| Has a form ''pere-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''par-''<br />
| ''pareitei'' “to walk along”<br />
| “along”, “completely”.<br />
| Has a form ''para-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''perei-''<br />
| ''perijeitei'' “to approach”<br />
| “by”, “next to”.<br />
| Has a form ''perij-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pirt-''<br />
| ''pirtistātei'' “to contrast”<br />
| “against”.<br />
| Has a form ''pirti-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ō-''<br />
| ''ōjeitei'' “to almost reach”, ''ōsiausteisin'' “to be like a joke”<br />
| “Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns.<br />
| Has the form ''ōj-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''sam-''<br />
| ''sameitei'' “to walk together”<br />
| “together”.<br />
| Has a form ''sama-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''su-''<br />
| ''sumētei'' “to dare”<br />
| “good”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''sun-''<br />
| ''suntartei'' “to talk with someone”<br />
| “with”, “alongside”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''uz-''<br />
| ''uzimtei'' “to obtain”<br />
| “at”, “onto”, “in return for”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''už-'' instead. Becomes ''us-'' before voiceless consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''zō-''<br />
| ''zōjeitei'' “to walk from behind”<br />
| “behind”, “after”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''žō-'' instead. Becomes ''zōj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Periphrastic formations==<br />
The original Proto-Indo-European [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of ''būtei'' and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''būnta skeistei'' “I would be reading that”; ''būsta skeistun'' “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb ''būtei'' (subject endings only) are as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+[[w:Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́n''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́s''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́wā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́tā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́tis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́me''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́te''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́wen''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: ''skeistumbū́'' “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.<br />
<br />
In addition to synthetic future-desiderative, there are also several '''analytic future''' constructions with a modal verb and an infinitive or supine, which, unlike the former synthetic form, express necessity or obligation, for example: ''eimi skeistei'' “I’m going to read”, ''immi dētun'' “I must have it done”. In order to denote simple futurity of an action, present tense may be used: ''tā pa skeisteta kunīgān'' “later he/she will read a book”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian verbs express [[w:Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]] of an action by means of the verb ''leistei'' “to let” and the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''leide eitei'' “he/she will probably go”, ''lais eitei'' “he/she might have gone”. If used with supine instead, the latter phrase gains a permissive meaning: ''laidinti eitun'' “they are allowed to go”.<br />
<br />
==Participles==<br />
Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.<br />
<br />
One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: ''paustīs perelektunīs'' “migrating birds”, ''wadījas nepatairānas'' “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: ''Akunan '''atihwerwā''', meriā dangānas pagiledēsā''. – “'''Having opened''' the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.<br />
<br />
Just as adjectives, participles decline for gender, case and number of the noun they modify, except for the dative absolute construction. Participles can be conjugated for person in the same way as inactive verbs by taking pronominal suffixes. The table below represents all possible participle forms of the verb ''skeistei'' “to read”, the pronominal forms having the third person singular suffix ''-is''.<br />
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 rowspan=3 |<br />
! colspan=4| Simple<br />
! colspan=4| Pronominal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
|-<br />
! colspan=8| Active<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Imperfective<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitañs || skitañ || skiteñtī || skiteñtis || skitañsis || skitànis || skiteñtihis || skiteñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitañte || colspan=3| skitañtī || skitañtejī || colspan=3| skitañtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitañtis || skitán || colspan=2| skiteñtīs || skitañtisis || skitáinis || colspan=2| skiteñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Aorist<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skaitàwas || skaitàwan || skaitàwī || skaitàwis || skaitàwasis || skaitàwanis || skaitàwihis || skaitàwisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skaĩtawe || colspan=3| skaĩtawī || skaĩtawejis || colspan=3| skaĩtawīhis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skaĩtawis || skaitawā̃ || colspan=2| skaĩtawīs || skaĩtawisis || skaitawànis || colspan=2| skaĩtawīsis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Perfect<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitùs || skituñ || skitwī́ || skitwìs || skitùsis || skitùnis || skitwìhis || skitwìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitàwī || colspan=4| skitàwīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skitū́s || colspan=2| skitwī́s || colspan=2| skitū́sis || colspan=2| skitwī́sis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Desiderative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitasiañs || skitasiañ || skitasiañtī || skitasiñtis || skitasiañsis || skitasiànis || skitasiañtihis || skitasiñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitasiañte || colspan=3| skitasiñtī || skitasiañtejī || colspan=3| skitasiñtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitasiañtis || skitasián || colspan=2| skitasiñtīs || skitasiañtisis || skitasiáinis || colspan=2| skitasiñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Resultative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skillùs || skilluñ || skillī́ || skillìs || skillùsis || skillùnis || skillìhis || skillìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitèlī || colspan=4| skitèlīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skillū́s || colspan=2| skillī́s || colspan=2| skillū́sis || colspan=2| skillī́sis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: ''skaunas kuramas'' “a house that is being built”, ''haiskas histas'' – “a question that has been asked”.<br />
<br />
In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: ''laubīmas'' “liked” — ''laubīmesas'' “more liked” — ''laubīmimmas'' “most liked”.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_verbs&diff=298242Carpathian verbs2023-03-15T16:56:33Z<p>Raistas: /* Aspectual and deictic affixes */</p>
<hr />
<div>Carpathian '''verbs''' reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called [[w:Tense–aspect–mood|TAM]]. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as [[w:Participle|participles]], [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] and [[w:Supine|supine]] are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its [[w:Argument (linguistics)|arguments]], which is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ''ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi'' “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").<br />
<br />
Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — ''sēdē-'' (infinitive and aorist), ''sēdi-'' (imperfective) and ''sōd-'' (perfect); “remain” — ''lik-'' (infinitive), ''leik-'' (present), ''likā-'' (aorist) ''laik-'' (perfect).<br />
==Personal Endings==<br />
Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: '''athematic''' and '''thematic''', the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Present<br />
! colspan="2" | Aorist<br />
! colspan="2" | Perfect<br />
! colspan="2" | Optative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ū''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ai''<br />
| ''-a''<br />
| ''-(j)ēn''<br />
| ''-(j)ain''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-si''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-s''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
| ''-(j)ēs''<br />
| ''-(j)ais''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-ti<br />
| ''-e<br />
| ''-∅/-a''<br />
| ''-e''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-i''<br />
| ''-(j)ē''<br />
| ''-(j)ai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(e)wā́''<br />
| ''-awā́''<br />
| ''-(a)wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗwā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩwā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(e)tā́''<br />
| ''-atā́''<br />
| ''-(a)tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(e)tìs<br />
| ''-atìs<br />
| ''-(a)tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtis''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mès''<br />
| ''-(e)mùn/-mà''<br />
| ''-amè''<br />
| ''-(a)mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗmes''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩma''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(e)tè''<br />
| ''-atè''<br />
| ''-(a)tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗte''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩte''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-eñti<br />
| ''-añti<br />
| ''-iñ''<br />
| ''-añ''<br />
| ''-ínti''<br />
| ''-ín''<br />
| ''-(j)énti''<br />
| ''-ajín''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
*In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is ''-mun'' and ''-aimun'', while in Eastern Carpathian it is ''-ma'' and ''-aima''.<br />
<br />
==Conjugation==<br />
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē/ī''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩmi''<br />
|''stèrhū''<br />
|''turiū́''<br />
|''gidā́hū''<br />
|''zirhḗjū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsi''<br />
|''stèrhei''<br />
|''turiéi''<br />
|''gidā́hei''<br />
|''zirhḗjei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsti''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitwā́''<br />
|''sterhewā́''<br />
|''turiewā́''<br />
|''gidewā́''<br />
|''zirhējewā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turietā́''<br />
|''gidetā́''<br />
|''zirhējetā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turietìs''<br />
|''gidetìs''<br />
|''zirhējetìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeimès''<br />
|''sterhemà''<br />
|''turiemà''<br />
|''gidemà''<br />
|''zirhējemà''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turietè''<br />
|''gidetè''<br />
|''zirhējetè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeiteñti''<br />
|''sterhañti''<br />
|''turiañti''<br />
|''gidañti''<br />
|''zirhējañti''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''stèrhetei'' “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ''ster̃hetei''. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: ''l'''ì'''ktei'' “to remain” — ''l'''eĩ'''kū'' “I remain”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Aorist|Aorist]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩtun''<br />
|''stèrhun''<br />
|''turḗjun''<br />
|''gidā́sun''<br />
|''zirhḗjun''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗjis''<br />
|''gidā́sis''<br />
|''zirhḗjis''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩ''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''turḗ''<br />
|''gidā́se''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitawā́''<br />
|''sterhawā́''<br />
|''turēwā́''<br />
|''gidāsawā́''<br />
|''zirhēwā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeitatā́''<br />
|''sterhatā́''<br />
|''turētā́''<br />
|''gidāsatā́''<br />
|''zirhētā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeitatìs''<br />
|''sterhatìs''<br />
|''turētìs''<br />
|''gidāsatìs''<br />
|''zirhētìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeitamè''<br />
|''sterhamè''<br />
|''turēmè''<br />
|''gidāsamè''<br />
|''zirhēmè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeitatè''<br />
|''sterhatè''<br />
|''turētè''<br />
|''gidāsatè''<br />
|''zirhētè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeitiñ''<br />
|''sterhañ''<br />
|''turējañ''<br />
|''gidāsañ''<br />
|''zirhējañ''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kúr'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).<br />
<br />
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperfect|Imperfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skéitun''<br />
|''stirhán''<br />
|''turián''<br />
|''gidián''<br />
|''zirhḗjan''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skéis''<br />
|''stirhē̃s''<br />
|''turiḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗjēs''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skéi''<br />
|''stirhē̃''<br />
|''turiḗ''<br />
|''gidā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjē''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitē̃wā''<br />
|''stirhē̃wā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhējḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tā''<br />
|''stirhē̃tā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhējḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tis''<br />
|''stirhē̃tis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhējḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃me''<br />
|''stirhē̃me''<br />
|''turiḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhējḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃te''<br />
|''stirhē̃te''<br />
|''turiḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhējḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiteñ''<br />
|''stirheñ''<br />
|''turējeñ''<br />
|''gidāseñ''<br />
|''zirhējeñ''<br />
|}<br />
The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: ''"bē"'' + infinitive — ''bē skeistei'' “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: ''sk'''i'''tēwā'' “we two were reading” but ''sk'''ei'''twā'' “we two are reading”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Perfect (grammar)|Perfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtai''<br />
|''stàrha''<br />
|''turḗja''<br />
|''gidā́ha''<br />
|''zirhḗja''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩstai''<br />
|''stàrta''<br />
|''turḗta''<br />
|''gidā́ta''<br />
|''zirhḗta''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtei''<br />
|''stàrhe''<br />
|''turḗje''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skaitwā́''<br />
|''stárwā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skaistā́''<br />
|''stártā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skaistìs''<br />
|''stártis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skaimè''<br />
|''stárme''<br />
|''turḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skaistè''<br />
|''stárte''<br />
|''turḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skaitínti''<br />
|''starhin''<br />
|''turḗjin''<br />
|''gidā́hin''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: ''l'''ei'''kū'' “I remain” — ''l'''ai'''ka'' “I have remained/I am preserved”; ''pasad'''ḗ'''demi'' “I’m putting it down” — ''pasad'''ṓ'''dai'' “I’ve put it down”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Future tense|Future]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiū''<br />
|''stèrhesiū''<br />
|''turḗsiū''<br />
|''gidā́siū''<br />
|''zirhḗsiū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiei''<br />
|''stèrhesiei''<br />
|''turḗsiei''<br />
|''gidā́siei''<br />
|''zirhḗsiei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeĩsiwā''<br />
|''stèrhesiwā''<br />
|''turḗsiwā''<br />
|''gidā́siwā''<br />
|''zirhḗsiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitā''<br />
|''stèrhesitā''<br />
|''turḗsitā''<br />
|''gidā́sitā''<br />
|''zirhḗsitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitis''<br />
|''stèrhesitis''<br />
|''turḗsitis''<br />
|''gidā́sitis''<br />
|''zirhḗsitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsima''<br />
|''stèrhesima''<br />
|''turḗsima''<br />
|''gidā́sima''<br />
|''zirhḗsima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsite''<br />
|''stèrhesite''<br />
|''turḗsite''<br />
|''gidā́site''<br />
|''zirhḗsite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsianti''<br />
|''stèrhesianti''<br />
|''turḗsianti''<br />
|''gidā́sianti''<br />
|''zirhḗsianti''<br />
|}<br />
The future tense in Carpathian still retains its connection to the [[w:Desiderative mood|desiderative]] aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: ''skeisiū'' “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: ''skitiēn'' “I am to read”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Optative mood|Optative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēn''<br />
|''stèrhain''<br />
|''tùriain''<br />
|''gidā́hain''<br />
|''zirhḗjain''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhais''<br />
|''tùriais''<br />
|''gidā́hais''<br />
|''zirhḗjais''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhai''<br />
|''tùriai''<br />
|''gidā́hai''<br />
|''zirhḗjai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitiḗwā''<br />
|''sterhaĩwā''<br />
|''turiaĩwā''<br />
|''gidahaĩwā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtā''<br />
|''sterhaĩtā''<br />
|''turiaĩtā''<br />
|''gidahaĩtā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtis''<br />
|''sterhaĩtis''<br />
|''turiaĩtis''<br />
|''gidahaĩtis''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗmes''<br />
|''sterhaĩma''<br />
|''turiaĩma''<br />
|''gidahaĩma''<br />
|''zirhḗjaima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗte''<br />
|''stèrhaĩte''<br />
|''turiaĩte''<br />
|''gidahaĩte''<br />
|''zirhḗjaite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skitiénti''<br />
|''sterhajín''<br />
|''turējín''<br />
|''gidāhín''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In Carpathian the optative forms are used as imperative. The original imperative is used only for direct orders or commands and may be perceived as informal or rude. The Eastern dialects generally preserve a separate imperative better, than the Western ones, some of which lost it completely.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperative mood|Imperative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skitiè''<br />
|''stèrhi''<br />
|''tùri''<br />
|''gidā́hi''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩstu''<br />
|''stèrhie''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turitā́''<br />
|''giditā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjetā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turitìs''<br />
|''giditìs''<br />
|''zirhḗjetis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turitè''<br />
|''giditè''<br />
|''zirhḗjete''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiténtu''<br />
|''sterhañtu''<br />
|''turiañtu''<br />
|''gidañtu''<br />
|''zirhḗjantu''<br />
|}<br />
*Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.<br />
===Inactive verbs===<br />
The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of [[w:Autocausative verb|autocausative]] verbs are ''supāteisin'' “to sleep”, ''dōmāteisin'' “to suppose”, ''wōjāteisin'' “to believe” and ''tinkāteisin'' “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The [[w:Impersonal verb|impersonal]] verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being ''snigetei'' “to snow”, ''zarētei'' “to dawn”, ''lītei''. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |<br />
! colspan="3" | Impersonal<br />
! Autocausative<br />
|-<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''j''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
|-<br />
!''snigetéi'' “to snow”<br />
!''zarḗtei'' “to dawn”<br />
!''lī́tei'' “to rain”<br />
!''supā́teisin'' “to sleep”<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
|''sniñgi''<br />
|''zarḗ''<br />
|''lī́ji''<br />
|''supéimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
|''snìgā''<br />
|''zàriā''<br />
|''lìjā''<br />
|''supā́misin''<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|''snìgḗ''<br />
|''zàriḗ''<br />
|''lìjḗ''<br />
|''supḗmisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Perfect<br />
|''snìga''<br />
|''zària''<br />
|''lìja''<br />
|''supā́jamisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
|''snìgis''<br />
|''zarḗs''<br />
|''lī́s''<br />
|''supā́smisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Optative<br />
|''snìgai''<br />
|''zàriai''<br />
|''lī́jai''<br />
|''supā́jaimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|''snìge''<br />
|''zàre''<br />
|''lìje''<br />
|''sùpemisin''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Object markers===<br />
One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the [[w:Subject (grammar)|subject]], and affected persons are [[w:Object (grammar)|objects]] (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] is not indicated.<br />
<br />
Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Direct Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ti''<br />
| ''-(j)i''<br />
| ''-ni''<br />
| ''-sa''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''-nū''<br />
| ''-wū''<br />
| ''-(j)ī''<br />
| ''-nai''<br />
| ''-sai''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''-nas''<br />
| ''-was''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-nan''<br />
| ''-sā''<br />
| ''-tā''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Indirect Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''mei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
| ''ei-''<br />
| ''nai-''<br />
| ''sai-''<br />
| ''tai-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''wō-''<br />
| ''ī-''<br />
| ''nan-''<br />
| ''san-''<br />
| ''tan-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''us-''<br />
| ''īn-''<br />
| ''nei-''<br />
| ''sei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: '''''ei'''dṓdan'''ta''''' “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: ''turi'''ū'''-'' “I hold” and ''turēj'''u'''n-'' “I held” become ''turi'''ō'''sa'' “I’m holding it” and ''turēj'''a'''nsa'' “I held it”.<br />
<br />
==Aspectual and deictic affixes==<br />
Carpathian verbs form [[w:Lexical aspect|lexical aspect]] using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:<br />
*Suffixes, which make imperfective ([[w:Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]]) or [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]] verbs from simple perfective verbs: ''nestei'' “to carry” — ''nasītei'' “to be carrying”, ''nasiōtei'' “to carry often”.<br />
*A suffix, which makes [[w:Inchoative aspect|inchoative]] verbs, from imperfective verbs: ''stahētei'' “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.<br />
*Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, [[w:Iterative aspect|iterative]] verbs: ''peistei'' “to write” — ''kirtātei'' “to write” — ''nōkirtātei'' “to write down”, ''pakirtātei'' “to write several times (iterative)”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. ''bēgetei'' “run”, ''eitei'' “go”, ''nestei'' “carry”, ''westei'' “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the ''pernestei per hapān'' “to carry through a river (once)” — ''pernasītei'' “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.<br />
<br />
Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Suffix<br />
! 3sg Present<br />
! Infinitive<br />
! Examples<br />
! Function<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''-na''<br />
| ''-ne''<br />
| ''-natei''<br />
| ''kun'''na'''tei'' “to throw”<br>''lim'''na'''tei “to get stuck”<br />
| [[w:Inchoative aspect|Inchoative]], [[w:Momentane|momentaneous]]<br />
| The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-je''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''mautei'' “to wash”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| Transitive imperfective Not productive.<br />
| The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-ie''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''siltei'' “to send”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| [[w:Dynamic verb|fientive]] verbs.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ēj''<br />
| ''-ēje''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''hauj'''ē'''tei'' “to be aware”<br/>''leg'''ē'''tei'' “to lie (be situated)”<br/>''bil'''ē'''tei'' “to be white”<br />
| [[w:Stative verb|Stative]] verbs, often continuous.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. [[w:Deadjectival verb|Deadjectival]] inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ā''<br />
| ''-āhe''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''kēj'''ā'''tei'' “to observe”<br/>''taup'''ā'''tei'' “to stamp”<br/>''harb'''ā'''tei'' “to work”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]], [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]], [[w:Intensive word form|intensive]].<br />
| Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ō''<br />
| ''-ōhe''<br />
| ''-ōtei''<br />
| ''wan'''ō'''tei'' “to become violet”<br/><br />
| [[w:Deadjectival verb|deadjectival]] inchoative verbs.<br />
| Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-au''<br />
| ''-auje''<br />
| ''-autei''<br />
| ''ōg'''au'''tei'' “to gather berries”<br/>''mīlautei'' “to endear”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]] progressive verbs.<br />
| The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ī''<br />
| ''-ī''<br />
| ''-ītei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pargītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The vowel "-ī-" becomes "-ei", when final.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-jē''<br />
| ''-iei''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''milk'''ē'''tei'' “to be silent”<br/>''mudētei'' “to be weak”<br/>''girbētei'' “to have a need for something”<br />
| Inactive imperfective denominal verbs.<br />
| The vowel "-e-" becomes "-ei-", when final.<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: ''legetei'' “to lie down” — ''li'''n'''gū'' “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: ''slūnautei'' “to be famous”, ''kurnautei'' “to prepare”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian prefixes:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Examples<br />
! Approximate<br>meaning<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''ar-''<br />
| ''arkaltei'' “to break apart”<br />
| “dis-”, “un-”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''at-''<br />
| ''addōtei'' “to give back”<br />
| “from”, “back”.<br />
| Has a form ''ati-'' before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ap-''<br />
| ''apeitei'' “to walk around”<br />
| “around”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''ep-'' instead. Has a form ''api-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''da-''<br />
| ''dajeitei'' “to go to”<br />
| “towards”, “till”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''au-''<br />
| ''aweitei'' “to walk between”<br />
| “between”, “at”.<br />
| Has a form ''aw-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “in”, “into”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''is-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “out of”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''iš-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ni-''<br />
| ''nijeitei'' “to descend”<br />
| “down”, “below”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''nōjeitei'' “to walk upwards”<br />
| “up”, “over”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''pō-''<br />
| ''pōmintei'' “to recall”, ''pōjeitei'' “to come later”<br />
| “later”.<br />
| Some Western dialects have ''pā-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pa-''<br />
