Pulqer/Kelt - Revision history

Psammead at 08:23, 13 April 2021

2021-04-13T08:23:35Z

← Older revision	Revision as of 08:23, 13 April 2021
Line 1:	Line 1:
		[[Kelt\|Go here!]]

Psammead: Blanked the page

2021-04-11T09:36:50Z

Blanked the page

Show changes

Psammead: /* Adjectives */

2021-01-01T13:44:44Z

Adjectives

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:44, 1 January 2021
Line 413:		Line 413:

	====Adjectives====		====Adjectives====
	~~Adjective stems are not fully distinguishable from nouns~~ and ~~in many cases a single stem may behave as either, e.g. ''ETS'' "salt; salty". Adjectives~~ may be either simple (e.g. ''SUUP'' "large") or derived from another part of speech (e.g. ''PUTIŚ-'' "manly, man-like")~~. In either case they may be used predicatively or attributively~~.		Adjectives may be attributive or predicative and they may be either simple (e.g. ''SUUP'' "large") or derived from another part of speech (e.g. ''PUTIŚ-'' "manly, man-like").

	An attributive adjective is placed after the noun in either its absolute or construct state and is unmarked for gender, number or state, e.g. ''qaqral suup'' "the big house", ''putek neh'' "an old man". In many cases an attributive adjective may be compounded with the noun stem, where the relationship between the noun and adjective is stronger. Here, the adjective intervenes between the construct noun stem and prefixes, e.g. ''qasuupqral'' "the big house, the mansion", ''nehputek'' "an old man".		An attributive adjective is placed after the noun in either its absolute or construct state and is unmarked for gender, number or state, e.g. ''qaqral suup'' "the big house", ''putek neh'' "an old man". In many