| ''pamintei'' “to remember”, ''panestei'' “to carry away”<br />
| “at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs.<br />
| Has a form ''paj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ''per-''<br />
| ''perdōtei'' “to pass over”, ''pereitei'' “to cross”<br />
| “over”, “re-”, “through”.<br />
| Has a form ''pere-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''par-''<br />
| ''pareitei'' “to walk along”<br />
| “along”, “completely”.<br />
| Has a form ''para-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''perei-''<br />
| ''perijeitei'' “to approach”<br />
| “by”, “next to”.<br />
| Has a form ''perij-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pirt-''<br />
| ''pirtistātei'' “to contrast”<br />
| “against”.<br />
| Has a form ''pirti-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ō-''<br />
| ''ōjeitei'' “to almost reach”, ''ōsiausteisin'' “to be like a joke”<br />
| “Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns.<br />
| Has the form ''ōj-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''sam-''<br />
| ''sameitei'' “to walk together”<br />
| “together”.<br />
| Has a form ''sama-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''su-''<br />
| ''sumētei'' “to dare”<br />
| “good”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''sun-''<br />
| ''suntartei'' “to talk with someone”<br />
| “with”, “alongside”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''uz-''<br />
| ''uzimtei'' “to obtain”<br />
| “at”, “onto”, “in return for”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''už-'' instead. Becomes ''us-'' before voiceless consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''zō-''<br />
| ''zōjeitei'' “to walk from behind”<br />
| “behind”, “after”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''žō-'' instead. Becomes ''zōj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Periphrastic formations==<br />
The original Proto-Indo-European [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of ''būtei'' and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''būnta skeistei'' “I would be reading that”; ''būsta skeistun'' “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb ''būtei'' (subject endings only) are as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+[[w:Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́n''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́s''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́wā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́tā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́tis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́me''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́te''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́wen''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: ''skeistumbū́'' “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.<br />
<br />
In addition to synthetic future-desiderative, there are also several '''analytic future''' constructions with a modal verb and an infinitive or supine, which, unlike the former synthetic form, express necessity or obligation, for example: ''eimi skeistei'' “I’m going to read”, ''immi dētun'' “I must have it done”. In order to denote simple futurity of an action, present tense may be used: ''tā pa skeisteta kunīgān'' “later he/she will read a book”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian verbs express [[w:Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]] of an action by means of the verb ''leistei'' “to let” and the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''leide eitei'' “he/she will probably go”, ''lais eitei'' “he/she might have gone”. If used with supine instead, the latter phrase gains a permissive meaning: ''laidinti eitun'' “they are allowed to go”.<br />
<br />
==Participles==<br />
Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.<br />
<br />
One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: ''paustīs perelektunīs'' “migrating birds”, ''wadījas nepatairānas'' “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: ''Akunan '''atihwerwā''', meriā dangānas pagiledēsā''. – “'''Having opened''' the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.<br />
<br />
Just as adjectives, participles decline for gender, case and number of the noun they modify, except for the dative absolute construction. Participles can be conjugated for person in the same way as inactive verbs by taking pronominal suffixes. The table below represents all possible participle forms of the verb ''skeistei'' “to read”, the pronominal forms having the third person singular suffix ''-is''.<br />
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 rowspan=3 |<br />
! colspan=4| Simple<br />
! colspan=4| Pronominal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
|-<br />
! colspan=8| Active<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Imperfective<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitañs || skitañ || skiteñtī || skiteñtis || skitañsis || skitànis || skiteñtihis || skiteñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitañte || colspan=3| skitañtī || skitañtejī || colspan=3| skitañtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitañtis || skitán || colspan=2| skiteñtīs || skitañtisis || skitáinis || colspan=2| skiteñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Aorist<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skaitàwas || skaitàwan || skaitàwī || skaitàwis || skaitàwasis || skaitàwanis || skaitàwihis || skaitàwisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skaĩtawe || colspan=3| skaĩtawī || skaĩtawejis || colspan=3| skaĩtawīhis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skaĩtawis || skaitawā̃ || colspan=2| skaĩtawīs || skaĩtawisis || skaitawànis || colspan=2| skaĩtawīsis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Perfect<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitùs || skituñ || skitwī́ || skitwìs || skitùsis || skitùnis || skitwìhis || skitwìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitàwī || colspan=4| skitàwīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skitū́s || colspan=2| skitwī́s || colspan=2| skitū́sis || colspan=2| skitwī́sis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Desiderative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitasiañs || skitasiañ || skitasiañtī || skitasiñtis || skitasiañsis || skitasiànis || skitasiañtihis || skitasiñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitasiañte || colspan=3| skitasiñtī || skitasiañtejī || colspan=3| skitasiñtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitasiañtis || skitasián || colspan=2| skitasiñtīs || skitasiañtisis || skitasiáinis || colspan=2| skitasiñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Resultative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skillùs || skilluñ || skillī́ || skillìs || skillùsis || skillùnis || skillìhis || skillìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitèlī || colspan=4| skitèlīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skillū́s || colspan=2| skillī́s || colspan=2| skillū́sis || colspan=2| skillī́sis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: ''skaunas kuramas'' “a house that is being built”, ''haiskas histas'' – “a question that has been asked”.<br />
<br />
In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: ''laubīmas'' “liked” — ''laubīmesas'' “more liked” — ''laubīmimmas'' “most liked”.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_verbs&diff=298241Carpathian verbs2023-03-15T16:54:07Z<p>Raistas: /* Aspectual and deictic affixes */</p>
<hr />
<div>Carpathian '''verbs''' reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called [[w:Tense–aspect–mood|TAM]]. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as [[w:Participle|participles]], [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] and [[w:Supine|supine]] are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its [[w:Argument (linguistics)|arguments]], which is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ''ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi'' “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").<br />
<br />
Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — ''sēdē-'' (infinitive and aorist), ''sēdi-'' (imperfective) and ''sōd-'' (perfect); “remain” — ''lik-'' (infinitive), ''leik-'' (present), ''likā-'' (aorist) ''laik-'' (perfect).<br />
==Personal Endings==<br />
Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: '''athematic''' and '''thematic''', the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Present<br />
! colspan="2" | Aorist<br />
! colspan="2" | Perfect<br />
! colspan="2" | Optative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ū''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ai''<br />
| ''-a''<br />
| ''-(j)ēn''<br />
| ''-(j)ain''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-si''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-s''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
| ''-(j)ēs''<br />
| ''-(j)ais''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-ti<br />
| ''-e<br />
| ''-∅/-a''<br />
| ''-e''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-i''<br />
| ''-(j)ē''<br />
| ''-(j)ai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(e)wā́''<br />
| ''-awā́''<br />
| ''-(a)wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗwā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩwā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(e)tā́''<br />
| ''-atā́''<br />
| ''-(a)tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(e)tìs<br />
| ''-atìs<br />
| ''-(a)tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtis''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mès''<br />
| ''-(e)mùn/-mà''<br />
| ''-amè''<br />
| ''-(a)mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗmes''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩma''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(e)tè''<br />
| ''-atè''<br />
| ''-(a)tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗte''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩte''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-eñti<br />
| ''-añti<br />
| ''-iñ''<br />
| ''-añ''<br />
| ''-ínti''<br />
| ''-ín''<br />
| ''-(j)énti''<br />
| ''-ajín''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
*In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is ''-mun'' and ''-aimun'', while in Eastern Carpathian it is ''-ma'' and ''-aima''.<br />
<br />
==Conjugation==<br />
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē/ī''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩmi''<br />
|''stèrhū''<br />
|''turiū́''<br />
|''gidā́hū''<br />
|''zirhḗjū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsi''<br />
|''stèrhei''<br />
|''turiéi''<br />
|''gidā́hei''<br />
|''zirhḗjei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsti''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitwā́''<br />
|''sterhewā́''<br />
|''turiewā́''<br />
|''gidewā́''<br />
|''zirhējewā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turietā́''<br />
|''gidetā́''<br />
|''zirhējetā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turietìs''<br />
|''gidetìs''<br />
|''zirhējetìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeimès''<br />
|''sterhemà''<br />
|''turiemà''<br />
|''gidemà''<br />
|''zirhējemà''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turietè''<br />
|''gidetè''<br />
|''zirhējetè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeiteñti''<br />
|''sterhañti''<br />
|''turiañti''<br />
|''gidañti''<br />
|''zirhējañti''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''stèrhetei'' “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ''ster̃hetei''. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: ''l'''ì'''ktei'' “to remain” — ''l'''eĩ'''kū'' “I remain”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Aorist|Aorist]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩtun''<br />
|''stèrhun''<br />
|''turḗjun''<br />
|''gidā́sun''<br />
|''zirhḗjun''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗjis''<br />
|''gidā́sis''<br />
|''zirhḗjis''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩ''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''turḗ''<br />
|''gidā́se''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitawā́''<br />
|''sterhawā́''<br />
|''turēwā́''<br />
|''gidāsawā́''<br />
|''zirhēwā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeitatā́''<br />
|''sterhatā́''<br />
|''turētā́''<br />
|''gidāsatā́''<br />
|''zirhētā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeitatìs''<br />
|''sterhatìs''<br />
|''turētìs''<br />
|''gidāsatìs''<br />
|''zirhētìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeitamè''<br />
|''sterhamè''<br />
|''turēmè''<br />
|''gidāsamè''<br />
|''zirhēmè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeitatè''<br />
|''sterhatè''<br />
|''turētè''<br />
|''gidāsatè''<br />
|''zirhētè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeitiñ''<br />
|''sterhañ''<br />
|''turējañ''<br />
|''gidāsañ''<br />
|''zirhējañ''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kúr'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).<br />
<br />
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperfect|Imperfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skéitun''<br />
|''stirhán''<br />
|''turián''<br />
|''gidián''<br />
|''zirhḗjan''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skéis''<br />
|''stirhē̃s''<br />
|''turiḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗjēs''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skéi''<br />
|''stirhē̃''<br />
|''turiḗ''<br />
|''gidā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjē''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitē̃wā''<br />
|''stirhē̃wā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhējḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tā''<br />
|''stirhē̃tā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhējḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tis''<br />
|''stirhē̃tis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhējḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃me''<br />
|''stirhē̃me''<br />
|''turiḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhējḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃te''<br />
|''stirhē̃te''<br />
|''turiḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhējḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiteñ''<br />
|''stirheñ''<br />
|''turējeñ''<br />
|''gidāseñ''<br />
|''zirhējeñ''<br />
|}<br />
The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: ''"bē"'' + infinitive — ''bē skeistei'' “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: ''sk'''i'''tēwā'' “we two were reading” but ''sk'''ei'''twā'' “we two are reading”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Perfect (grammar)|Perfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtai''<br />
|''stàrha''<br />
|''turḗja''<br />
|''gidā́ha''<br />
|''zirhḗja''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩstai''<br />
|''stàrta''<br />
|''turḗta''<br />
|''gidā́ta''<br />
|''zirhḗta''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtei''<br />
|''stàrhe''<br />
|''turḗje''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skaitwā́''<br />
|''stárwā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skaistā́''<br />
|''stártā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skaistìs''<br />
|''stártis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skaimè''<br />
|''stárme''<br />
|''turḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skaistè''<br />
|''stárte''<br />
|''turḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skaitínti''<br />
|''starhin''<br />
|''turḗjin''<br />
|''gidā́hin''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: ''l'''ei'''kū'' “I remain” — ''l'''ai'''ka'' “I have remained/I am preserved”; ''pasad'''ḗ'''demi'' “I’m putting it down” — ''pasad'''ṓ'''dai'' “I’ve put it down”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Future tense|Future]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiū''<br />
|''stèrhesiū''<br />
|''turḗsiū''<br />
|''gidā́siū''<br />
|''zirhḗsiū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiei''<br />
|''stèrhesiei''<br />
|''turḗsiei''<br />
|''gidā́siei''<br />
|''zirhḗsiei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeĩsiwā''<br />
|''stèrhesiwā''<br />
|''turḗsiwā''<br />
|''gidā́siwā''<br />
|''zirhḗsiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitā''<br />
|''stèrhesitā''<br />
|''turḗsitā''<br />
|''gidā́sitā''<br />
|''zirhḗsitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitis''<br />
|''stèrhesitis''<br />
|''turḗsitis''<br />
|''gidā́sitis''<br />
|''zirhḗsitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsima''<br />
|''stèrhesima''<br />
|''turḗsima''<br />
|''gidā́sima''<br />
|''zirhḗsima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsite''<br />
|''stèrhesite''<br />
|''turḗsite''<br />
|''gidā́site''<br />
|''zirhḗsite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsianti''<br />
|''stèrhesianti''<br />
|''turḗsianti''<br />
|''gidā́sianti''<br />
|''zirhḗsianti''<br />
|}<br />
The future tense in Carpathian still retains its connection to the [[w:Desiderative mood|desiderative]] aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: ''skeisiū'' “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: ''skitiēn'' “I am to read”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Optative mood|Optative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēn''<br />
|''stèrhain''<br />
|''tùriain''<br />
|''gidā́hain''<br />
|''zirhḗjain''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhais''<br />
|''tùriais''<br />
|''gidā́hais''<br />
|''zirhḗjais''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhai''<br />
|''tùriai''<br />
|''gidā́hai''<br />
|''zirhḗjai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitiḗwā''<br />
|''sterhaĩwā''<br />
|''turiaĩwā''<br />
|''gidahaĩwā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtā''<br />
|''sterhaĩtā''<br />
|''turiaĩtā''<br />
|''gidahaĩtā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtis''<br />
|''sterhaĩtis''<br />
|''turiaĩtis''<br />
|''gidahaĩtis''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗmes''<br />
|''sterhaĩma''<br />
|''turiaĩma''<br />
|''gidahaĩma''<br />
|''zirhḗjaima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗte''<br />
|''stèrhaĩte''<br />
|''turiaĩte''<br />
|''gidahaĩte''<br />
|''zirhḗjaite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skitiénti''<br />
|''sterhajín''<br />
|''turējín''<br />
|''gidāhín''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In Carpathian the optative forms are used as imperative. The original imperative is used only for direct orders or commands and may be perceived as informal or rude. The Eastern dialects generally preserve a separate imperative better, than the Western ones, some of which lost it completely.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperative mood|Imperative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skitiè''<br />
|''stèrhi''<br />
|''tùri''<br />
|''gidā́hi''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩstu''<br />
|''stèrhie''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turitā́''<br />
|''giditā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjetā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turitìs''<br />
|''giditìs''<br />
|''zirhḗjetis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turitè''<br />
|''giditè''<br />
|''zirhḗjete''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiténtu''<br />
|''sterhañtu''<br />
|''turiañtu''<br />
|''gidañtu''<br />
|''zirhḗjantu''<br />
|}<br />
*Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.<br />
===Inactive verbs===<br />
The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of [[w:Autocausative verb|autocausative]] verbs are ''supāteisin'' “to sleep”, ''dōmāteisin'' “to suppose”, ''wōjāteisin'' “to believe” and ''tinkāteisin'' “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The [[w:Impersonal verb|impersonal]] verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being ''snigetei'' “to snow”, ''zarētei'' “to dawn”, ''lītei''. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |<br />
! colspan="3" | Impersonal<br />
! Autocausative<br />
|-<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''j''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
|-<br />
!''snigetéi'' “to snow”<br />
!''zarḗtei'' “to dawn”<br />
!''lī́tei'' “to rain”<br />
!''supā́teisin'' “to sleep”<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
|''sniñgi''<br />
|''zarḗ''<br />
|''lī́ji''<br />
|''supéimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
|''snìgā''<br />
|''zàriā''<br />
|''lìjā''<br />
|''supā́misin''<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|''snìgḗ''<br />
|''zàriḗ''<br />
|''lìjḗ''<br />
|''supḗmisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Perfect<br />
|''snìga''<br />
|''zària''<br />
|''lìja''<br />
|''supā́jamisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
|''snìgis''<br />
|''zarḗs''<br />
|''lī́s''<br />
|''supā́smisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Optative<br />
|''snìgai''<br />
|''zàriai''<br />
|''lī́jai''<br />
|''supā́jaimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|''snìge''<br />
|''zàre''<br />
|''lìje''<br />
|''sùpemisin''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Object markers===<br />
One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the [[w:Subject (grammar)|subject]], and affected persons are [[w:Object (grammar)|objects]] (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] is not indicated.<br />
<br />
Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Direct Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ti''<br />
| ''-(j)i''<br />
| ''-ni''<br />
| ''-sa''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''-nū''<br />
| ''-wū''<br />
| ''-(j)ī''<br />
| ''-nai''<br />
| ''-sai''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''-nas''<br />
| ''-was''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-nan''<br />
| ''-sā''<br />
| ''-tā''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Indirect Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''mei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
| ''ei-''<br />
| ''nai-''<br />
| ''sai-''<br />
| ''tai-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''wō-''<br />
| ''ī-''<br />
| ''nan-''<br />
| ''san-''<br />
| ''tan-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''us-''<br />
| ''īn-''<br />
| ''nei-''<br />
| ''sei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: '''''ei'''dṓdan'''ta''''' “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: ''turi'''ū'''-'' “I hold” and ''turēj'''u'''n-'' “I held” become ''turi'''ō'''sa'' “I’m holding it” and ''turēj'''a'''nsa'' “I held it”.<br />
<br />
==Aspectual and deictic affixes==<br />
Carpathian verbs form [[w:Lexical aspect|lexical aspect]] using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:<br />
*Suffixes, which make imperfective ([[w:Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]]) or [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]] verbs from simple perfective verbs: ''nestei'' “to carry” — ''nasītei'' “to be carrying”, ''nasiōtei'' “to carry often”.<br />
*A suffix, which makes [[w:Inchoative aspect|inchoative]] verbs, from imperfective verbs: ''stahētei'' “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.<br />
*Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, [[w:Iterative aspect|iterative]] verbs: ''peistei'' “to write” — ''kirtātei'' “to write” — ''nōkirtātei'' “to write down”, ''pakirtātei'' “to write several times (iterative)”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. ''bēgetei'' “run”, ''eitei'' “go”, ''nestei'' “carry”, ''westei'' “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the ''pernestei per hapān'' “to carry through a river (once)” — ''pernasītei'' “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.<br />
<br />
Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Suffix<br />
! 3sg Present<br />
! Infinitive<br />
! Examples<br />
! Function<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''-na''<br />
| ''-ne''<br />
| ''-natei''<br />
| ''kun'''na'''tei'' “to throw”<br>''lim'''na'''tei “to get stuck”<br />
| [[w:Inchoative aspect|Inchoative]], [[w:Momentane|momentaneous]]<br />
| The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-je''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''mautei'' “to wash”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| Transitive imperfective Not productive.<br />
| The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-ie''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''siltei'' “to send”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| [[w:Dynamic verb|fientive]] verbs.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ēj''<br />
| ''-ēje''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''hauj'''ē'''tei'' “to be aware”<br/>''leg'''ē'''tei'' “to lie (be situated)”<br/>''bil'''ē'''tei'' “to be white”<br />
| [[w:Stative verb|Stative]] verbs, often continuous.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. [[w:Deadjectival verb|Deadjectival]] inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ā''<br />
| ''-āhe''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''kēj'''ā'''tei'' “to observe”<br/>''taup'''ā'''tei'' “to stamp”<br/>''harb'''ā'''tei'' “to work”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]], [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]], [[w:Intensive word form|intensive]].<br />
| Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ō''<br />
| ''-ōhe''<br />
| ''-ōtei''<br />
| ''wan'''ō'''tei'' “to become violet”<br/><br />
| [[w:Deadjectival verb|deadjectival]] inchoative verbs.<br />
| Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-au''<br />
| ''-auje''<br />
| ''-autei''<br />
| ''ōg'''au'''tei'' “to gather berries”<br/>''mīlautei'' “to endear”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]] progressive verbs.<br />
| The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ī''<br />
| ''-ī''<br />
| ''-ītei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pirgītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The vowel "-ī-" becomes "-ei", when final.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-jē''<br />
| ''-iei''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''milk'''ē'''tei'' “to be silent”<br/>''mudētei'' “to be weak”<br/>''girbētei'' “to have a need for something”<br />
| Inactive imperfective denominal verbs.<br />
| The vowel "-e-" becomes "-ei-", when final.<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: ''legetei'' “to lie down” — ''li'''n'''gū'' “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: ''slūnautei'' “to be famous”, ''kurnautei'' “to prepare”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian prefixes:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Examples<br />
! Approximate<br>meaning<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''ar-''<br />
| ''arkaltei'' “to break apart”<br />
| “dis-”, “un-”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''at-''<br />
| ''addōtei'' “to give back”<br />
| “from”, “back”.<br />
| Has a form ''ati-'' before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ap-''<br />
| ''apeitei'' “to walk around”<br />
| “around”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''ep-'' instead. Has a form ''api-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''da-''<br />
| ''dajeitei'' “to go to”<br />
| “towards”, “till”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''au-''<br />
| ''aweitei'' “to walk between”<br />
| “between”, “at”.<br />
| Has a form ''aw-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “in”, “into”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''is-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “out of”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''iš-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ni-''<br />
| ''nijeitei'' “to descend”<br />
| “down”, “below”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''nōjeitei'' “to walk upwards”<br />
| “up”, “over”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''pō-''<br />
| ''pōmintei'' “to recall”, ''pōjeitei'' “to come later”<br />
| “later”.<br />
| Some Western dialects have ''pā-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pa-''<br />
| ''pamintei'' “to remember”, ''panestei'' “to carry away”<br />
| “at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs.<br />
| Has a form ''paj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ''per-''<br />
| ''perdōtei'' “to pass over”, ''pereitei'' “to cross”<br />
| “over”, “re-”, “through”.<br />
| Has a form ''pere-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''par-''<br />
| ''pareitei'' “to walk along”<br />
| “along”, “completely”.<br />
| Has a form ''para-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''perei-''<br />
| ''perijeitei'' “to approach”<br />
| “by”, “next to”.<br />
| Has a form ''perij-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pirt-''<br />
| ''pirtistātei'' “to contrast”<br />
| “against”.<br />
| Has a form ''pirti-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ō-''<br />
| ''ōjeitei'' “to almost reach”, ''ōsiausteisin'' “to be like a joke”<br />
| “Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns.<br />
| Has the form ''ōj-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''sam-''<br />
| ''sameitei'' “to walk together”<br />
| “together”.<br />
| Has a form ''sama-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''su-''<br />
| ''sumētei'' “to dare”<br />
| “good”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''sun-''<br />
| ''suntartei'' “to talk with someone”<br />
| “with”, “alongside”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''uz-''<br />
| ''uzimtei'' “to obtain”<br />
| “at”, “onto”, “in return for”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''už-'' instead. Becomes ''us-'' before voiceless consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''zō-''<br />
| ''zōjeitei'' “to walk from behind”<br />
| “behind”, “after”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''žō-'' instead. Becomes ''zōj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Periphrastic formations==<br />
The original Proto-Indo-European [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of ''būtei'' and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''būnta skeistei'' “I would be reading that”; ''būsta skeistun'' “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb ''būtei'' (subject endings only) are as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+[[w:Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́n''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́s''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́wā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́tā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́tis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́me''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́te''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́wen''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: ''skeistumbū́'' “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.<br />
<br />
In addition to synthetic future-desiderative, there are also several '''analytic future''' constructions with a modal verb and an infinitive or supine, which, unlike the former synthetic form, express necessity or obligation, for example: ''eimi skeistei'' “I’m going to read”, ''immi dētun'' “I must have it done”. In order to denote simple futurity of an action, present tense may be used: ''tā pa skeisteta kunīgān'' “later he/she will read a book”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian verbs express [[w:Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]] of an action by means of the verb ''leistei'' “to let” and the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''leide eitei'' “he/she will probably go”, ''lais eitei'' “he/she might have gone”. If used with supine instead, the latter phrase gains a permissive meaning: ''laidinti eitun'' “they are allowed to go”.<br />
<br />
==Participles==<br />
Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.<br />
<br />
One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: ''paustīs perelektunīs'' “migrating birds”, ''wadījas nepatairānas'' “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: ''Akunan '''atihwerwā''', meriā dangānas pagiledēsā''. – “'''Having opened''' the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.<br />
<br />
Just as adjectives, participles decline for gender, case and number of the noun they modify, except for the dative absolute construction. Participles can be conjugated for person in the same way as inactive verbs by taking pronominal suffixes. The table below represents all possible participle forms of the verb ''skeistei'' “to read”, the pronominal forms having the third person singular suffix ''-is''.<br />
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 rowspan=3 |<br />
! colspan=4| Simple<br />
! colspan=4| Pronominal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
|-<br />
! colspan=8| Active<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Imperfective<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitañs || skitañ || skiteñtī || skiteñtis || skitañsis || skitànis || skiteñtihis || skiteñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitañte || colspan=3| skitañtī || skitañtejī || colspan=3| skitañtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitañtis || skitán || colspan=2| skiteñtīs || skitañtisis || skitáinis || colspan=2| skiteñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Aorist<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skaitàwas || skaitàwan || skaitàwī || skaitàwis || skaitàwasis || skaitàwanis || skaitàwihis || skaitàwisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skaĩtawe || colspan=3| skaĩtawī || skaĩtawejis || colspan=3| skaĩtawīhis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skaĩtawis || skaitawā̃ || colspan=2| skaĩtawīs || skaĩtawisis || skaitawànis || colspan=2| skaĩtawīsis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Perfect<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitùs || skituñ || skitwī́ || skitwìs || skitùsis || skitùnis || skitwìhis || skitwìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitàwī || colspan=4| skitàwīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skitū́s || colspan=2| skitwī́s || colspan=2| skitū́sis || colspan=2| skitwī́sis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Desiderative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitasiañs || skitasiañ || skitasiañtī || skitasiñtis || skitasiañsis || skitasiànis || skitasiañtihis || skitasiñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitasiañte || colspan=3| skitasiñtī || skitasiañtejī || colspan=3| skitasiñtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitasiañtis || skitasián || colspan=2| skitasiñtīs || skitasiañtisis || skitasiáinis || colspan=2| skitasiñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Resultative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skillùs || skilluñ || skillī́ || skillìs || skillùsis || skillùnis || skillìhis || skillìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitèlī || colspan=4| skitèlīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skillū́s || colspan=2| skillī́s || colspan=2| skillū́sis || colspan=2| skillī́sis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: ''skaunas kuramas'' “a house that is being built”, ''haiskas histas'' – “a question that has been asked”.<br />
<br />
In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: ''laubīmas'' “liked” — ''laubīmesas'' “more liked” — ''laubīmimmas'' “most liked”.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_verbs&diff=298240Carpathian verbs2023-03-15T16:38:07Z<p>Raistas: /* Aspectual and deictic affixes */</p>
<hr />
<div>Carpathian '''verbs''' reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called [[w:Tense–aspect–mood|TAM]]. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as [[w:Participle|participles]], [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] and [[w:Supine|supine]] are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its [[w:Argument (linguistics)|arguments]], which is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ''ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi'' “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").<br />
<br />
Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — ''sēdē-'' (infinitive and aorist), ''sēdi-'' (imperfective) and ''sōd-'' (perfect); “remain” — ''lik-'' (infinitive), ''leik-'' (present), ''likā-'' (aorist) ''laik-'' (perfect).<br />
==Personal Endings==<br />
Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: '''athematic''' and '''thematic''', the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Present<br />
! colspan="2" | Aorist<br />
! colspan="2" | Perfect<br />
! colspan="2" | Optative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ū''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ai''<br />
| ''-a''<br />
| ''-(j)ēn''<br />
| ''-(j)ain''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-si''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-s''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
| ''-(j)ēs''<br />
| ''-(j)ais''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-ti<br />
| ''-e<br />
| ''-∅/-a''<br />
| ''-e''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-i''<br />
| ''-(j)ē''<br />
| ''-(j)ai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(e)wā́''<br />
| ''-awā́''<br />
| ''-(a)wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗwā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩwā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(e)tā́''<br />
| ''-atā́''<br />
| ''-(a)tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(e)tìs<br />
| ''-atìs<br />
| ''-(a)tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtis''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mès''<br />
| ''-(e)mùn/-mà''<br />
| ''-amè''<br />
| ''-(a)mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗmes''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩma''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(e)tè''<br />
| ''-atè''<br />
| ''-(a)tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗte''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩte''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-eñti<br />
| ''-añti<br />
| ''-iñ''<br />
| ''-añ''<br />
| ''-ínti''<br />
| ''-ín''<br />
| ''-(j)énti''<br />
| ''-ajín''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
*In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is ''-mun'' and ''-aimun'', while in Eastern Carpathian it is ''-ma'' and ''-aima''.<br />
<br />
==Conjugation==<br />
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē/ī''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩmi''<br />
|''stèrhū''<br />
|''turiū́''<br />
|''gidā́hū''<br />
|''zirhḗjū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsi''<br />
|''stèrhei''<br />
|''turiéi''<br />
|''gidā́hei''<br />
|''zirhḗjei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsti''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitwā́''<br />
|''sterhewā́''<br />
|''turiewā́''<br />
|''gidewā́''<br />
|''zirhējewā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turietā́''<br />
|''gidetā́''<br />
|''zirhējetā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turietìs''<br />
|''gidetìs''<br />
|''zirhējetìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeimès''<br />
|''sterhemà''<br />
|''turiemà''<br />
|''gidemà''<br />
|''zirhējemà''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turietè''<br />
|''gidetè''<br />
|''zirhējetè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeiteñti''<br />
|''sterhañti''<br />
|''turiañti''<br />
|''gidañti''<br />
|''zirhējañti''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''stèrhetei'' “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ''ster̃hetei''. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: ''l'''ì'''ktei'' “to remain” — ''l'''eĩ'''kū'' “I remain”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Aorist|Aorist]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩtun''<br />
|''stèrhun''<br />
|''turḗjun''<br />
|''gidā́sun''<br />
|''zirhḗjun''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗjis''<br />
|''gidā́sis''<br />
|''zirhḗjis''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩ''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''turḗ''<br />
|''gidā́se''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitawā́''<br />
|''sterhawā́''<br />
|''turēwā́''<br />
|''gidāsawā́''<br />
|''zirhēwā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeitatā́''<br />
|''sterhatā́''<br />
|''turētā́''<br />
|''gidāsatā́''<br />
|''zirhētā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeitatìs''<br />
|''sterhatìs''<br />
|''turētìs''<br />
|''gidāsatìs''<br />
|''zirhētìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeitamè''<br />
|''sterhamè''<br />
|''turēmè''<br />
|''gidāsamè''<br />
|''zirhēmè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeitatè''<br />
|''sterhatè''<br />
|''turētè''<br />
|''gidāsatè''<br />
|''zirhētè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeitiñ''<br />
|''sterhañ''<br />
|''turējañ''<br />
|''gidāsañ''<br />
|''zirhējañ''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kúr'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).<br />
<br />
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperfect|Imperfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skéitun''<br />
|''stirhán''<br />
|''turián''<br />
|''gidián''<br />
|''zirhḗjan''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skéis''<br />
|''stirhē̃s''<br />
|''turiḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗjēs''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skéi''<br />
|''stirhē̃''<br />
|''turiḗ''<br />
|''gidā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjē''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitē̃wā''<br />
|''stirhē̃wā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhējḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tā''<br />
|''stirhē̃tā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhējḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tis''<br />
|''stirhē̃tis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhējḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃me''<br />
|''stirhē̃me''<br />
|''turiḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhējḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃te''<br />
|''stirhē̃te''<br />
|''turiḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhējḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiteñ''<br />
|''stirheñ''<br />
|''turējeñ''<br />
|''gidāseñ''<br />
|''zirhējeñ''<br />
|}<br />
The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: ''"bē"'' + infinitive — ''bē skeistei'' “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: ''sk'''i'''tēwā'' “we two were reading” but ''sk'''ei'''twā'' “we two are reading”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Perfect (grammar)|Perfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtai''<br />
|''stàrha''<br />
|''turḗja''<br />
|''gidā́ha''<br />
|''zirhḗja''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩstai''<br />
|''stàrta''<br />
|''turḗta''<br />
|''gidā́ta''<br />
|''zirhḗta''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtei''<br />
|''stàrhe''<br />
|''turḗje''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skaitwā́''<br />
|''stárwā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skaistā́''<br />
|''stártā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skaistìs''<br />
|''stártis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skaimè''<br />
|''stárme''<br />
|''turḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skaistè''<br />
|''stárte''<br />
|''turḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skaitínti''<br />
|''starhin''<br />
|''turḗjin''<br />
|''gidā́hin''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: ''l'''ei'''kū'' “I remain” — ''l'''ai'''ka'' “I have remained/I am preserved”; ''pasad'''ḗ'''demi'' “I’m putting it down” — ''pasad'''ṓ'''dai'' “I’ve put it down”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Future tense|Future]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiū''<br />
|''stèrhesiū''<br />
|''turḗsiū''<br />
|''gidā́siū''<br />
|''zirhḗsiū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiei''<br />
|''stèrhesiei''<br />
|''turḗsiei''<br />
|''gidā́siei''<br />
|''zirhḗsiei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeĩsiwā''<br />
|''stèrhesiwā''<br />
|''turḗsiwā''<br />
|''gidā́siwā''<br />
|''zirhḗsiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitā''<br />
|''stèrhesitā''<br />
|''turḗsitā''<br />
|''gidā́sitā''<br />
|''zirhḗsitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitis''<br />
|''stèrhesitis''<br />
|''turḗsitis''<br />
|''gidā́sitis''<br />
|''zirhḗsitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsima''<br />
|''stèrhesima''<br />
|''turḗsima''<br />
|''gidā́sima''<br />
|''zirhḗsima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsite''<br />
|''stèrhesite''<br />
|''turḗsite''<br />
|''gidā́site''<br />
|''zirhḗsite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsianti''<br />
|''stèrhesianti''<br />
|''turḗsianti''<br />
|''gidā́sianti''<br />
|''zirhḗsianti''<br />
|}<br />
The future tense in Carpathian still retains its connection to the [[w:Desiderative mood|desiderative]] aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: ''skeisiū'' “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: ''skitiēn'' “I am to read”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Optative mood|Optative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēn''<br />
|''stèrhain''<br />
|''tùriain''<br />
|''gidā́hain''<br />
|''zirhḗjain''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhais''<br />
|''tùriais''<br />
|''gidā́hais''<br />
|''zirhḗjais''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhai''<br />
|''tùriai''<br />
|''gidā́hai''<br />
|''zirhḗjai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitiḗwā''<br />
|''sterhaĩwā''<br />
|''turiaĩwā''<br />
|''gidahaĩwā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtā''<br />
|''sterhaĩtā''<br />
|''turiaĩtā''<br />
|''gidahaĩtā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtis''<br />
|''sterhaĩtis''<br />
|''turiaĩtis''<br />
|''gidahaĩtis''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗmes''<br />
|''sterhaĩma''<br />
|''turiaĩma''<br />
|''gidahaĩma''<br />
|''zirhḗjaima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗte''<br />
|''stèrhaĩte''<br />
|''turiaĩte''<br />
|''gidahaĩte''<br />
|''zirhḗjaite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skitiénti''<br />
|''sterhajín''<br />
|''turējín''<br />
|''gidāhín''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In Carpathian the optative forms are used as imperative. The original imperative is used only for direct orders or commands and may be perceived as informal or rude. The Eastern dialects generally preserve a separate imperative better, than the Western ones, some of which lost it completely.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperative mood|Imperative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skitiè''<br />
|''stèrhi''<br />
|''tùri''<br />
|''gidā́hi''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩstu''<br />
|''stèrhie''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turitā́''<br />
|''giditā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjetā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turitìs''<br />
|''giditìs''<br />
|''zirhḗjetis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turitè''<br />
|''giditè''<br />
|''zirhḗjete''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiténtu''<br />
|''sterhañtu''<br />
|''turiañtu''<br />
|''gidañtu''<br />
|''zirhḗjantu''<br />
|}<br />
*Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.<br />
===Inactive verbs===<br />
The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of [[w:Autocausative verb|autocausative]] verbs are ''supāteisin'' “to sleep”, ''dōmāteisin'' “to suppose”, ''wōjāteisin'' “to believe” and ''tinkāteisin'' “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The [[w:Impersonal verb|impersonal]] verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being ''snigetei'' “to snow”, ''zarētei'' “to dawn”, ''lītei''. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |<br />
! colspan="3" | Impersonal<br />
! Autocausative<br />
|-<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''j''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
|-<br />
!''snigetéi'' “to snow”<br />
!''zarḗtei'' “to dawn”<br />
!''lī́tei'' “to rain”<br />
!''supā́teisin'' “to sleep”<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
|''sniñgi''<br />
|''zarḗ''<br />
|''lī́ji''<br />
|''supéimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
|''snìgā''<br />
|''zàriā''<br />
|''lìjā''<br />
|''supā́misin''<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|''snìgḗ''<br />
|''zàriḗ''<br />
|''lìjḗ''<br />
|''supḗmisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Perfect<br />
|''snìga''<br />
|''zària''<br />
|''lìja''<br />
|''supā́jamisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
|''snìgis''<br />
|''zarḗs''<br />
|''lī́s''<br />
|''supā́smisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Optative<br />
|''snìgai''<br />
|''zàriai''<br />
|''lī́jai''<br />
|''supā́jaimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|''snìge''<br />
|''zàre''<br />
|''lìje''<br />
|''sùpemisin''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Object markers===<br />
One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the [[w:Subject (grammar)|subject]], and affected persons are [[w:Object (grammar)|objects]] (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] is not indicated.<br />
<br />
Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Direct Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ti''<br />
| ''-(j)i''<br />
| ''-ni''<br />
| ''-sa''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''-nū''<br />
| ''-wū''<br />
| ''-(j)ī''<br />
| ''-nai''<br />
| ''-sai''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''-nas''<br />
| ''-was''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-nan''<br />
| ''-sā''<br />
| ''-tā''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Indirect Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''mei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
| ''ei-''<br />
| ''nai-''<br />
| ''sai-''<br />
| ''tai-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''wō-''<br />
| ''ī-''<br />
| ''nan-''<br />
| ''san-''<br />
| ''tan-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''us-''<br />
| ''īn-''<br />
| ''nei-''<br />
| ''sei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: '''''ei'''dṓdan'''ta''''' “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: ''turi'''ū'''-'' “I hold” and ''turēj'''u'''n-'' “I held” become ''turi'''ō'''sa'' “I’m holding it” and ''turēj'''a'''nsa'' “I held it”.<br />
<br />
==Aspectual and deictic affixes==<br />
Carpathian verbs form [[w:Lexical aspect|lexical aspect]] using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:<br />
*Suffixes, which make imperfective ([[w:Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]]) or [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]] verbs from simple perfective verbs: ''nestei'' “to carry” — ''nasītei'' “to be carrying”, ''nasiōtei'' “to carry often”.<br />
*A suffix, which makes [[w:Inchoative aspect|inchoative]] verbs, from imperfective verbs: ''stahētei'' “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.<br />
*Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, [[w:Iterative aspect|iterative]] verbs: ''peistei'' “to write” — ''kirtātei'' “to write” — ''nōkirtātei'' “to write down”, ''pakirtātei'' “to write several times (iterative)”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. ''bēgetei'' “run”, ''eitei'' “go”, ''nestei'' “carry”, ''westei'' “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the ''pernestei per hapān'' “to carry through a river (once)” — ''pernasītei'' “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.<br />
<br />
Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Suffix<br />
! 3sg Present<br />
! Infinitive<br />
! Examples<br />
! Function<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''-na''<br />
| ''-ne''<br />
| ''-natei''<br />
| ''kun'''na'''tei'' “to throw”<br>''lim'''na'''tei “to get stuck”<br />
| [[w:Inchoative aspect|Inchoative]], [[w:Momentane|momentaneous]]<br />
| The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-je''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''mautei'' “to wash”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| Transitive imperfective Not productive.<br />
| The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-ie''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''siltei'' “to send”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| [[w:Dynamic verb|fientive]] verbs.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ēj''<br />
| ''-ēje''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''hauj'''ē'''tei'' “to be aware”<br/>''leg'''ē'''tei'' “to lie (be situated)”<br/>''bil'''ē'''tei'' “to be white”<br />
| [[w:Stative verb|Stative]] verbs, often continuous.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. [[w:Deadjectival verb|Deadjectival]] inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ā''<br />
| ''-āhe''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''kēj'''ā'''tei'' “to observe”<br/>''taup'''ā'''tei'' “to stamp”<br/>''harb'''ā'''tei'' “to work”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]], [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]], [[w:Intensive word form|intensive]].<br />
| Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ō''<br />
| ''-ōhe''<br />
| ''-ōtei''<br />
| ''wan'''ō'''tei'' “to become violet”<br/><br />
| [[w:Deadjectival verb|deadjectival]] inchoative verbs.<br />
| Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-au''<br />
| ''-auje''<br />
| ''-autei''<br />
| ''ōg'''au'''tei'' “to gather berries”<br/>''mīlautei'' “to endear”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]] progressive verbs.<br />
| The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ī''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-ītei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pirgītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-jē''<br />
| ''-iei''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pirgītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: ''legetei'' “to lie down” — ''li'''n'''gū'' “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: ''slūnautei'' “to be famous”, ''kurnautei'' “to prepare”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian prefixes:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Examples<br />
! Approximate<br>meaning<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''ar-''<br />
| ''arkaltei'' “to break apart”<br />
| “dis-”, “un-”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''at-''<br />
| ''addōtei'' “to give back”<br />
| “from”, “back”.<br />
| Has a form ''ati-'' before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ap-''<br />
| ''apeitei'' “to walk around”<br />
| “around”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''ep-'' instead. Has a form ''api-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''da-''<br />
| ''dajeitei'' “to go to”<br />
| “towards”, “till”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''au-''<br />
| ''aweitei'' “to walk between”<br />
| “between”, “at”.<br />
| Has a form ''aw-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “in”, “into”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''is-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “out of”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''iš-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ni-''<br />
| ''nijeitei'' “to descend”<br />
| “down”, “below”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''nōjeitei'' “to walk upwards”<br />
| “up”, “over”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''pō-''<br />
| ''pōmintei'' “to recall”, ''pōjeitei'' “to come later”<br />
| “later”.<br />
| Some Western dialects have ''pā-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pa-''<br />
| ''pamintei'' “to remember”, ''panestei'' “to carry away”<br />
| “at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs.<br />
| Has a form ''paj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ''per-''<br />
| ''perdōtei'' “to pass over”, ''pereitei'' “to cross”<br />
| “over”, “re-”, “through”.<br />
| Has a form ''pere-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''par-''<br />
| ''pareitei'' “to walk along”<br />
| “along”, “completely”.<br />
| Has a form ''para-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''perei-''<br />
| ''perijeitei'' “to approach”<br />
| “by”, “next to”.<br />
| Has a form ''perij-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pirt-''<br />
| ''pirtistātei'' “to contrast”<br />
| “against”.<br />
| Has a form ''pirti-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ō-''<br />
| ''ōjeitei'' “to almost reach”, ''ōsiausteisin'' “to be like a joke”<br />
| “Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns.<br />
| Has the form ''ōj-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''sam-''<br />
| ''sameitei'' “to walk together”<br />
| “together”.<br />
| Has a form ''sama-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''su-''<br />
| ''sumētei'' “to dare”<br />
| “good”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''sun-''<br />
| ''suntartei'' “to talk with someone”<br />
| “with”, “alongside”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''uz-''<br />
| ''uzimtei'' “to obtain”<br />
| “at”, “onto”, “in return for”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''už-'' instead. Becomes ''us-'' before voiceless consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''zō-''<br />
| ''zōjeitei'' “to walk from behind”<br />
| “behind”, “after”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''žō-'' instead. Becomes ''zōj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Periphrastic formations==<br />
The original Proto-Indo-European [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of ''būtei'' and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''būnta skeistei'' “I would be reading that”; ''būsta skeistun'' “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb ''būtei'' (subject endings only) are as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+[[w:Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́n''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́s''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́wā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́tā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́tis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́me''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́te''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́wen''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: ''skeistumbū́'' “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.<br />
<br />
In addition to synthetic future-desiderative, there are also several '''analytic future''' constructions with a modal verb and an infinitive or supine, which, unlike the former synthetic form, express necessity or obligation, for example: ''eimi skeistei'' “I’m going to read”, ''immi dētun'' “I must have it done”. In order to denote simple futurity of an action, present tense may be used: ''tā pa skeisteta kunīgān'' “later he/she will read a book”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian verbs express [[w:Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]] of an action by means of the verb ''leistei'' “to let” and the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''leide eitei'' “he/she will probably go”, ''lais eitei'' “he/she might have gone”. If used with supine instead, the latter phrase gains a permissive meaning: ''laidinti eitun'' “they are allowed to go”.<br />
<br />
==Participles==<br />
Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.<br />
<br />
One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: ''paustīs perelektunīs'' “migrating birds”, ''wadījas nepatairānas'' “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: ''Akunan '''atihwerwā''', meriā dangānas pagiledēsā''. – “'''Having opened''' the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.<br />
<br />
Just as adjectives, participles decline for gender, case and number of the noun they modify, except for the dative absolute construction. Participles can be conjugated for person in the same way as inactive verbs by taking pronominal suffixes. The table below represents all possible participle forms of the verb ''skeistei'' “to read”, the pronominal forms having the third person singular suffix ''-is''.<br />
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 rowspan=3 |<br />
! colspan=4| Simple<br />
! colspan=4| Pronominal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
|-<br />
! colspan=8| Active<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Imperfective<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitañs || skitañ || skiteñtī || skiteñtis || skitañsis || skitànis || skiteñtihis || skiteñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitañte || colspan=3| skitañtī || skitañtejī || colspan=3| skitañtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitañtis || skitán || colspan=2| skiteñtīs || skitañtisis || skitáinis || colspan=2| skiteñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Aorist<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skaitàwas || skaitàwan || skaitàwī || skaitàwis || skaitàwasis || skaitàwanis || skaitàwihis || skaitàwisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skaĩtawe || colspan=3| skaĩtawī || skaĩtawejis || colspan=3| skaĩtawīhis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skaĩtawis || skaitawā̃ || colspan=2| skaĩtawīs || skaĩtawisis || skaitawànis || colspan=2| skaĩtawīsis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Perfect<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitùs || skituñ || skitwī́ || skitwìs || skitùsis || skitùnis || skitwìhis || skitwìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitàwī || colspan=4| skitàwīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skitū́s || colspan=2| skitwī́s || colspan=2| skitū́sis || colspan=2| skitwī́sis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Desiderative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitasiañs || skitasiañ || skitasiañtī || skitasiñtis || skitasiañsis || skitasiànis || skitasiañtihis || skitasiñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitasiañte || colspan=3| skitasiñtī || skitasiañtejī || colspan=3| skitasiñtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitasiañtis || skitasián || colspan=2| skitasiñtīs || skitasiañtisis || skitasiáinis || colspan=2| skitasiñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Resultative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skillùs || skilluñ || skillī́ || skillìs || skillùsis || skillùnis || skillìhis || skillìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitèlī || colspan=4| skitèlīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skillū́s || colspan=2| skillī́s || colspan=2| skillū́sis || colspan=2| skillī́sis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: ''skaunas kuramas'' “a house that is being built”, ''haiskas histas'' – “a question that has been asked”.<br />
<br />
In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: ''laubīmas'' “liked” — ''laubīmesas'' “more liked” — ''laubīmimmas'' “most liked”.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_verbs&diff=298239Carpathian verbs2023-03-15T16:36:50Z<p>Raistas: /* Participles */</p>
<hr />
<div>Carpathian '''verbs''' reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called [[w:Tense–aspect–mood|TAM]]. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as [[w:Participle|participles]], [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] and [[w:Supine|supine]] are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its [[w:Argument (linguistics)|arguments]], which is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ''ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi'' “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").<br />
<br />
Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — ''sēdē-'' (infinitive and aorist), ''sēdi-'' (imperfective) and ''sōd-'' (perfect); “remain” — ''lik-'' (infinitive), ''leik-'' (present), ''likā-'' (aorist) ''laik-'' (perfect).<br />
==Personal Endings==<br />
Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: '''athematic''' and '''thematic''', the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Present<br />
! colspan="2" | Aorist<br />
! colspan="2" | Perfect<br />
! colspan="2" | Optative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ū''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ai''<br />
| ''-a''<br />
| ''-(j)ēn''<br />
| ''-(j)ain''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-si''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-s''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
| ''-(j)ēs''<br />
| ''-(j)ais''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-ti<br />
| ''-e<br />
| ''-∅/-a''<br />
| ''-e''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-i''<br />
| ''-(j)ē''<br />
| ''-(j)ai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(e)wā́''<br />
| ''-awā́''<br />
| ''-(a)wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗwā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩwā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(e)tā́''<br />
| ''-atā́''<br />
| ''-(a)tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(e)tìs<br />
| ''-atìs<br />
| ''-(a)tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtis''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mès''<br />
| ''-(e)mùn/-mà''<br />
| ''-amè''<br />
| ''-(a)mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗmes''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩma''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(e)tè''<br />
| ''-atè''<br />
| ''-(a)tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗte''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩte''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-eñti<br />
| ''-añti<br />
| ''-iñ''<br />
| ''-añ''<br />
| ''-ínti''<br />
| ''-ín''<br />
| ''-(j)énti''<br />
| ''-ajín''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
*In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is ''-mun'' and ''-aimun'', while in Eastern Carpathian it is ''-ma'' and ''-aima''.<br />
<br />
==Conjugation==<br />
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē/ī''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩmi''<br />
|''stèrhū''<br />
|''turiū́''<br />
|''gidā́hū''<br />
|''zirhḗjū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsi''<br />
|''stèrhei''<br />
|''turiéi''<br />
|''gidā́hei''<br />
|''zirhḗjei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsti''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitwā́''<br />
|''sterhewā́''<br />
|''turiewā́''<br />
|''gidewā́''<br />
|''zirhējewā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turietā́''<br />
|''gidetā́''<br />
|''zirhējetā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turietìs''<br />
|''gidetìs''<br />
|''zirhējetìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeimès''<br />
|''sterhemà''<br />
|''turiemà''<br />
|''gidemà''<br />
|''zirhējemà''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turietè''<br />
|''gidetè''<br />
|''zirhējetè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeiteñti''<br />
|''sterhañti''<br />
|''turiañti''<br />
|''gidañti''<br />
|''zirhējañti''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''stèrhetei'' “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ''ster̃hetei''. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: ''l'''ì'''ktei'' “to remain” — ''l'''eĩ'''kū'' “I remain”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Aorist|Aorist]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩtun''<br />
|''stèrhun''<br />
|''turḗjun''<br />
|''gidā́sun''<br />
|''zirhḗjun''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗjis''<br />
|''gidā́sis''<br />
|''zirhḗjis''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩ''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''turḗ''<br />
|''gidā́se''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitawā́''<br />
|''sterhawā́''<br />
|''turēwā́''<br />
|''gidāsawā́''<br />
|''zirhēwā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeitatā́''<br />
|''sterhatā́''<br />
|''turētā́''<br />
|''gidāsatā́''<br />
|''zirhētā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeitatìs''<br />
|''sterhatìs''<br />
|''turētìs''<br />
|''gidāsatìs''<br />
|''zirhētìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeitamè''<br />
|''sterhamè''<br />
|''turēmè''<br />
|''gidāsamè''<br />
|''zirhēmè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeitatè''<br />
|''sterhatè''<br />
|''turētè''<br />
|''gidāsatè''<br />
|''zirhētè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeitiñ''<br />
|''sterhañ''<br />
|''turējañ''<br />
|''gidāsañ''<br />
|''zirhējañ''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kúr'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).<br />
<br />
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperfect|Imperfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skéitun''<br />
|''stirhán''<br />
|''turián''<br />
|''gidián''<br />
|''zirhḗjan''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skéis''<br />
|''stirhē̃s''<br />
|''turiḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗjēs''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skéi''<br />
|''stirhē̃''<br />
|''turiḗ''<br />
|''gidā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjē''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitē̃wā''<br />
|''stirhē̃wā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhējḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tā''<br />
|''stirhē̃tā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhējḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tis''<br />
|''stirhē̃tis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhējḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃me''<br />
|''stirhē̃me''<br />
|''turiḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhējḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃te''<br />
|''stirhē̃te''<br />
|''turiḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhējḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiteñ''<br />
|''stirheñ''<br />
|''turējeñ''<br />
|''gidāseñ''<br />
|''zirhējeñ''<br />
|}<br />
The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: ''"bē"'' + infinitive — ''bē skeistei'' “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: ''sk'''i'''tēwā'' “we two were reading” but ''sk'''ei'''twā'' “we two are reading”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Perfect (grammar)|Perfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtai''<br />
|''stàrha''<br />
|''turḗja''<br />
|''gidā́ha''<br />
|''zirhḗja''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩstai''<br />
|''stàrta''<br />
|''turḗta''<br />
|''gidā́ta''<br />
|''zirhḗta''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtei''<br />
|''stàrhe''<br />
|''turḗje''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skaitwā́''<br />
|''stárwā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skaistā́''<br />
|''stártā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skaistìs''<br />
|''stártis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skaimè''<br />
|''stárme''<br />
|''turḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skaistè''<br />
|''stárte''<br />
|''turḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skaitínti''<br />
|''starhin''<br />
|''turḗjin''<br />
|''gidā́hin''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: ''l'''ei'''kū'' “I remain” — ''l'''ai'''ka'' “I have remained/I am preserved”; ''pasad'''ḗ'''demi'' “I’m putting it down” — ''pasad'''ṓ'''dai'' “I’ve put it down”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Future tense|Future]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiū''<br />
|''stèrhesiū''<br />
|''turḗsiū''<br />
|''gidā́siū''<br />
|''zirhḗsiū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiei''<br />
|''stèrhesiei''<br />
|''turḗsiei''<br />
|''gidā́siei''<br />
|''zirhḗsiei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeĩsiwā''<br />
|''stèrhesiwā''<br />
|''turḗsiwā''<br />
|''gidā́siwā''<br />
|''zirhḗsiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitā''<br />
|''stèrhesitā''<br />
|''turḗsitā''<br />
|''gidā́sitā''<br />
|''zirhḗsitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitis''<br />
|''stèrhesitis''<br />
|''turḗsitis''<br />
|''gidā́sitis''<br />
|''zirhḗsitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsima''<br />
|''stèrhesima''<br />
|''turḗsima''<br />
|''gidā́sima''<br />
|''zirhḗsima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsite''<br />
|''stèrhesite''<br />
|''turḗsite''<br />
|''gidā́site''<br />
|''zirhḗsite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsianti''<br />
|''stèrhesianti''<br />
|''turḗsianti''<br />
|''gidā́sianti''<br />
|''zirhḗsianti''<br />
|}<br />
The future tense in Carpathian still retains its connection to the [[w:Desiderative mood|desiderative]] aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: ''skeisiū'' “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: ''skitiēn'' “I am to read”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Optative mood|Optative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēn''<br />
|''stèrhain''<br />
|''tùriain''<br />
|''gidā́hain''<br />
|''zirhḗjain''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhais''<br />
|''tùriais''<br />
|''gidā́hais''<br />
|''zirhḗjais''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhai''<br />
|''tùriai''<br />
|''gidā́hai''<br />
|''zirhḗjai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitiḗwā''<br />
|''sterhaĩwā''<br />
|''turiaĩwā''<br />
|''gidahaĩwā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtā''<br />
|''sterhaĩtā''<br />
|''turiaĩtā''<br />
|''gidahaĩtā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtis''<br />
|''sterhaĩtis''<br />
|''turiaĩtis''<br />
|''gidahaĩtis''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗmes''<br />
|''sterhaĩma''<br />
|''turiaĩma''<br />
|''gidahaĩma''<br />
|''zirhḗjaima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗte''<br />
|''stèrhaĩte''<br />
|''turiaĩte''<br />
|''gidahaĩte''<br />
|''zirhḗjaite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skitiénti''<br />
|''sterhajín''<br />
|''turējín''<br />
|''gidāhín''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In Carpathian the optative forms are used as imperative. The original imperative is used only for direct orders or commands and may be perceived as informal or rude. The Eastern dialects generally preserve a separate imperative better, than the Western ones, some of which lost it completely.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperative mood|Imperative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skitiè''<br />
|''stèrhi''<br />
|''tùri''<br />
|''gidā́hi''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩstu''<br />
|''stèrhie''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turitā́''<br />
|''giditā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjetā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turitìs''<br />
|''giditìs''<br />
|''zirhḗjetis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turitè''<br />
|''giditè''<br />
|''zirhḗjete''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiténtu''<br />
|''sterhañtu''<br />
|''turiañtu''<br />
|''gidañtu''<br />
|''zirhḗjantu''<br />
|}<br />
*Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.<br />
===Inactive verbs===<br />
The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of [[w:Autocausative verb|autocausative]] verbs are ''supāteisin'' “to sleep”, ''dōmāteisin'' “to suppose”, ''wōjāteisin'' “to believe” and ''tinkāteisin'' “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The [[w:Impersonal verb|impersonal]] verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being ''snigetei'' “to snow”, ''zarētei'' “to dawn”, ''lītei''. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |<br />
! colspan="3" | Impersonal<br />
! Autocausative<br />
|-<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''j''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
|-<br />
!''snigetéi'' “to snow”<br />
!''zarḗtei'' “to dawn”<br />
!''lī́tei'' “to rain”<br />
!''supā́teisin'' “to sleep”<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
|''sniñgi''<br />
|''zarḗ''<br />
|''lī́ji''<br />
|''supéimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
|''snìgā''<br />
|''zàriā''<br />
|''lìjā''<br />
|''supā́misin''<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|''snìgḗ''<br />
|''zàriḗ''<br />
|''lìjḗ''<br />
|''supḗmisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Perfect<br />
|''snìga''<br />
|''zària''<br />
|''lìja''<br />
|''supā́jamisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
|''snìgis''<br />
|''zarḗs''<br />
|''lī́s''<br />
|''supā́smisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Optative<br />
|''snìgai''<br />
|''zàriai''<br />
|''lī́jai''<br />
|''supā́jaimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|''snìge''<br />
|''zàre''<br />
|''lìje''<br />
|''sùpemisin''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Object markers===<br />
One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the [[w:Subject (grammar)|subject]], and affected persons are [[w:Object (grammar)|objects]] (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] is not indicated.<br />
<br />
Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Direct Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ti''<br />
| ''-(j)i''<br />
| ''-ni''<br />
| ''-sa''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''-nū''<br />
| ''-wū''<br />
| ''-(j)ī''<br />
| ''-nai''<br />
| ''-sai''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''-nas''<br />
| ''-was''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-nan''<br />
| ''-sā''<br />
| ''-tā''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Indirect Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''mei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
| ''ei-''<br />
| ''nai-''<br />
| ''sai-''<br />
| ''tai-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''wō-''<br />
| ''ī-''<br />
| ''nan-''<br />
| ''san-''<br />
| ''tan-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''us-''<br />
| ''īn-''<br />
| ''nei-''<br />
| ''sei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: '''''ei'''dṓdan'''ta''''' “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: ''turi'''ū'''-'' “I hold” and ''turēj'''u'''n-'' “I held” become ''turi'''ō'''sa'' “I’m holding it” and ''turēj'''a'''nsa'' “I held it”.<br />
<br />
==Aspectual and deictic affixes==<br />
Carpathian verbs form [[w:Lexical aspect|lexical aspect]] using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:<br />
*Suffixes, which make imperfective ([[w:Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]]) or [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]] verbs from simple perfective verbs: ''nestei'' “to carry” — ''nasītei'' “to be carrying”, ''nasiōtei'' “to carry often”.<br />
*A suffix, which makes [[w:Inchoative aspect|inchoative]] verbs, from imperfective verbs: ''stahētei'' “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.<br />
*Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, [[w:Iterative aspect|iterative]] verbs: ''peistei'' “to write” — ''kirtātei'' “to write” — ''nōkirtātei'' “to write down”, ''pakirtātei'' “to write several times (iterative)”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. ''bēgetei'' “run”, ''eitei'' “go”, ''nestei'' “carry”, ''westei'' “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the ''pernestei per hapān'' “to carry through a river (once)” — ''pernasītei'' “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.<br />
<br />
Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Suffix<br />
! 3sg Present<br />
! Infinitive<br />
! Examples<br />
! Function<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''-na''<br />
| ''-ne''<br />
| ''-natei''<br />
| ''kun'''na'''tei'' “to throw”<br>''lim'''na'''tei “to get stuck”<br />
| [[w:Inchoative aspect|Inchoative]], [[w:Momentane|momentaneous]]<br />
| The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-je''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''mautei'' “to wash”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| Transitive imperfective Not productive.<br />
| The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-ie''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''siltei'' “to send”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| [[w:Dynamic verb|fientive]] verbs.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ēj''<br />
| ''-ēje''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''hauj'''ē'''tei'' “to be aware”<br/>''leg'''ē'''tei'' “to lie (be situated)”<br/>''bil'''ē'''tei'' “to be white”<br />
| [[w:Stative verb|Stative]] verbs, often continuous.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. [[w:Deadjectival verb|Deadjectival]] inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ā''<br />
| ''-āhe''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''kēj'''ā'''tei'' “to observe”<br/>''taup'''ā'''tei'' “to stamp”<br/>''harb'''ā'''tei'' “to work”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]], [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]], [[w:Intensive word form|intensive]].<br />
| Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ō''<br />
| ''-ōhe''<br />
| ''-ōtei''<br />
| ''wan'''ō'''tei'' “to become violet”<br/><br />
| [[w:Deadjectival verb|deadjectival]] inchoative verbs.<br />
| Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-au''<br />
| ''-auje''<br />
| ''-autei''<br />
| ''ōg'''au'''tei'' “to gather berries”<br/>''mīlautei'' “to endear”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]] progressive verbs.<br />
| The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ī''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-ītei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pirgītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-jē''<br />
| ''-iei''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pirgītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: ''legetei'' “to lie down” — ''li'''n'''gū'' “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: ''slūnautei'' “to be famous”, ''kurnautei'' “to prepare”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian prefixes:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Examples<br />
! Approximate<br>meaning<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''ar-''<br />
| ''arkaltei'' “to break apart”<br />
| “dis-”, “un-”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''at-''<br />
| ''addōtei'' “to give back”<br />
| “from”, “back”.<br />
| Has a form ''ati-'' before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ap-''<br />
| ''apeitei'' “to walk around”<br />
| “around”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''ep-'' instead. Has a form ''api-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''da-''<br />
| ''dajeitei'' “to go to”<br />
| “towards”, “till”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''au-''<br />
| ''aweitei'' “to walk between”<br />
| “between”, “at”.<br />
| Has a form ''aw-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “in”, “into”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''is-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “out of”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''iš-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ni-''<br />
| ''nijeitei'' “to descend”<br />
| “down”, “below”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''nōjeitei'' “to walk upwards”<br />
| “up”, “over”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''pō-''<br />
| ''pōmintei'' “to recall”, ''pōjeitei'' “to come later”<br />
| “later”.<br />
| Some Western dialects have ''pā-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pa-''<br />
| ''pamintei'' “to remember”, ''panestei'' “to carry away”<br />
| “at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs.<br />
| Has a form ''paj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ''per-''<br />
| ''perdōtei'' “to pass over”, ''pereitei'' “to cross”<br />
| “over”, “re-”, “through”.<br />
| Has a form ''pere-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''par-''<br />
| ''pareitei'' “to walk along”<br />
| “along”, “completely”.<br />
| Has a form ''para-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''perei-''<br />
| ''perijeitei'' “to approach”<br />
| “by”, “next to”.<br />
| Has a form ''perij-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pirt-''<br />
| ''pirtistātei'' “to contrast”<br />
| “against”.<br />
| Has a form ''pirti-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ō-''<br />
| ''ōjeitei'' “to almost reach”, ''ōsiausteisin'' “to be like a joke”<br />
| “Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns.<br />
| Has the form ''ōj-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''sam-''<br />
| ''sameitei'' “to walk together”<br />
| “together”.<br />
| Has a form ''sama-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''su-''<br />
| ''sumētei'' “to dare”<br />
| “good”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''sun-''<br />
| ''suntartei'' “to talk with someone”<br />
| “with”, “alongside”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''uz-''<br />
| ''uzimtei'' “to obtain”<br />
| “at”, “onto”, “in return for”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''už-'' instead. Becomes ''us-'' before voiceless consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''zō-''<br />
| ''zōjeitei'' “to walk from behind”<br />
| “behind”, “after”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''žō-'' instead. Becomes ''zōj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Periphrastic formations==<br />
The original Proto-Indo-European [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of ''būtei'' and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''būnta skeistei'' “I would be reading that”; ''būsta skeistun'' “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb ''būtei'' (subject endings only) are as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+[[w:Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́n''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́s''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́wā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́tā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́tis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́me''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́te''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́wen''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: ''skeistumbū́'' “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.<br />
<br />
In addition to synthetic future-desiderative, there are also several '''analytic future''' constructions with a modal verb and an infinitive or supine, which, unlike the former synthetic form, express necessity or obligation, for example: ''eimi skeistei'' “I’m going to read”, ''immi dētun'' “I must have it done”. In order to denote simple futurity of an action, present tense may be used: ''tā pa skeisteta kunīgān'' “later he/she will read a book”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian verbs express [[w:Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]] of an action by means of the verb ''leistei'' “to let” and the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''leide eitei'' “he/she will probably go”, ''lais eitei'' “he/she might have gone”. If used with supine instead, the latter phrase gains a permissive meaning: ''laidinti eitun'' “they are allowed to go”.<br />
<br />
==Participles==<br />
Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.<br />
<br />
One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: ''paustīs perelektunīs'' “migrating birds”, ''wadījas nepatairānas'' “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: ''Akunan '''atihwerwā''', meriā dangānas pagiledēsā''. – “'''Having opened''' the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.<br />
<br />
Just as adjectives, participles decline for gender, case and number of the noun they modify, except for the dative absolute construction. Participles can be conjugated for person in the same way as inactive verbs by taking pronominal suffixes. The table below represents all possible participle forms of the verb ''skeistei'' “to read”, the pronominal forms having the third person singular suffix ''-is''.<br />
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 rowspan=3 |<br />
! colspan=4| Simple<br />
! colspan=4| Pronominal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
|-<br />
! colspan=8| Active<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Imperfective<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitañs || skitañ || skiteñtī || skiteñtis || skitañsis || skitànis || skiteñtihis || skiteñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitañte || colspan=3| skitañtī || skitañtejī || colspan=3| skitañtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitañtis || skitán || colspan=2| skiteñtīs || skitañtisis || skitáinis || colspan=2| skiteñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Aorist<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skaitàwas || skaitàwan || skaitàwī || skaitàwis || skaitàwasis || skaitàwanis || skaitàwihis || skaitàwisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skaĩtawe || colspan=3| skaĩtawī || skaĩtawejis || colspan=3| skaĩtawīhis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skaĩtawis || skaitawā̃ || colspan=2| skaĩtawīs || skaĩtawisis || skaitawànis || colspan=2| skaĩtawīsis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Perfect<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitùs || skituñ || skitwī́ || skitwìs || skitùsis || skitùnis || skitwìhis || skitwìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitàwī || colspan=4| skitàwīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skitū́s || colspan=2| skitwī́s || colspan=2| skitū́sis || colspan=2| skitwī́sis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Desiderative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitasiañs || skitasiañ || skitasiañtī || skitasiñtis || skitasiañsis || skitasiànis || skitasiañtihis || skitasiñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitasiañte || colspan=3| skitasiñtī || skitasiañtejī || colspan=3| skitasiñtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitasiañtis || skitasián || colspan=2| skitasiñtīs || skitasiañtisis || skitasiáinis || colspan=2| skitasiñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Resultative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skillùs || skilluñ || skillī́ || skillìs || skillùsis || skillùnis || skillìhis || skillìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitèlī || colspan=4| skitèlīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skillū́s || colspan=2| skillī́s || colspan=2| skillū́sis || colspan=2| skillī́sis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: ''skaunas kuramas'' “a house that is being built”, ''haiskas histas'' – “a question that has been asked”.<br />
<br />
In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: ''laubīmas'' “liked” — ''laubīmesas'' “more liked” — ''laubīmimmas'' “most liked”.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_verbs&diff=298238Carpathian verbs2023-03-15T16:34:00Z<p>Raistas: /* Participles */</p>
<hr />
<div>Carpathian '''verbs''' reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called [[w:Tense–aspect–mood|TAM]]. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as [[w:Participle|participles]], [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] and [[w:Supine|supine]] are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its [[w:Argument (linguistics)|arguments]], which is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ''ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi'' “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").<br />
<br />
Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — ''sēdē-'' (infinitive and aorist), ''sēdi-'' (imperfective) and ''sōd-'' (perfect); “remain” — ''lik-'' (infinitive), ''leik-'' (present), ''likā-'' (aorist) ''laik-'' (perfect).<br />
==Personal Endings==<br />
Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: '''athematic''' and '''thematic''', the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Present<br />
! colspan="2" | Aorist<br />
! colspan="2" | Perfect<br />
! colspan="2" | Optative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ū''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ai''<br />
| ''-a''<br />
| ''-(j)ēn''<br />
| ''-(j)ain''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-si''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-s''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
| ''-(j)ēs''<br />
| ''-(j)ais''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-ti<br />
| ''-e<br />
| ''-∅/-a''<br />
| ''-e''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-i''<br />
| ''-(j)ē''<br />
| ''-(j)ai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(e)wā́''<br />
| ''-awā́''<br />
| ''-(a)wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗwā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩwā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(e)tā́''<br />
| ''-atā́''<br />
| ''-(a)tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(e)tìs<br />
| ''-atìs<br />
| ''-(a)tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtis''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mès''<br />
| ''-(e)mùn/-mà''<br />
| ''-amè''<br />
| ''-(a)mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗmes''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩma''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(e)tè''<br />
| ''-atè''<br />
| ''-(a)tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗte''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩte''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-eñti<br />
| ''-añti<br />
| ''-iñ''<br />
| ''-añ''<br />
| ''-ínti''<br />
| ''-ín''<br />
| ''-(j)énti''<br />
| ''-ajín''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
*In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is ''-mun'' and ''-aimun'', while in Eastern Carpathian it is ''-ma'' and ''-aima''.<br />
<br />
==Conjugation==<br />
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē/ī''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩmi''<br />
|''stèrhū''<br />
|''turiū́''<br />
|''gidā́hū''<br />
|''zirhḗjū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsi''<br />
|''stèrhei''<br />
|''turiéi''<br />
|''gidā́hei''<br />
|''zirhḗjei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsti''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitwā́''<br />
|''sterhewā́''<br />
|''turiewā́''<br />
|''gidewā́''<br />
|''zirhējewā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turietā́''<br />
|''gidetā́''<br />
|''zirhējetā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turietìs''<br />
|''gidetìs''<br />
|''zirhējetìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeimès''<br />
|''sterhemà''<br />
|''turiemà''<br />
|''gidemà''<br />
|''zirhējemà''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turietè''<br />
|''gidetè''<br />
|''zirhējetè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeiteñti''<br />
|''sterhañti''<br />
|''turiañti''<br />
|''gidañti''<br />
|''zirhējañti''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''stèrhetei'' “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ''ster̃hetei''. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: ''l'''ì'''ktei'' “to remain” — ''l'''eĩ'''kū'' “I remain”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Aorist|Aorist]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩtun''<br />
|''stèrhun''<br />
|''turḗjun''<br />
|''gidā́sun''<br />
|''zirhḗjun''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗjis''<br />
|''gidā́sis''<br />
|''zirhḗjis''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩ''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''turḗ''<br />
|''gidā́se''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitawā́''<br />
|''sterhawā́''<br />
|''turēwā́''<br />
|''gidāsawā́''<br />
|''zirhēwā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeitatā́''<br />
|''sterhatā́''<br />
|''turētā́''<br />
|''gidāsatā́''<br />
|''zirhētā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeitatìs''<br />
|''sterhatìs''<br />
|''turētìs''<br />
|''gidāsatìs''<br />
|''zirhētìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeitamè''<br />
|''sterhamè''<br />
|''turēmè''<br />
|''gidāsamè''<br />
|''zirhēmè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeitatè''<br />
|''sterhatè''<br />
|''turētè''<br />
|''gidāsatè''<br />
|''zirhētè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeitiñ''<br />
|''sterhañ''<br />
|''turējañ''<br />
|''gidāsañ''<br />
|''zirhējañ''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kúr'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).<br />
<br />
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperfect|Imperfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skéitun''<br />
|''stirhán''<br />
|''turián''<br />
|''gidián''<br />
|''zirhḗjan''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skéis''<br />
|''stirhē̃s''<br />
|''turiḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗjēs''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skéi''<br />
|''stirhē̃''<br />
|''turiḗ''<br />
|''gidā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjē''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitē̃wā''<br />
|''stirhē̃wā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhējḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tā''<br />
|''stirhē̃tā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhējḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tis''<br />
|''stirhē̃tis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhējḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃me''<br />
|''stirhē̃me''<br />
|''turiḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhējḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃te''<br />
|''stirhē̃te''<br />
|''turiḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhējḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiteñ''<br />
|''stirheñ''<br />
|''turējeñ''<br />
|''gidāseñ''<br />
|''zirhējeñ''<br />
|}<br />
The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: ''"bē"'' + infinitive — ''bē skeistei'' “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: ''sk'''i'''tēwā'' “we two were reading” but ''sk'''ei'''twā'' “we two are reading”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Perfect (grammar)|Perfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtai''<br />
|''stàrha''<br />
|''turḗja''<br />
|''gidā́ha''<br />
|''zirhḗja''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩstai''<br />
|''stàrta''<br />
|''turḗta''<br />
|''gidā́ta''<br />
|''zirhḗta''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtei''<br />
|''stàrhe''<br />
|''turḗje''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skaitwā́''<br />
|''stárwā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skaistā́''<br />
|''stártā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skaistìs''<br />
|''stártis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skaimè''<br />
|''stárme''<br />
|''turḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skaistè''<br />
|''stárte''<br />
|''turḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skaitínti''<br />
|''starhin''<br />
|''turḗjin''<br />
|''gidā́hin''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: ''l'''ei'''kū'' “I remain” — ''l'''ai'''ka'' “I have remained/I am preserved”; ''pasad'''ḗ'''demi'' “I’m putting it down” — ''pasad'''ṓ'''dai'' “I’ve put it down”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Future tense|Future]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiū''<br />
|''stèrhesiū''<br />
|''turḗsiū''<br />
|''gidā́siū''<br />
|''zirhḗsiū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiei''<br />
|''stèrhesiei''<br />
|''turḗsiei''<br />
|''gidā́siei''<br />
|''zirhḗsiei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeĩsiwā''<br />
|''stèrhesiwā''<br />
|''turḗsiwā''<br />
|''gidā́siwā''<br />
|''zirhḗsiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitā''<br />
|''stèrhesitā''<br />
|''turḗsitā''<br />
|''gidā́sitā''<br />
|''zirhḗsitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitis''<br />
|''stèrhesitis''<br />
|''turḗsitis''<br />
|''gidā́sitis''<br />
|''zirhḗsitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsima''<br />
|''stèrhesima''<br />
|''turḗsima''<br />
|''gidā́sima''<br />
|''zirhḗsima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsite''<br />
|''stèrhesite''<br />
|''turḗsite''<br />
|''gidā́site''<br />
|''zirhḗsite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsianti''<br />
|''stèrhesianti''<br />
|''turḗsianti''<br />
|''gidā́sianti''<br />
|''zirhḗsianti''<br />
|}<br />
The future tense in Carpathian still retains its connection to the [[w:Desiderative mood|desiderative]] aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: ''skeisiū'' “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: ''skitiēn'' “I am to read”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Optative mood|Optative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēn''<br />
|''stèrhain''<br />
|''tùriain''<br />
|''gidā́hain''<br />
|''zirhḗjain''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhais''<br />
|''tùriais''<br />
|''gidā́hais''<br />
|''zirhḗjais''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhai''<br />
|''tùriai''<br />
|''gidā́hai''<br />
|''zirhḗjai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitiḗwā''<br />
|''sterhaĩwā''<br />
|''turiaĩwā''<br />
|''gidahaĩwā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtā''<br />
|''sterhaĩtā''<br />
|''turiaĩtā''<br />
|''gidahaĩtā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtis''<br />
|''sterhaĩtis''<br />
|''turiaĩtis''<br />
|''gidahaĩtis''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗmes''<br />
|''sterhaĩma''<br />
|''turiaĩma''<br />
|''gidahaĩma''<br />
|''zirhḗjaima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗte''<br />
|''stèrhaĩte''<br />
|''turiaĩte''<br />
|''gidahaĩte''<br />
|''zirhḗjaite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skitiénti''<br />
|''sterhajín''<br />
|''turējín''<br />
|''gidāhín''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In Carpathian the optative forms are used as imperative. The original imperative is used only for direct orders or commands and may be perceived as informal or rude. The Eastern dialects generally preserve a separate imperative better, than the Western ones, some of which lost it completely.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperative mood|Imperative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skitiè''<br />
|''stèrhi''<br />
|''tùri''<br />
|''gidā́hi''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩstu''<br />
|''stèrhie''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turitā́''<br />
|''giditā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjetā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turitìs''<br />
|''giditìs''<br />
|''zirhḗjetis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turitè''<br />
|''giditè''<br />
|''zirhḗjete''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiténtu''<br />
|''sterhañtu''<br />
|''turiañtu''<br />
|''gidañtu''<br />
|''zirhḗjantu''<br />
|}<br />
*Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.<br />
===Inactive verbs===<br />
The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of [[w:Autocausative verb|autocausative]] verbs are ''supāteisin'' “to sleep”, ''dōmāteisin'' “to suppose”, ''wōjāteisin'' “to believe” and ''tinkāteisin'' “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The [[w:Impersonal verb|impersonal]] verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being ''snigetei'' “to snow”, ''zarētei'' “to dawn”, ''lītei''. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |<br />
! colspan="3" | Impersonal<br />
! Autocausative<br />
|-<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''j''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
|-<br />
!''snigetéi'' “to snow”<br />
!''zarḗtei'' “to dawn”<br />
!''lī́tei'' “to rain”<br />
!''supā́teisin'' “to sleep”<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
|''sniñgi''<br />
|''zarḗ''<br />
|''lī́ji''<br />
|''supéimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
|''snìgā''<br />
|''zàriā''<br />
|''lìjā''<br />
|''supā́misin''<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|''snìgḗ''<br />
|''zàriḗ''<br />
|''lìjḗ''<br />
|''supḗmisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Perfect<br />
|''snìga''<br />
|''zària''<br />
|''lìja''<br />
|''supā́jamisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
|''snìgis''<br />
|''zarḗs''<br />
|''lī́s''<br />
|''supā́smisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Optative<br />
|''snìgai''<br />
|''zàriai''<br />
|''lī́jai''<br />
|''supā́jaimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|''snìge''<br />
|''zàre''<br />
|''lìje''<br />
|''sùpemisin''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Object markers===<br />
One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the [[w:Subject (grammar)|subject]], and affected persons are [[w:Object (grammar)|objects]] (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] is not indicated.<br />
<br />
Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Direct Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ti''<br />
| ''-(j)i''<br />
| ''-ni''<br />
| ''-sa''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''-nū''<br />
| ''-wū''<br />
| ''-(j)ī''<br />
| ''-nai''<br />
| ''-sai''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''-nas''<br />
| ''-was''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-nan''<br />
| ''-sā''<br />
| ''-tā''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Indirect Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''mei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
| ''ei-''<br />
| ''nai-''<br />
| ''sai-''<br />
| ''tai-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''wō-''<br />
| ''ī-''<br />
| ''nan-''<br />
| ''san-''<br />
| ''tan-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''us-''<br />
| ''īn-''<br />
| ''nei-''<br />
| ''sei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: '''''ei'''dṓdan'''ta''''' “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: ''turi'''ū'''-'' “I hold” and ''turēj'''u'''n-'' “I held” become ''turi'''ō'''sa'' “I’m holding it” and ''turēj'''a'''nsa'' “I held it”.<br />
<br />
==Aspectual and deictic affixes==<br />
Carpathian verbs form [[w:Lexical aspect|lexical aspect]] using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:<br />
*Suffixes, which make imperfective ([[w:Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]]) or [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]] verbs from simple perfective verbs: ''nestei'' “to carry” — ''nasītei'' “to be carrying”, ''nasiōtei'' “to carry often”.<br />
*A suffix, which makes [[w:Inchoative aspect|inchoative]] verbs, from imperfective verbs: ''stahētei'' “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.<br />
*Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, [[w:Iterative aspect|iterative]] verbs: ''peistei'' “to write” — ''kirtātei'' “to write” — ''nōkirtātei'' “to write down”, ''pakirtātei'' “to write several times (iterative)”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. ''bēgetei'' “run”, ''eitei'' “go”, ''nestei'' “carry”, ''westei'' “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the ''pernestei per hapān'' “to carry through a river (once)” — ''pernasītei'' “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.<br />
<br />
Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Suffix<br />
! 3sg Present<br />
! Infinitive<br />
! Examples<br />
! Function<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''-na''<br />
| ''-ne''<br />
| ''-natei''<br />
| ''kun'''na'''tei'' “to throw”<br>''lim'''na'''tei “to get stuck”<br />
| [[w:Inchoative aspect|Inchoative]], [[w:Momentane|momentaneous]]<br />
| The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-je''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''mautei'' “to wash”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| Transitive imperfective Not productive.<br />
| The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-ie''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''siltei'' “to send”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| [[w:Dynamic verb|fientive]] verbs.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ēj''<br />
| ''-ēje''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''hauj'''ē'''tei'' “to be aware”<br/>''leg'''ē'''tei'' “to lie (be situated)”<br/>''bil'''ē'''tei'' “to be white”<br />
| [[w:Stative verb|Stative]] verbs, often continuous.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. [[w:Deadjectival verb|Deadjectival]] inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ā''<br />
| ''-āhe''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''kēj'''ā'''tei'' “to observe”<br/>''taup'''ā'''tei'' “to stamp”<br/>''harb'''ā'''tei'' “to work”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]], [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]], [[w:Intensive word form|intensive]].<br />
| Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ō''<br />
| ''-ōhe''<br />
| ''-ōtei''<br />
| ''wan'''ō'''tei'' “to become violet”<br/><br />
| [[w:Deadjectival verb|deadjectival]] inchoative verbs.<br />
| Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-au''<br />
| ''-auje''<br />
| ''-autei''<br />
| ''ōg'''au'''tei'' “to gather berries”<br/>''mīlautei'' “to endear”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]] progressive verbs.<br />
| The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ī''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-ītei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pirgītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-jē''<br />
| ''-iei''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pirgītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: ''legetei'' “to lie down” — ''li'''n'''gū'' “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: ''slūnautei'' “to be famous”, ''kurnautei'' “to prepare”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian prefixes:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Examples<br />
! Approximate<br>meaning<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''ar-''<br />
| ''arkaltei'' “to break apart”<br />
| “dis-”, “un-”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''at-''<br />
| ''addōtei'' “to give back”<br />
| “from”, “back”.<br />
| Has a form ''ati-'' before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ap-''<br />
| ''apeitei'' “to walk around”<br />
| “around”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''ep-'' instead. Has a form ''api-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''da-''<br />
| ''dajeitei'' “to go to”<br />
| “towards”, “till”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''au-''<br />
| ''aweitei'' “to walk between”<br />
| “between”, “at”.<br />
| Has a form ''aw-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “in”, “into”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''is-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “out of”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''iš-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ni-''<br />
| ''nijeitei'' “to descend”<br />
| “down”, “below”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''nōjeitei'' “to walk upwards”<br />
| “up”, “over”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''pō-''<br />
| ''pōmintei'' “to recall”, ''pōjeitei'' “to come later”<br />
| “later”.<br />
| Some Western dialects have ''pā-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pa-''<br />
| ''pamintei'' “to remember”, ''panestei'' “to carry away”<br />
| “at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs.<br />
| Has a form ''paj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ''per-''<br />
| ''perdōtei'' “to pass over”, ''pereitei'' “to cross”<br />
| “over”, “re-”, “through”.<br />
| Has a form ''pere-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''par-''<br />
| ''pareitei'' “to walk along”<br />
| “along”, “completely”.<br />
| Has a form ''para-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''perei-''<br />
| ''perijeitei'' “to approach”<br />
| “by”, “next to”.<br />
| Has a form ''perij-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pirt-''<br />
| ''pirtistātei'' “to contrast”<br />
| “against”.<br />
| Has a form ''pirti-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ō-''<br />
| ''ōjeitei'' “to almost reach”, ''ōsiausteisin'' “to be like a joke”<br />
| “Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns.<br />
| Has the form ''ōj-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''sam-''<br />
| ''sameitei'' “to walk together”<br />
| “together”.<br />
| Has a form ''sama-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''su-''<br />
| ''sumētei'' “to dare”<br />
| “good”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''sun-''<br />
| ''suntartei'' “to talk with someone”<br />
| “with”, “alongside”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''uz-''<br />
| ''uzimtei'' “to obtain”<br />
| “at”, “onto”, “in return for”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''už-'' instead. Becomes ''us-'' before voiceless consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''zō-''<br />
| ''zōjeitei'' “to walk from behind”<br />
| “behind”, “after”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''žō-'' instead. Becomes ''zōj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Periphrastic formations==<br />
The original Proto-Indo-European [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of ''būtei'' and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''būnta skeistei'' “I would be reading that”; ''būsta skeistun'' “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb ''būtei'' (subject endings only) are as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+[[w:Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́n''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́s''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́wā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́tā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́tis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́me''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́te''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́wen''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: ''skeistumbū́'' “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.<br />
<br />
In addition to synthetic future-desiderative, there are also several '''analytic future''' constructions with a modal verb and an infinitive or supine, which, unlike the former synthetic form, express necessity or obligation, for example: ''eimi skeistei'' “I’m going to read”, ''immi dētun'' “I must have it done”. In order to denote simple futurity of an action, present tense may be used: ''tā pa skeisteta kunīgān'' “later he/she will read a book”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian verbs express [[w:Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]] of an action by means of the verb ''leistei'' “to let” and the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''leide eitei'' “he/she will probably go”, ''lais eitei'' “he/she might have gone”. If used with supine instead, the latter phrase gains a permissive meaning: ''laidinti eitun'' “they are allowed to go”.<br />
<br />
==Participles==<br />
Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.<br />
<br />
One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: ''paustīs perelektunīs'' “migrating birds”, ''wadījas nepatairānas'' “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: ''Akunan '''atihwerwā''', meriā dangānas pagiledēsā''. – “'''Having opened''' the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.<br />
<br />
Just as adjectives, participles decline for gender, case and number of the noun they modify, except for the dative absolute construction. Participles can be conjugated for person in the same way as inactive verbs by taking pronominal suffixes. The table below represents all possible participle forms of the verb ''skeistei'' “to read”, the pronominal forms having the third person singular suffix ''-is''.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 rowspan=3 |<br />
! colspan=4| Simple<br />
! colspan=4| Pronominal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
|-<br />
! colspan=8| Active<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Imperfective<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitañs || skitañ || skiteñtī || skiteñtis || skitañsis || skitànis || skiteñtihis || skiteñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitañte || colspan=3| skitañtī || skitañtejī || colspan=3| skitañtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitañtis || skitán || colspan=2| skiteñtīs || skitañtisis || skitáinis || colspan=2| skiteñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Aorist<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skaitàwas || skaitàwan || skaitàwī || skaitàwis || skaitàwasis || skaitàwanis || skaitàwihis || skaitàwisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skaĩtawe || colspan=3| skaĩtawī || skaĩtawejis || colspan=3| skaĩtawīhis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skaĩtawis || skaitawā̃ || colspan=2| skaĩtawīs || skaĩtawisis || skaitawànis || colspan=2| skaĩtawīsis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Perfect<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitùs || skituñ || skitwī́ || skitwìs || skitùsis || skitùnis || skitwìhis || skitwìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitàwī || colspan=4| skitàwīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skitū́s || colspan=2| skitwī́s || colspan=2| skitū́sis || colspan=2| skitwī́sis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Desiderative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitasiañs || skitasiañ || skitasiañtī || skitasiñtis || skitasiañsis || skitasiànis || skitasiañtihis || skitasiñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitasiañte || colspan=3| skitasiñtī || skitasiañtejī || colspan=3| skitasiñtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitasiañtis || skitasián || colspan=2| skitasiñtīs || skitasiañtisis || skitasiáinis || colspan=2| skitasiñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Resultative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skillùs || skilluñ || skillī́ || skillìs || skillùsis || skillùnis || skillìhis || skillìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitèlī || colspan=4| skitèlīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skillū́s || colspan=2| skillī́s || colspan=2| skillū́sis || colspan=2| skillī́sis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: ''skaunas kuramas'' “a house that is being built”, ''haiskas histas'' – “a question that has been asked”.<br />
<br />
In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: ''laubīmas'' “liked” — ''laubīmesas'' “more liked” — ''laubīmimmas'' “most liked”.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_verbs&diff=298237Carpathian verbs2023-03-15T16:32:42Z<p>Raistas: /* Participles */</p>
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<div>Carpathian '''verbs''' reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called [[w:Tense–aspect–mood|TAM]]. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as [[w:Participle|participles]], [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] and [[w:Supine|supine]] are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its [[w:Argument (linguistics)|arguments]], which is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ''ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi'' “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").<br />
<br />
Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — ''sēdē-'' (infinitive and aorist), ''sēdi-'' (imperfective) and ''sōd-'' (perfect); “remain” — ''lik-'' (infinitive), ''leik-'' (present), ''likā-'' (aorist) ''laik-'' (perfect).<br />
==Personal Endings==<br />
Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: '''athematic''' and '''thematic''', the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Present<br />
! colspan="2" | Aorist<br />
! colspan="2" | Perfect<br />
! colspan="2" | Optative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ū''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ai''<br />
| ''-a''<br />
| ''-(j)ēn''<br />
| ''-(j)ain''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-si''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-s''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
| ''-(j)ēs''<br />
| ''-(j)ais''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-ti<br />
| ''-e<br />
| ''-∅/-a''<br />
| ''-e''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-i''<br />
| ''-(j)ē''<br />
| ''-(j)ai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(e)wā́''<br />
| ''-awā́''<br />
| ''-(a)wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗwā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩwā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(e)tā́''<br />
| ''-atā́''<br />
| ''-(a)tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(e)tìs<br />
| ''-atìs<br />
| ''-(a)tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtis''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mès''<br />
| ''-(e)mùn/-mà''<br />
| ''-amè''<br />
| ''-(a)mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗmes''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩma''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(e)tè''<br />
| ''-atè''<br />
| ''-(a)tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗte''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩte''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-eñti<br />
| ''-añti<br />
| ''-iñ''<br />
| ''-añ''<br />
| ''-ínti''<br />
| ''-ín''<br />
| ''-(j)énti''<br />
| ''-ajín''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
*In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is ''-mun'' and ''-aimun'', while in Eastern Carpathian it is ''-ma'' and ''-aima''.<br />
<br />
==Conjugation==<br />
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē/ī''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩmi''<br />
|''stèrhū''<br />
|''turiū́''<br />
|''gidā́hū''<br />
|''zirhḗjū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsi''<br />
|''stèrhei''<br />
|''turiéi''<br />
|''gidā́hei''<br />
|''zirhḗjei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsti''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitwā́''<br />
|''sterhewā́''<br />
|''turiewā́''<br />
|''gidewā́''<br />
|''zirhējewā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turietā́''<br />
|''gidetā́''<br />
|''zirhējetā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turietìs''<br />
|''gidetìs''<br />
|''zirhējetìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeimès''<br />
|''sterhemà''<br />
|''turiemà''<br />
|''gidemà''<br />
|''zirhējemà''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turietè''<br />
|''gidetè''<br />
|''zirhējetè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeiteñti''<br />
|''sterhañti''<br />
|''turiañti''<br />
|''gidañti''<br />
|''zirhējañti''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''stèrhetei'' “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ''ster̃hetei''. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: ''l'''ì'''ktei'' “to remain” — ''l'''eĩ'''kū'' “I remain”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Aorist|Aorist]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩtun''<br />
|''stèrhun''<br />
|''turḗjun''<br />
|''gidā́sun''<br />
|''zirhḗjun''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗjis''<br />
|''gidā́sis''<br />
|''zirhḗjis''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩ''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''turḗ''<br />
|''gidā́se''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitawā́''<br />
|''sterhawā́''<br />
|''turēwā́''<br />
|''gidāsawā́''<br />
|''zirhēwā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeitatā́''<br />
|''sterhatā́''<br />
|''turētā́''<br />
|''gidāsatā́''<br />
|''zirhētā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeitatìs''<br />
|''sterhatìs''<br />
|''turētìs''<br />
|''gidāsatìs''<br />
|''zirhētìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeitamè''<br />
|''sterhamè''<br />
|''turēmè''<br />
|''gidāsamè''<br />
|''zirhēmè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeitatè''<br />
|''sterhatè''<br />
|''turētè''<br />
|''gidāsatè''<br />
|''zirhētè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeitiñ''<br />
|''sterhañ''<br />
|''turējañ''<br />
|''gidāsañ''<br />
|''zirhējañ''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kúr'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).<br />
<br />
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperfect|Imperfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skéitun''<br />
|''stirhán''<br />
|''turián''<br />
|''gidián''<br />
|''zirhḗjan''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skéis''<br />
|''stirhē̃s''<br />
|''turiḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗjēs''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skéi''<br />
|''stirhē̃''<br />
|''turiḗ''<br />
|''gidā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjē''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitē̃wā''<br />
|''stirhē̃wā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhējḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tā''<br />
|''stirhē̃tā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhējḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tis''<br />
|''stirhē̃tis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhējḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃me''<br />
|''stirhē̃me''<br />
|''turiḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhējḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃te''<br />
|''stirhē̃te''<br />
|''turiḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhējḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiteñ''<br />
|''stirheñ''<br />
|''turējeñ''<br />
|''gidāseñ''<br />
|''zirhējeñ''<br />
|}<br />
The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: ''"bē"'' + infinitive — ''bē skeistei'' “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: ''sk'''i'''tēwā'' “we two were reading” but ''sk'''ei'''twā'' “we two are reading”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Perfect (grammar)|Perfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtai''<br />
|''stàrha''<br />
|''turḗja''<br />
|''gidā́ha''<br />
|''zirhḗja''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩstai''<br />
|''stàrta''<br />
|''turḗta''<br />
|''gidā́ta''<br />
|''zirhḗta''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtei''<br />
|''stàrhe''<br />
|''turḗje''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skaitwā́''<br />
|''stárwā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skaistā́''<br />
|''stártā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skaistìs''<br />
|''stártis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skaimè''<br />
|''stárme''<br />
|''turḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skaistè''<br />
|''stárte''<br />
|''turḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skaitínti''<br />
|''starhin''<br />
|''turḗjin''<br />
|''gidā́hin''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: ''l'''ei'''kū'' “I remain” — ''l'''ai'''ka'' “I have remained/I am preserved”; ''pasad'''ḗ'''demi'' “I’m putting it down” — ''pasad'''ṓ'''dai'' “I’ve put it down”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Future tense|Future]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiū''<br />
|''stèrhesiū''<br />
|''turḗsiū''<br />
|''gidā́siū''<br />
|''zirhḗsiū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiei''<br />
|''stèrhesiei''<br />
|''turḗsiei''<br />
|''gidā́siei''<br />
|''zirhḗsiei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeĩsiwā''<br />
|''stèrhesiwā''<br />
|''turḗsiwā''<br />
|''gidā́siwā''<br />
|''zirhḗsiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitā''<br />
|''stèrhesitā''<br />
|''turḗsitā''<br />
|''gidā́sitā''<br />
|''zirhḗsitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitis''<br />
|''stèrhesitis''<br />
|''turḗsitis''<br />
|''gidā́sitis''<br />
|''zirhḗsitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsima''<br />
|''stèrhesima''<br />
|''turḗsima''<br />
|''gidā́sima''<br />
|''zirhḗsima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsite''<br />
|''stèrhesite''<br />
|''turḗsite''<br />
|''gidā́site''<br />
|''zirhḗsite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsianti''<br />
|''stèrhesianti''<br />
|''turḗsianti''<br />
|''gidā́sianti''<br />
|''zirhḗsianti''<br />
|}<br />
The future tense in Carpathian still retains its connection to the [[w:Desiderative mood|desiderative]] aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: ''skeisiū'' “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: ''skitiēn'' “I am to read”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Optative mood|Optative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēn''<br />
|''stèrhain''<br />
|''tùriain''<br />
|''gidā́hain''<br />
|''zirhḗjain''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhais''<br />
|''tùriais''<br />
|''gidā́hais''<br />
|''zirhḗjais''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhai''<br />
|''tùriai''<br />
|''gidā́hai''<br />
|''zirhḗjai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitiḗwā''<br />
|''sterhaĩwā''<br />
|''turiaĩwā''<br />
|''gidahaĩwā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtā''<br />
|''sterhaĩtā''<br />
|''turiaĩtā''<br />
|''gidahaĩtā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtis''<br />
|''sterhaĩtis''<br />
|''turiaĩtis''<br />
|''gidahaĩtis''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗmes''<br />
|''sterhaĩma''<br />
|''turiaĩma''<br />
|''gidahaĩma''<br />
|''zirhḗjaima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗte''<br />
|''stèrhaĩte''<br />
|''turiaĩte''<br />
|''gidahaĩte''<br />
|''zirhḗjaite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skitiénti''<br />
|''sterhajín''<br />
|''turējín''<br />
|''gidāhín''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In Carpathian the optative forms are used as imperative. The original imperative is used only for direct orders or commands and may be perceived as informal or rude. The Eastern dialects generally preserve a separate imperative better, than the Western ones, some of which lost it completely.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperative mood|Imperative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skitiè''<br />
|''stèrhi''<br />
|''tùri''<br />
|''gidā́hi''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩstu''<br />
|''stèrhie''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turitā́''<br />
|''giditā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjetā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turitìs''<br />
|''giditìs''<br />
|''zirhḗjetis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turitè''<br />
|''giditè''<br />
|''zirhḗjete''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiténtu''<br />
|''sterhañtu''<br />
|''turiañtu''<br />
|''gidañtu''<br />
|''zirhḗjantu''<br />
|}<br />
*Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.<br />
===Inactive verbs===<br />
The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of [[w:Autocausative verb|autocausative]] verbs are ''supāteisin'' “to sleep”, ''dōmāteisin'' “to suppose”, ''wōjāteisin'' “to believe” and ''tinkāteisin'' “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The [[w:Impersonal verb|impersonal]] verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being ''snigetei'' “to snow”, ''zarētei'' “to dawn”, ''lītei''. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |<br />
! colspan="3" | Impersonal<br />
! Autocausative<br />
|-<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''j''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
|-<br />
!''snigetéi'' “to snow”<br />
!''zarḗtei'' “to dawn”<br />
!''lī́tei'' “to rain”<br />
!''supā́teisin'' “to sleep”<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
|''sniñgi''<br />
|''zarḗ''<br />
|''lī́ji''<br />
|''supéimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
|''snìgā''<br />
|''zàriā''<br />
|''lìjā''<br />
|''supā́misin''<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|''snìgḗ''<br />
|''zàriḗ''<br />
|''lìjḗ''<br />
|''supḗmisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Perfect<br />
|''snìga''<br />
|''zària''<br />
|''lìja''<br />
|''supā́jamisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
|''snìgis''<br />
|''zarḗs''<br />
|''lī́s''<br />
|''supā́smisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Optative<br />
|''snìgai''<br />
|''zàriai''<br />
|''lī́jai''<br />
|''supā́jaimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|''snìge''<br />
|''zàre''<br />
|''lìje''<br />
|''sùpemisin''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Object markers===<br />
One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the [[w:Subject (grammar)|subject]], and affected persons are [[w:Object (grammar)|objects]] (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] is not indicated.<br />
<br />
Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Direct Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ti''<br />
| ''-(j)i''<br />
| ''-ni''<br />
| ''-sa''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''-nū''<br />
| ''-wū''<br />
| ''-(j)ī''<br />
| ''-nai''<br />
| ''-sai''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''-nas''<br />
| ''-was''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-nan''<br />
| ''-sā''<br />
| ''-tā''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Indirect Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''mei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
| ''ei-''<br />
| ''nai-''<br />
| ''sai-''<br />
| ''tai-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''wō-''<br />
| ''ī-''<br />
| ''nan-''<br />
| ''san-''<br />
| ''tan-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''us-''<br />
| ''īn-''<br />
| ''nei-''<br />
| ''sei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: '''''ei'''dṓdan'''ta''''' “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: ''turi'''ū'''-'' “I hold” and ''turēj'''u'''n-'' “I held” become ''turi'''ō'''sa'' “I’m holding it” and ''turēj'''a'''nsa'' “I held it”.<br />
<br />
==Aspectual and deictic affixes==<br />
Carpathian verbs form [[w:Lexical aspect|lexical aspect]] using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:<br />
*Suffixes, which make imperfective ([[w:Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]]) or [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]] verbs from simple perfective verbs: ''nestei'' “to carry” — ''nasītei'' “to be carrying”, ''nasiōtei'' “to carry often”.<br />
*A suffix, which makes [[w:Inchoative aspect|inchoative]] verbs, from imperfective verbs: ''stahētei'' “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.<br />
*Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, [[w:Iterative aspect|iterative]] verbs: ''peistei'' “to write” — ''kirtātei'' “to write” — ''nōkirtātei'' “to write down”, ''pakirtātei'' “to write several times (iterative)”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. ''bēgetei'' “run”, ''eitei'' “go”, ''nestei'' “carry”, ''westei'' “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the ''pernestei per hapān'' “to carry through a river (once)” — ''pernasītei'' “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.<br />
<br />
Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Suffix<br />
! 3sg Present<br />
! Infinitive<br />
! Examples<br />
! Function<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''-na''<br />
| ''-ne''<br />
| ''-natei''<br />
| ''kun'''na'''tei'' “to throw”<br>''lim'''na'''tei “to get stuck”<br />
| [[w:Inchoative aspect|Inchoative]], [[w:Momentane|momentaneous]]<br />
| The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-je''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''mautei'' “to wash”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| Transitive imperfective Not productive.<br />
| The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-ie''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''siltei'' “to send”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| [[w:Dynamic verb|fientive]] verbs.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ēj''<br />
| ''-ēje''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''hauj'''ē'''tei'' “to be aware”<br/>''leg'''ē'''tei'' “to lie (be situated)”<br/>''bil'''ē'''tei'' “to be white”<br />
| [[w:Stative verb|Stative]] verbs, often continuous.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. [[w:Deadjectival verb|Deadjectival]] inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ā''<br />
| ''-āhe''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''kēj'''ā'''tei'' “to observe”<br/>''taup'''ā'''tei'' “to stamp”<br/>''harb'''ā'''tei'' “to work”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]], [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]], [[w:Intensive word form|intensive]].<br />
| Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ō''<br />
| ''-ōhe''<br />
| ''-ōtei''<br />
| ''wan'''ō'''tei'' “to become violet”<br/><br />
| [[w:Deadjectival verb|deadjectival]] inchoative verbs.<br />
| Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-au''<br />
| ''-auje''<br />
| ''-autei''<br />
| ''ōg'''au'''tei'' “to gather berries”<br/>''mīlautei'' “to endear”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]] progressive verbs.<br />
| The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ī''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-ītei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pirgītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-jē''<br />
| ''-iei''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pirgītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: ''legetei'' “to lie down” — ''li'''n'''gū'' “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: ''slūnautei'' “to be famous”, ''kurnautei'' “to prepare”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian prefixes:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Examples<br />
! Approximate<br>meaning<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''ar-''<br />
| ''arkaltei'' “to break apart”<br />
| “dis-”, “un-”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''at-''<br />
| ''addōtei'' “to give back”<br />
| “from”, “back”.<br />
| Has a form ''ati-'' before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ap-''<br />
| ''apeitei'' “to walk around”<br />
| “around”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''ep-'' instead. Has a form ''api-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''da-''<br />
| ''dajeitei'' “to go to”<br />
| “towards”, “till”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''au-''<br />
| ''aweitei'' “to walk between”<br />
| “between”, “at”.<br />
| Has a form ''aw-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “in”, “into”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''is-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “out of”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''iš-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ni-''<br />
| ''nijeitei'' “to descend”<br />
| “down”, “below”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''nōjeitei'' “to walk upwards”<br />
| “up”, “over”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''pō-''<br />
| ''pōmintei'' “to recall”, ''pōjeitei'' “to come later”<br />
| “later”.<br />
| Some Western dialects have ''pā-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pa-''<br />
| ''pamintei'' “to remember”, ''panestei'' “to carry away”<br />
| “at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs.<br />
| Has a form ''paj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ''per-''<br />
| ''perdōtei'' “to pass over”, ''pereitei'' “to cross”<br />
| “over”, “re-”, “through”.<br />
| Has a form ''pere-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''par-''<br />
| ''pareitei'' “to walk along”<br />
| “along”, “completely”.<br />
| Has a form ''para-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''perei-''<br />
| ''perijeitei'' “to approach”<br />
| “by”, “next to”.<br />
| Has a form ''perij-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pirt-''<br />
| ''pirtistātei'' “to contrast”<br />
| “against”.<br />
| Has a form ''pirti-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ō-''<br />
| ''ōjeitei'' “to almost reach”, ''ōsiausteisin'' “to be like a joke”<br />
| “Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns.<br />
| Has the form ''ōj-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''sam-''<br />
| ''sameitei'' “to walk together”<br />
| “together”.<br />
| Has a form ''sama-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''su-''<br />
| ''sumētei'' “to dare”<br />
| “good”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''sun-''<br />
| ''suntartei'' “to talk with someone”<br />
| “with”, “alongside”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''uz-''<br />
| ''uzimtei'' “to obtain”<br />
| “at”, “onto”, “in return for”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''už-'' instead. Becomes ''us-'' before voiceless consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''zō-''<br />
| ''zōjeitei'' “to walk from behind”<br />
| “behind”, “after”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''žō-'' instead. Becomes ''zōj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Periphrastic formations==<br />
The original Proto-Indo-European [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of ''būtei'' and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''būnta skeistei'' “I would be reading that”; ''būsta skeistun'' “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb ''būtei'' (subject endings only) are as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+[[w:Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́n''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́s''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́wā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́tā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́tis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́me''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́te''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́wen''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: ''skeistumbū́'' “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.<br />
<br />
In addition to synthetic future-desiderative, there are also several '''analytic future''' constructions with a modal verb and an infinitive or supine, which, unlike the former synthetic form, express necessity or obligation, for example: ''eimi skeistei'' “I’m going to read”, ''immi dētun'' “I must have it done”. In order to denote simple futurity of an action, present tense may be used: ''tā pa skeisteta kunīgān'' “later he/she will read a book”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian verbs express [[w:Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]] of an action by means of the verb ''leistei'' “to let” and the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''leide eitei'' “he/she will probably go”, ''lais eitei'' “he/she might have gone”. If used with supine instead, the latter phrase gains a permissive meaning: ''laidinti eitun'' “they are allowed to go”.<br />
<br />
==Participles==<br />
Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.<br />
<br />
One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: ''paustīs perelektunīs'' “migrating birds”, ''wadījas nepatairānas'' “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: ''Akunan '''atihwerwā''', meriā dangānas pagiledēsā''. – “'''Having opened''' the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.<br />
<br />
Just as adjectives, participles decline for gender, case and number of the noun they modify, except for the dative absolute construction. Participles can be conjugated for person in the same way as inactive verbs by taking pronominal suffixes. The table below represents all possible participle forms of the verb ''skeistei'' “to read”, the pronominal forms having the third person singular suffix ''-is''.<br />
:{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 rowspan=3 |<br />
! colspan=4| Simple<br />
! colspan=4| Pronominal<br />
|-<br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
! <small>masculine</small><br />
! <small>neuter</small><br />
! <small>feminine</small><br />
! <small>common</small><br />
|-<br />
! colspan=8| Active<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Imperfective<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitañs || skitañ || skiteñtī || skiteñtis || skitañsis || skitànis || skiteñtihis || skiteñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitañte || colspan=3| skitañtī || skitañtejī || colspan=3| skitañtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitañtis || skitán || colspan=2| skiteñtīs || skitañtisis || skitáinis || colspan=2| skiteñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Aorist<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skaitàwas || skaitàwan || skaitàwī || skaitàwis | skaitàwasis || skaitàwanis || skaitàwihis || skaitàwisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skaĩtawe || colspan=3| skaĩtawī || skaĩtawejis || colspan=3| skaĩtawīhis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skaĩtawis || skaitawā̃ || colspan=2| skaĩtawīs || skaĩtawisis || skaitawànis || colspan=2| skaĩtawīsis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Perfect<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitùs || skituñ || skitwī́ || skitwìs || skitùsis || skitùnis || skitwìhis || skitwìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitàwī || colspan=4| skitàwīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skitū́s || colspan=2| skitwī́s || colspan=2| skitū́sis || colspan=2| skitwī́sis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Desiderative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skitasiañs || skitasiañ || skitasiañtī || skitasiñtis || skitasiañsis || skitasiànis || skitasiañtihis || skitasiñtisis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| skitasiañte || colspan=3| skitasiñtī || skitasiañtejī || colspan=3| skitasiñtīhī<br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| skitasiañtis || skitasián || colspan=2| skitasiñtīs || skitasiañtisis || skitasiáinis || colspan=2| skitasiñtīhis<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3| Resultative<br />
! <small>sg</small><br />
| skillùs || skilluñ || skillī́ || skillìs || skillùsis || skillùnis || skillìhis || skillìsis<br />
|-<br />
! <small>du</small><br />
| colspan=4| skitèlī || colspan=4| skitèlīhis <br />
|-<br />
! <small>pl</small><br />
| colspan=2| skillū́s || colspan=2| skillī́s || colspan=2| skillū́sis || colspan=2| skillī́sis<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: ''skaunas kuramas'' “a house that is being built”, ''haiskas histas'' – “a question that has been asked”.<br />
<br />
In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: ''laubīmas'' “liked” — ''laubīmesas'' “more liked” — ''laubīmimmas'' “most liked”.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_adjectives&diff=298231Carpathian adjectives2023-03-15T15:09:50Z<p>Raistas: </p>
<hr />
<div>Carpathian adjectives have nominal morphology, although they share some traits with inactive verbs, such as object conjugation. Unlike nouns, adjectives alternate between all four genders (masculine, feminine, common and neuter), agreed with the corresponding gender of the noun. Adjectives have three degrees of [[w:Comparison (grammar)|comparison]]: '''positive''' (no suffix: masculine ''dàbas'', neuter ''dàba'', feminine ''dàbā'', common ''dàbis'' “good”), comparative (suffix ''-es-'': masculine ''dabesas'', neuter ''dabesa'', feminine ''dabesā'', common ''dabesis'' “better”) and superlative (suffix ''-imm-'': masculine ''dabimmas'', neuter ''dabimma'', feminine ''dabimmā'', common ''dabimmis'' “better”). Their number agrees with the number of the corresponding nouns. Adjectives have no vocative case instead using the nominative, when necessary.<br />
<br />
As in the case of noun paradigms, adjectives have their own classes, but there are only two: "a"-stem and "u"-stem. All other declensional classes either merged into the two, or did not exist. The masculine and neuter adjectives share all their oblique case endings, being different only in the nominative (for all numbers) and accusative (for dual and plural).<br />
<br />
==''a''-stem adjectives==<br />
An example of an "a"-stem adjective is ''jaũnas'' “young”.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! rowspan="2" |Case<br />
! colspan="4" |Singular<br />
! colspan="4" |Dual<br />
! colspan="4" |Plural<br />
|-<br />
!Masculine<br />
!Neuter<br />
!Feminine<br />
!Common<br />
!Masculine<br />
!Neuter<br />
!Feminine<br />
!Common<br />
!Masculine<br />
!Neuter<br />
!Feminine<br />
!Common<br />
|-<br />
!Nominative <br/> Vocative<br />
|''jaũnas''<br />
|''jaũna''<br />
|''jaunā́''<br />
|''jaunìs''<br />
|''jaũnū''<br />
| colspan="2" |''jaũnai''<br />
|''jaũnī''<br />
|''jaũnai''<br />
|''jaunā̃''<br />
|''jaũnās''<br />
|''jaũnīs''<br />
|-<br />
!Genitive<br />
| colspan="2" |''jaũnasa''<br />
|''jaunā̃s''<br />
|''jaunéis''<br />
| colspan="3" |''jaunáu''<br />
|''jauniáu''<br />
| colspan="3" |''jaunū̃n''<br />
|''jauniū̃n''<br />
|-<br />
!Dative<br />
| colspan="3" |''jaunái''<br />
|''jaũnei''<br />
| colspan="2" |''jaunamā̃''<br />
|''jaunā́mā''<br />
|''jaunimā̃''<br />
| colspan="2" |''jaunàmas''<br />
|''jaunā́mas''<br />
|''jaunìmas''<br />
|-<br />
!Accusative<br />
| colspan="2" |''jaũnun''<br />
|''jaũnān''<br />
|''jaũnin''<br />
|''jaũnū''<br />
| colspan="2" |''jaũnai''<br />
|''jaũnī''<br />
|''jaũnōnas''<br />
|''jaunā̃''<br />
|''jaũnānas''<br />
|''jaũnins''<br />
|-<br />
!Instrumental<br />
| colspan="2" |''jaũnū''<br />
|''jaunā́n''<br />
|''jaunimì''<br />
| colspan="2" |''jaunamā̃''<br />
|''jaunā́mā''<br />
|''jaunimā̃''<br />
| colspan="2" |''jaunáis''<br />
|''jaunā́mīs''<br />
|''jaunìmīs''<br />
|-<br />
!Locative<br />
| colspan="2" |''jaũnai''<br />
|''jaunái''<br />
|''jaunéi''<br />
| colspan="3" |''jaunáu''<br />
|''jauniáu''<br />
| colspan="2" |''jaunáišu''<br />
|''jaunā́su''<br />
|''jaunišù''<br />
|}<br />
==''u''-stem adjectives==<br />
An example of a "u"-stem adjective is ''tingùs'' “heavy”.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! rowspan="2" |Case<br />
! colspan="4" |Singular<br />
! colspan="4" |Dual<br />
! colspan="4" |Plural<br />
|-<br />
!Masculine<br />
!Neuter<br />
!Feminine<br />
!Common<br />
!Masculine<br />
!Neuter<br />
!Feminine<br />
!Common<br />
!Masculine<br />
!Neuter<br />
!Feminine<br />
!Common<br />
|-<br />
!Nominative <br/> Vocative<br />
|''tingùs''<br />
|''tingù''<br />
|''tingwī́''<br />
|''tingwìs''<br />
|''tìngū''<br />
| colspan="3" |''tìngwī''<br />
|''tìngaus''<br />
|''tìngū''<br />
| colspan="2" |''tìngwīs''<br />
|-<br />
!Genitive<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingáus''<br />
|''tingiā̃s''<br />
|''tingwéis''<br />
| colspan="4" |''tingwáu''<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingū̃n''<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingiū̃n''<br />
|-<br />
!Dative<br />
| colspan="2" |''tìngau''<br />
| colspan="2" |''tìngwei''<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingumā̃''<br />
|''tingiā́mā''<br />
|''tingwimā̃''<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingùmas''<br />
|''tingiā́mas''<br />
|''tingwìmas''<br />
|-<br />
!Accusative<br />
| colspan="2" |''tìngun''<br />
|''tìngwīn''<br />
|''tìngwin''<br />
|''tìngū''<br />
| colspan="3" |''tìngwī''<br />
|''tìnguns''<br />
|''tìngū''<br />
|''tìngwīnis''<br />
|''tìngwins''<br />
|-<br />
!Instrumental<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingumì''<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingwimì''<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingumā̃''<br />
|''tingiā́mā''<br />
|''tingwimā̃''<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingùmīs''<br />
|''tingiā́mīs''<br />
|''tingwìmīs''<br />
|-<br />
!Locative<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingáu''<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingwéi''<br />
| colspan="4" |''tingwáu''<br />
| colspan="2" |''tingušù''<br />
|''tingiā́su''<br />
|''tingwišù''<br />
|}<br />
==Person markers==<br />
Carpathian adjectives can act as [[w:Predicate (grammar)|predicates]] by taking person markers. The adjectival person markers are the same as object markers of verbs and similar to possessive suffixes of nouns, all having a common origin in early Proto-Carpathian personal clitics. The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated.<br />
<br />
Below is the table of person markers:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=2 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>proximate</small><br />
! <small>obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ti''<br />
| ''-(j)is''<br />
| ''-tas''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''-nū''<br />
| ''-wū''<br />
| ''-(j)ī''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''-nas''<br />
| ''-was''<br />
| ''-īs''<br />
| ''-tā''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Certain case endings change their vowel quality before a marker, for example: ''jaun'''ū''' wīrū'' “two young men” ''wīrū šī<sup>W</sup>/sī<sup>E</sup> jaun'''ō'''jī'' “these two men are young” ("W" is Western Carpathian and "E" is Eastern Carpathian).<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_verbs&diff=298230Carpathian verbs2023-03-15T15:09:05Z<p>Raistas: /* Participles */</p>
<hr />
<div>Carpathian '''verbs''' reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called [[w:Tense–aspect–mood|TAM]]. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as [[w:Participle|participles]], [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] and [[w:Supine|supine]] are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its [[w:Argument (linguistics)|arguments]], which is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ''ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi'' “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").<br />
<br />
Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — ''sēdē-'' (infinitive and aorist), ''sēdi-'' (imperfective) and ''sōd-'' (perfect); “remain” — ''lik-'' (infinitive), ''leik-'' (present), ''likā-'' (aorist) ''laik-'' (perfect).<br />
==Personal Endings==<br />
Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: '''athematic''' and '''thematic''', the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Present<br />
! colspan="2" | Aorist<br />
! colspan="2" | Perfect<br />
! colspan="2" | Optative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ū''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ai''<br />
| ''-a''<br />
| ''-(j)ēn''<br />
| ''-(j)ain''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-si''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-s''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
| ''-(j)ēs''<br />
| ''-(j)ais''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-ti<br />
| ''-e<br />
| ''-∅/-a''<br />
| ''-e''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-i''<br />
| ''-(j)ē''<br />
| ''-(j)ai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(e)wā́''<br />
| ''-awā́''<br />
| ''-(a)wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗwā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩwā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(e)tā́''<br />
| ''-atā́''<br />
| ''-(a)tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(e)tìs<br />
| ''-atìs<br />
| ''-(a)tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtis''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mès''<br />
| ''-(e)mùn/-mà''<br />
| ''-amè''<br />
| ''-(a)mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗmes''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩma''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(e)tè''<br />
| ''-atè''<br />
| ''-(a)tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗte''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩte''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-eñti<br />
| ''-añti<br />
| ''-iñ''<br />
| ''-añ''<br />
| ''-ínti''<br />
| ''-ín''<br />
| ''-(j)énti''<br />
| ''-ajín''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
*In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is ''-mun'' and ''-aimun'', while in Eastern Carpathian it is ''-ma'' and ''-aima''.<br />
<br />
==Conjugation==<br />
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē/ī''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩmi''<br />
|''stèrhū''<br />
|''turiū́''<br />
|''gidā́hū''<br />
|''zirhḗjū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsi''<br />
|''stèrhei''<br />
|''turiéi''<br />
|''gidā́hei''<br />
|''zirhḗjei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsti''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitwā́''<br />
|''sterhewā́''<br />
|''turiewā́''<br />
|''gidewā́''<br />
|''zirhējewā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turietā́''<br />
|''gidetā́''<br />
|''zirhējetā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turietìs''<br />
|''gidetìs''<br />
|''zirhējetìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeimès''<br />
|''sterhemà''<br />
|''turiemà''<br />
|''gidemà''<br />
|''zirhējemà''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turietè''<br />
|''gidetè''<br />
|''zirhējetè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeiteñti''<br />
|''sterhañti''<br />
|''turiañti''<br />
|''gidañti''<br />
|''zirhējañti''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''stèrhetei'' “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ''ster̃hetei''. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: ''l'''ì'''ktei'' “to remain” — ''l'''eĩ'''kū'' “I remain”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Aorist|Aorist]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩtun''<br />
|''stèrhun''<br />
|''turḗjun''<br />
|''gidā́sun''<br />
|''zirhḗjun''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗjis''<br />
|''gidā́sis''<br />
|''zirhḗjis''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩ''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''turḗ''<br />
|''gidā́se''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitawā́''<br />
|''sterhawā́''<br />
|''turēwā́''<br />
|''gidāsawā́''<br />
|''zirhēwā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeitatā́''<br />
|''sterhatā́''<br />
|''turētā́''<br />
|''gidāsatā́''<br />
|''zirhētā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeitatìs''<br />
|''sterhatìs''<br />
|''turētìs''<br />
|''gidāsatìs''<br />
|''zirhētìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeitamè''<br />
|''sterhamè''<br />
|''turēmè''<br />
|''gidāsamè''<br />
|''zirhēmè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeitatè''<br />
|''sterhatè''<br />
|''turētè''<br />
|''gidāsatè''<br />
|''zirhētè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeitiñ''<br />
|''sterhañ''<br />
|''turējañ''<br />
|''gidāsañ''<br />
|''zirhējañ''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kúr'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).<br />
<br />
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperfect|Imperfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skéitun''<br />
|''stirhán''<br />
|''turián''<br />
|''gidián''<br />
|''zirhḗjan''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skéis''<br />
|''stirhē̃s''<br />
|''turiḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗjēs''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skéi''<br />
|''stirhē̃''<br />
|''turiḗ''<br />
|''gidā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjē''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitē̃wā''<br />
|''stirhē̃wā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhējḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tā''<br />
|''stirhē̃tā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhējḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tis''<br />
|''stirhē̃tis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhējḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃me''<br />
|''stirhē̃me''<br />
|''turiḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhējḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃te''<br />
|''stirhē̃te''<br />
|''turiḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhējḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiteñ''<br />
|''stirheñ''<br />
|''turējeñ''<br />
|''gidāseñ''<br />
|''zirhējeñ''<br />
|}<br />
The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: ''"bē"'' + infinitive — ''bē skeistei'' “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: ''sk'''i'''tēwā'' “we two were reading” but ''sk'''ei'''twā'' “we two are reading”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Perfect (grammar)|Perfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtai''<br />
|''stàrha''<br />
|''turḗja''<br />
|''gidā́ha''<br />
|''zirhḗja''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩstai''<br />
|''stàrta''<br />
|''turḗta''<br />
|''gidā́ta''<br />
|''zirhḗta''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtei''<br />
|''stàrhe''<br />
|''turḗje''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skaitwā́''<br />
|''stárwā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skaistā́''<br />
|''stártā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skaistìs''<br />
|''stártis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skaimè''<br />
|''stárme''<br />
|''turḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skaistè''<br />
|''stárte''<br />
|''turḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skaitínti''<br />
|''starhin''<br />
|''turḗjin''<br />
|''gidā́hin''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: ''l'''ei'''kū'' “I remain” — ''l'''ai'''ka'' “I have remained/I am preserved”; ''pasad'''ḗ'''demi'' “I’m putting it down” — ''pasad'''ṓ'''dai'' “I’ve put it down”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Future tense|Future]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiū''<br />
|''stèrhesiū''<br />
|''turḗsiū''<br />
|''gidā́siū''<br />
|''zirhḗsiū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsiei''<br />
|''stèrhesiei''<br />
|''turḗsiei''<br />
|''gidā́siei''<br />
|''zirhḗsiei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeĩsiwā''<br />
|''stèrhesiwā''<br />
|''turḗsiwā''<br />
|''gidā́siwā''<br />
|''zirhḗsiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitā''<br />
|''stèrhesitā''<br />
|''turḗsitā''<br />
|''gidā́sitā''<br />
|''zirhḗsitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeĩsitis''<br />
|''stèrhesitis''<br />
|''turḗsitis''<br />
|''gidā́sitis''<br />
|''zirhḗsitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsima''<br />
|''stèrhesima''<br />
|''turḗsima''<br />
|''gidā́sima''<br />
|''zirhḗsima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsite''<br />
|''stèrhesite''<br />
|''turḗsite''<br />
|''gidā́site''<br />
|''zirhḗsite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeĩsianti''<br />
|''stèrhesianti''<br />
|''turḗsianti''<br />
|''gidā́sianti''<br />
|''zirhḗsianti''<br />
|}<br />
The future tense in Carpathian still retains its connection to the [[w:Desiderative mood|desiderative]] aspect, from which it originated. In fact, it is more accurate to translate Carpathian verbs in future tense with a phrase “wanting to do something”, for example: ''skeisiū'' “I’d like to read” or “I want to read”, which implies the speaker’s own volition or intent to do it. Otherwise, optative form is preferred: ''skitiēn'' “I am to read”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Optative mood|Optative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēn''<br />
|''stèrhain''<br />
|''tùriain''<br />
|''gidā́hain''<br />
|''zirhḗjain''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhais''<br />
|''tùriais''<br />
|''gidā́hais''<br />
|''zirhḗjais''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skìtiēs''<br />
|''stèrhai''<br />
|''tùriai''<br />
|''gidā́hai''<br />
|''zirhḗjai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitiḗwā''<br />
|''sterhaĩwā''<br />
|''turiaĩwā''<br />
|''gidahaĩwā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaiwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtā''<br />
|''sterhaĩtā''<br />
|''turiaĩtā''<br />
|''gidahaĩtā''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitiḗtis''<br />
|''sterhaĩtis''<br />
|''turiaĩtis''<br />
|''gidahaĩtis''<br />
|''zirhḗjaitis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗmes''<br />
|''sterhaĩma''<br />
|''turiaĩma''<br />
|''gidahaĩma''<br />
|''zirhḗjaima''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitiḗte''<br />
|''stèrhaĩte''<br />
|''turiaĩte''<br />
|''gidahaĩte''<br />
|''zirhḗjaite''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skitiénti''<br />
|''sterhajín''<br />
|''turējín''<br />
|''gidāhín''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In Carpathian the optative forms are used as imperative. The original imperative is used only for direct orders or commands and may be perceived as informal or rude. The Eastern dialects generally preserve a separate imperative better, than the Western ones, some of which lost it completely.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperative mood|Imperative]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skitiè''<br />
|''stèrhi''<br />
|''tùri''<br />
|''gidā́hi''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩstu''<br />
|''stèrhie''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turitā́''<br />
|''giditā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjetā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turitìs''<br />
|''giditìs''<br />
|''zirhḗjetis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="2" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turitè''<br />
|''giditè''<br />
|''zirhḗjete''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiténtu''<br />
|''sterhañtu''<br />
|''turiañtu''<br />
|''gidañtu''<br />
|''zirhḗjantu''<br />
|}<br />
*Imperative has no first person forms. When necessary, optative forms are used.<br />
===Inactive verbs===<br />
The category of inactive verbs convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. There are two classes: autocausative and impersonal verbs. The common examples of [[w:Autocausative verb|autocausative]] verbs are ''supāteisin'' “to sleep”, ''dōmāteisin'' “to suppose”, ''wōjāteisin'' “to believe” and ''tinkāteisin'' “to suit, to be appropriate”. These verbs mark the subject with the dative instead of the nominative. The [[w:Impersonal verb|impersonal]] verbs are almost all denominative and take no arguments, the examples being ''snigetei'' “to snow”, ''zarētei'' “to dawn”, ''lītei''. Their conjugation is different from the active verbs in that the autocausative verbs only take object markers and impersonal verbs do not take any personal markers. The tenses are exactly the same, except the inactive verbs lack the imperative and have a separate subjunctive form, derived from the indicative of the PIE perfective verbs. Here is the example of the conjugation of some inactive verbs (the autocausative example is in the first person singular):<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |<br />
! colspan="3" | Impersonal<br />
! Autocausative<br />
|-<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''j''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
|-<br />
!''snigetéi'' “to snow”<br />
!''zarḗtei'' “to dawn”<br />
!''lī́tei'' “to rain”<br />
!''supā́teisin'' “to sleep”<br />
|-<br />
! Present<br />
|''sniñgi''<br />
|''zarḗ''<br />
|''lī́ji''<br />
|''supéimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Aorist<br />
|''snìgā''<br />
|''zàriā''<br />
|''lìjā''<br />
|''supā́misin''<br />
|-<br />
! Imperfect<br />
|''snìgḗ''<br />
|''zàriḗ''<br />
|''lìjḗ''<br />
|''supḗmisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Perfect<br />
|''snìga''<br />
|''zària''<br />
|''lìja''<br />
|''supā́jamisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Future<br />
|''snìgis''<br />
|''zarḗs''<br />
|''lī́s''<br />
|''supā́smisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Optative<br />
|''snìgai''<br />
|''zàriai''<br />
|''lī́jai''<br />
|''supā́jaimisin''<br />
|-<br />
! Subjunctive<br />
|''snìge''<br />
|''zàre''<br />
|''lìje''<br />
|''sùpemisin''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Object markers===<br />
One, two, three or, rarely, four grammatical persons can be indicated in a single Carpathian verb. The performer of an action is called the [[w:Subject (grammar)|subject]], and affected persons are [[w:Object (grammar)|objects]] (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. The [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]] is not indicated.<br />
<br />
Below is the table of object markers, used by both active and inactive verbs:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Direct Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ti''<br />
| ''-(j)i''<br />
| ''-ni''<br />
| ''-sa''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''-nū''<br />
| ''-wū''<br />
| ''-(j)ī''<br />
| ''-nai''<br />
| ''-sai''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''-nas''<br />
| ''-was''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-nan''<br />
| ''-sā''<br />
| ''-tā''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Indirect Objects<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
! rowspan=2 |[[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
! colspan=4 | [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
|-<br />
! <small>animate proximate</small><br />
! <small>animate obviate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate proximate</small><br />
! <small>inanimate obviate</small><br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
| ''mei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
| ''ei-''<br />
| ''nai-''<br />
| ''sai-''<br />
| ''tai-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''wō-''<br />
| ''ī-''<br />
| ''nan-''<br />
| ''san-''<br />
| ''tan-''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''us-''<br />
| ''īn-''<br />
| ''nei-''<br />
| ''sei-''<br />
| ''tei-''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Inactive verbs only use direct object markers, while active verbs can use both: '''''ei'''dṓdan'''ta''''' “I gave it to him/her”. The first person subject endings change their quality, for example: ''turi'''ū'''-'' “I hold” and ''turēj'''u'''n-'' “I held” become ''turi'''ō'''sa'' “I’m holding it” and ''turēj'''a'''nsa'' “I held it”.<br />
<br />
==Aspectual and deictic affixes==<br />
Carpathian verbs form [[w:Lexical aspect|lexical aspect]] using various affixes, which make up systematic groups, based on the similarity in meaning. Essentially, there are three distinct groups of aspect affixes:<br />
*Suffixes, which make imperfective ([[w:Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]]) or [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]] verbs from simple perfective verbs: ''nestei'' “to carry” — ''nasītei'' “to be carrying”, ''nasiōtei'' “to carry often”.<br />
*A suffix, which makes [[w:Inchoative aspect|inchoative]] verbs, from imperfective verbs: ''stahētei'' “to be standing” — “stanautei” “to step”.<br />
*Prefixes, added to imperfective verbs to make perfective, [[w:Iterative aspect|iterative]] verbs: ''peistei'' “to write” — ''kirtātei'' “to write” — ''nōkirtātei'' “to write down”, ''pakirtātei'' “to write several times (iterative)”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian also has a special class of motion verbs (e.g. ''bēgetei'' “run”, ''eitei'' “go”, ''nestei'' “carry”, ''westei'' “lead” etc), which are usually used with various prefixes to define the direction or duration of motion, thus creating two aspectual groups: one, expressing determinate action (motion towards or away from a place), and the other, expressing indeterminate action (motion back and forth or without a specified goal). These two groups form verb pairs, one perfective and one imperfective. for example the ''pernestei per hapān'' “to carry through a river (once)” — ''pernasītei'' “to be carrying through something (in general, more than once)”.<br />
<br />
Unlike prefixes, which do not change the way a verb is conjugated, suffixed verbs form a separate conjugation class, which is characterised by the retention of a thematic vowel. Below is a table of all aspectual suffixes in Carpathian:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Suffix<br />
! 3sg Present<br />
! Infinitive<br />
! Examples<br />
! Function<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''-na''<br />
| ''-ne''<br />
| ''-natei''<br />
| ''kun'''na'''tei'' “to throw”<br>''lim'''na'''tei “to get stuck”<br />
| [[w:Inchoative aspect|Inchoative]], [[w:Momentane|momentaneous]]<br />
| The plosive consonant, preceding this suffix, assimilates to "m" or "n".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-je''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''mautei'' “to wash”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| Transitive imperfective Not productive.<br />
| The infinitive stem ends in a long vowel, or a diphthong (usually only in dialects), while the present stem ends in a short vowel and "j".<br />
|-<br />
| ''-j''<br />
| ''-ie''<br />
| ''-tei''<br />
| ''siltei'' “to send”<br/>''nautei'' “to yearn”<br />
| [[w:Dynamic verb|fientive]] verbs.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. Palatalised final root consonant in the present.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ēj''<br />
| ''-ēje''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''hauj'''ē'''tei'' “to be aware”<br/>''leg'''ē'''tei'' “to lie (be situated)”<br/>''bil'''ē'''tei'' “to be white”<br />
| [[w:Stative verb|Stative]] verbs, often continuous.<br />
| Sigmatic aorist. [[w:Deadjectival verb|Deadjectival]] inactive verbs have zero-grade throughout their conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ā''<br />
| ''-āhe''<br />
| ''-ātei''<br />
| ''kēj'''ā'''tei'' “to observe”<br/>''taup'''ā'''tei'' “to stamp”<br/>''harb'''ā'''tei'' “to work”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]], [[w:Frequentative|frequentative]], [[w:Intensive word form|intensive]].<br />
| Sigmatic or root aorist. The vowel "ā" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ō''<br />
| ''-ōhe''<br />
| ''-ōtei''<br />
| ''wan'''ō'''tei'' “to become violet”<br/><br />
| [[w:Deadjectival verb|deadjectival]] inchoative verbs.<br />
| Prothetic "-aw-" in aorist and imperfect, "h" in present and optative. The vowel "ō" is present throughout the conjugation.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-au''<br />
| ''-auje''<br />
| ''-autei''<br />
| ''ōg'''au'''tei'' “to gather berries”<br/>''mīlautei'' “to endear”<br />
| [[w:Denominal verb|Denominative]] progressive verbs.<br />
| The diphthong "-au-" becomes "-awā-" in the aorist.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-ī''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-ītei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pirgītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''-jē''<br />
| ''-iei''<br />
| ''-ētei''<br />
| ''pars'''ī'''tei'' “to ask”<br/>''kailītei'' “to cure”<br/>''pirgītei'' “to fry”<br />
| [[w:Causative|Causative]].<br />
| The diphthong "-ei-" becomes "-īj-" before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
Other affixes, that are no longer productive, are the present nasal infix: ''legetei'' “to lie down” — ''li'''n'''gū'' “I lie down”; the "nau"-suffix: ''slūnautei'' “to be famous”, ''kurnautei'' “to prepare”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian prefixes:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Prefix<br />
! Examples<br />
! Approximate<br>meaning<br />
! Notes<br />
|-<br />
| ''ar-''<br />
| ''arkaltei'' “to break apart”<br />
| “dis-”, “un-”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''at-''<br />
| ''addōtei'' “to give back”<br />
| “from”, “back”.<br />
| Has a form ''ati-'' before consonants, assimilates to the next plosive.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ap-''<br />
| ''apeitei'' “to walk around”<br />
| “around”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''ep-'' instead. Has a form ''api-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''da-''<br />
| ''dajeitei'' “to go to”<br />
| “towards”, “till”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''au-''<br />
| ''aweitei'' “to walk between”<br />
| “between”, “at”.<br />
| Has a form ''aw-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''in-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “in”, “into”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''is-''<br />
| ''ineitei'' “to enter”<br />
| “out of”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''iš-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ni-''<br />
| ''nijeitei'' “to descend”<br />
| “down”, “below”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''nō-''<br />
| ''nōjeitei'' “to walk upwards”<br />
| “up”, “over”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''pō-''<br />
| ''pōmintei'' “to recall”, ''pōjeitei'' “to come later”<br />
| “later”.<br />
| Some Western dialects have ''pā-'' instead.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pa-''<br />
| ''pamintei'' “to remember”, ''panestei'' “to carry away”<br />
| “at”, “away”. Forms iterative, frequentative and semelfactive verbs.<br />
| Has a form ''paj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
| ''per-''<br />
| ''perdōtei'' “to pass over”, ''pereitei'' “to cross”<br />
| “over”, “re-”, “through”.<br />
| Has a form ''pere-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''par-''<br />
| ''pareitei'' “to walk along”<br />
| “along”, “completely”.<br />
| Has a form ''para-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''perei-''<br />
| ''perijeitei'' “to approach”<br />
| “by”, “next to”.<br />
| Has a form ''perij-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''pirt-''<br />
| ''pirtistātei'' “to contrast”<br />
| “against”.<br />
| Has a form ''pirti-'' before consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''ō-''<br />
| ''ōjeitei'' “to almost reach”, ''ōsiausteisin'' “to be like a joke”<br />
| “Afterwards”, “up to”. Forms collective abstract nouns.<br />
| Has the form ''ōj-'' before vowels.<br />
|-<br />
| ''sam-''<br />
| ''sameitei'' “to walk together”<br />
| “together”.<br />
| Has a form ''sama-'' before a consonant cluster.<br />
|-<br />
| ''su-''<br />
| ''sumētei'' “to dare”<br />
| “good”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''sun-''<br />
| ''suntartei'' “to talk with someone”<br />
| “with”, “alongside”.<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
| ''uz-''<br />
| ''uzimtei'' “to obtain”<br />
| “at”, “onto”, “in return for”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''už-'' instead. Becomes ''us-'' before voiceless consonants.<br />
|-<br />
| ''zō-''<br />
| ''zōjeitei'' “to walk from behind”<br />
| “behind”, “after”.<br />
| Western Carpathian has ''žō-'' instead. Becomes ''zōj-'' before vowels<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Periphrastic formations==<br />
The original Proto-Indo-European [[w:Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] had fell out of use already by the Proto-Carpathian period, instead being replaced by the preterit form of ''būtei'' and the supine or the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''būnta skeistei'' “I would be reading that”; ''būsta skeistun'' “(that) you read that” The subjunctive forms of the verb ''būtei'' (subject endings only) are as follows:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+[[w:Subjunctive mood|Subjunctive]]<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́n''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́s''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́wā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́tā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́tis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''bū́me''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''bū́te''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''bū́wen''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
In some dialects of both Western and Eastern Carpathian the auxiliary verb merged with the main verb into a new synthetic form, for example: ''skeistumbū́'' “he/she would read”. Despite being widespread, this form is not in the standard written language itself.<br />
<br />
In addition to synthetic future-desiderative, there are also several '''analytic future''' constructions with a modal verb and an infinitive or supine, which, unlike the former synthetic form, express necessity or obligation, for example: ''eimi skeistei'' “I’m going to read”, ''immi dētun'' “I must have it done”. In order to denote simple futurity of an action, present tense may be used: ''tā pa skeisteta kunīgān'' “later he/she will read a book”.<br />
<br />
Carpathian verbs express [[w:Irrealis mood#Potential|potentiality]] of an action by means of the verb ''leistei'' “to let” and the infinitive of the main verb, for example: ''leide eitei'' “he/she will probably go”, ''lais eitei'' “he/she might have gone”. If used with supine instead, the latter phrase gains a permissive meaning: ''laidinti eitun'' “they are allowed to go”.<br />
<br />
==Participles==<br />
Carpathian retains a rich system of participles. Unlike the neighbouring Slavic languages, Carpathian has no distinct categories of adjectival and adverbial participles, but in the way the two categories behave morphologically. Adjectival participles decline as adjectives, while adverbial participles are not declined. Participles are an important part of speech. All of them have their own function, but not all are used equally often. Unlike verbs, participles can both active and passive.<br />
<br />
One of the main functions of active participles is to describe a characteristic of a noun related to some ongoing, past or future action in which the said noun is the agent: ''paustīs perelektunīs'' “migrating birds”, ''wadījas nepatairānas'' “inexperienced driver”. Only imperfective, perfective and future participles can fulfill this function. Another function of active participles is to describe an action performed by the sentence subject before the main action: ''Akunan '''atihwerwā''', meriā dangānas pagiledēsā''. – “'''Having opened''' the window, the girl looked at the clouds”.<br />
<br />
Passive participles mainly denote actions that have impact upon nouns they describe: ''skaunas kuramas'' “a house that is being built”, ''haiskas histas'' – “a question that has been asked”.<br />
<br />
In a similar way to adjectives, some participles have three degrees of comparison: ''laubīmas'' “liked” — ''laubīmesas'' “more liked” — ''laubīmimmas'' “most liked”.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Carpathian]]</div>Raistashttps://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Carpathian_verbs&diff=297746Carpathian verbs2023-03-10T17:49:54Z<p>Raistas: /* Periphrastic formations */</p>
<hr />
<div>Carpathian '''verbs''' reflect a complex system of morphology, more complicated than the nominals, with verbs categorized according to their conjugation class. Each finite verb is conjugated for person, number, tense, aspect, and mood, the last three usually being combined into a single category, called [[w:Tense–aspect–mood|TAM]]. In addition to finite verbs, non-finite forms such as [[w:Participle|participles]], [[w:Infinitive|infinitive]] and [[w:Supine|supine]] are also extensively used. Transitive verbs agree with two or more of its [[w:Argument (linguistics)|arguments]], which is called [[w:Polypersonal agreement|polypersonal agreement]], while intransitive verbs only agree with one argument — its subject. An extreme example of the agreement complexity can be seen in the following sentence: ''ei-ta-dōdah-ā-mi'' “He/she made me give it to them” ("to.them-that-made.give-he/she-me").<br />
<br />
Most Carpathian verbs have three or four distinct basic stems, i.e. the stems of the imperfective, the aorist, the perfect and the infinitive. All forms of the verb were based on those stems: “sit” — ''sēdē-'' (infinitive and aorist), ''sēdi-'' (imperfective) and ''sōd-'' (perfect); “remain” — ''lik-'' (infinitive), ''leik-'' (present), ''likā-'' (aorist) ''laik-'' (perfect).<br />
==Personal Endings==<br />
Carpathian has two different categories of verbs, based on their present tense personal endings: '''athematic''' and '''thematic''', the latter category being much larger and still productive, consisting of every class of verbs but one. The subject endings of the two categories (for the M-type accent paradigm) are:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
! Athematic<br />
! Thematic<br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | Present<br />
! colspan="2" | Aorist<br />
! colspan="2" | Perfect<br />
! colspan="2" | Optative<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mi''<br />
| ''-ū''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ùn''<br />
| ''-ai''<br />
| ''-a''<br />
| ''-(j)ēn''<br />
| ''-(j)ain''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-si''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-s''<br />
| ''-is''<br />
| ''-tai''<br />
| ''-ta''<br />
| ''-(j)ēs''<br />
| ''-(j)ais''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-ti<br />
| ''-e<br />
| ''-∅/-a''<br />
| ''-e''<br />
| ''-ei''<br />
| ''-i''<br />
| ''-(j)ē''<br />
| ''-(j)ai''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Dual]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(e)wā́''<br />
| ''-awā́''<br />
| ''-(a)wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-wā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗwā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩwā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(e)tā́''<br />
| ''-atā́''<br />
| ''-(a)tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-tā́''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtā''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtā''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(e)tìs<br />
| ''-atìs<br />
| ''-(a)tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-tìs<br />
| ''-(j)ḗtis''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|1st]]<br />
| ''-mès''<br />
| ''-(e)mùn/-mà''<br />
| ''-amè''<br />
| ''-(a)mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-mè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗmes''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩma''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|2nd]]<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(e)tè''<br />
| ''-atè''<br />
| ''-(a)tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-tè''<br />
| ''-(j)ḗte''<br />
| ''-(j)aĩte''<br />
|-<br />
! [[w:Grammatical person|3rd]]<br />
| ''-eñti<br />
| ''-añti<br />
| ''-iñ''<br />
| ''-añ''<br />
| ''-ínti''<br />
| ''-ín''<br />
| ''-(j)énti''<br />
| ''-ajín''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
*In Western Carpathian the 1st plural present and optative thematic ending is ''-mun'' and ''-aimun'', while in Eastern Carpathian it is ''-ma'' and ''-aima''.<br />
<br />
==Conjugation==<br />
The following conjugations of verbs exist in the present tense: athematic, simple thematic ("e"-stem verbs) and suffixed ("ī"-stem, "ē"-stem, and "ā"-stem verbs, as well as derived "jā"-stem, "ej"-verbs, "au"-stem, "nō"-stem among others). The future tense is formed using the ''si-'' suffix attached to the infinitive stem. The aorist tense has "ā"- and "ē"-stems. With a few exceptions, all verb endings were at some point of Carpathian history influenced by the ending of the present tense. <br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Present tense|Present]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē/ī''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩmi''<br />
|''stèrhū''<br />
|''turiū́''<br />
|''gidā́hū''<br />
|''zirhḗjū''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsi''<br />
|''stèrhei''<br />
|''turiéi''<br />
|''gidā́hei''<br />
|''zirhḗjei''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩsti''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''tùrie''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitwā́''<br />
|''sterhewā́''<br />
|''turiewā́''<br />
|''gidewā́''<br />
|''zirhējewā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeistā́''<br />
|''sterhetā́''<br />
|''turietā́''<br />
|''gidetā́''<br />
|''zirhējetā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeistìs''<br />
|''sterhetìs''<br />
|''turietìs''<br />
|''gidetìs''<br />
|''zirhējetìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeimès''<br />
|''sterhemà''<br />
|''turiemà''<br />
|''gidemà''<br />
|''zirhējemà''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeistè''<br />
|''sterhetè''<br />
|''turietè''<br />
|''gidetè''<br />
|''zirhējetè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeiteñti''<br />
|''sterhañti''<br />
|''turiañti''<br />
|''gidañti''<br />
|''zirhējañti''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''stèrhetei'' “to extend” has tone-3 in Eastern Carpathian, because sonorant clusters with /h/ are treated as a single segment. This is not the case in Western Carpathian, where this verb has tone-2 on the root instead: ''ster̃hetei''. In present tense the root vowel of the e-stem verbs often undergoes ablaut: ''l'''ì'''ktei'' “to remain” — ''l'''eĩ'''kū'' “I remain”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Aorist|Aorist]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skeĩtun''<br />
|''stèrhun''<br />
|''turḗjun''<br />
|''gidā́sun''<br />
|''zirhḗjun''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩs''<br />
|''stèrhis''<br />
|''turḗjis''<br />
|''gidā́sis''<br />
|''zirhḗjis''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skeĩ''<br />
|''stèrhe''<br />
|''turḗ''<br />
|''gidā́se''<br />
|''zirhḗ''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skeitawā́''<br />
|''sterhawā́''<br />
|''turēwā́''<br />
|''gidāsawā́''<br />
|''zirhēwā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skeitatā́''<br />
|''sterhatā́''<br />
|''turētā́''<br />
|''gidāsatā́''<br />
|''zirhētā́''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skeitatìs''<br />
|''sterhatìs''<br />
|''turētìs''<br />
|''gidāsatìs''<br />
|''zirhētìs''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skeitamè''<br />
|''sterhamè''<br />
|''turēmè''<br />
|''gidāsamè''<br />
|''zirhēmè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skeitatè''<br />
|''sterhatè''<br />
|''turētè''<br />
|''gidāsatè''<br />
|''zirhētè''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skeitiñ''<br />
|''sterhañ''<br />
|''turējañ''<br />
|''gidāsañ''<br />
|''zirhējañ''<br />
|}<br />
The verb ''gidā́tei'' “to wait” has sigmatic aorist, while all other verbs from the example above have root aorist. The difference is the addition of the suffix ''-s'' with the lengthening of the previous vowel: ''kurtéi'' “to build”, ''degetéi'' “to burn” — ''kúr'''š'''anta'' “I built it”, ''dē'''š'''anta'' “I burnt it” (sigmatic aorist); but ''tirimtéi'' “to shiver” — ''tirìmun'' “I shivered” (root aorist).<br />
<br />
Some irregular "e"-stem verbs have zero-grade ablaut in their root, usually those belonging to PIE bhárati-verbs: ''b'''è'''rōsa'' “I’m picking it up” — ''b'''i'''rā́hansa'' “I picked it up”, but ''g'''i'''dā́hū'' “I’m waiting” — ''g'''i'''dā́sun'' “I waited”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Imperfect|Imperfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skéitun''<br />
|''stirhán''<br />
|''turián''<br />
|''gidián''<br />
|''zirhḗjan''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skéis''<br />
|''stirhē̃s''<br />
|''turiḗs''<br />
|''gidā́s''<br />
|''zirhḗjēs''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skéi''<br />
|''stirhē̃''<br />
|''turiḗ''<br />
|''gidā́''<br />
|''zirhḗjē''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skitē̃wā''<br />
|''stirhē̃wā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhējḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tā''<br />
|''stirhē̃tā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhējḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skitē̃tis''<br />
|''stirhē̃tis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhējḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Plural|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃me''<br />
|''stirhē̃me''<br />
|''turiḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhējḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skitē̃te''<br />
|''stirhē̃te''<br />
|''turiḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhējḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skiteñ''<br />
|''stirheñ''<br />
|''turējeñ''<br />
|''gidāseñ''<br />
|''zirhējeñ''<br />
|}<br />
The imperfect forms are often substituted with an analytic construction: ''"bē"'' + infinitive — ''bē skeistei'' “he/she was reading”. The imperfect forms of athematic and "e"-stem verbs have zero-ablaut in their roots: ''sk'''i'''tēwā'' “we two were reading” but ''sk'''ei'''twā'' “we two are reading”.<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|+[[w:Perfect (grammar)|Perfect]]<br />
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |<br />
! Athematic verbs<br />
! ''e''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ē''-stem verbs<br />
! ''ā''-stem verbs<br />
! suffixed (''ēj''-stem)<br />
|-<br />
!''skeistéi'' “to read”<br />
!''stèrhetei'' “to extend”<br />
!''turḗtei'' “to hold”<br />
!''gidā́tei'' “to wait”<br />
!''zirhḗtei'' “to ripen, to age”<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Singular]]<br />
![[w:First person singular|1st sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtai''<br />
|''stàrha''<br />
|''turḗja''<br />
|''gidā́ha''<br />
|''zirhḗja''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person singular|2nd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩstai''<br />
|''stàrta''<br />
|''turḗta''<br />
|''gidā́ta''<br />
|''zirhḗta''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person singular|3rd sg]]<br />
|''skaĩtei''<br />
|''stàrhe''<br />
|''turḗje''<br />
|''gidā́he''<br />
|''zirhḗje''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Dual (grammatical number)|Dual]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st du]]<br />
|''skaitwā́''<br />
|''stárwā''<br />
|''turḗwā''<br />
|''gidā́wā''<br />
|''zirhḗwā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd du]]<br />
|''skaistā́''<br />
|''stártā''<br />
|''turḗtā''<br />
|''gidā́tā''<br />
|''zirhḗtā''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd du]]<br />
|''skaistìs''<br />
|''stártis''<br />
|''turḗtis''<br />
|''gidā́tis''<br />
|''zirhḗtis''<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" |[[w:Grammatical number|Plural]]<br />
![[w:First person plural|1st pl]]<br />
|''skaimè''<br />
|''stárme''<br />
|''turḗme''<br />
|''gidā́me''<br />
|''zirhḗme''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Second person plural|2nd pl]]<br />
|''skaistè''<br />
|''stárte''<br />
|''turḗte''<br />
|''gidā́te''<br />
|''zirhḗte''<br />
|-<br />
![[w:Third person plural|3rd pl]]<br />
|''skaitínti''<br />
|''starhin''<br />
|''turḗjin''<br />
|''gidā́hin''<br />
|''zirhḗjin''<br />
|}<br />
In perfect the root vowel of athematic and e-stem thematic verbs undergoes qualitative ablaut: ''l'''ei'''kū'' “I remain” — ''l'''ai'''ka'&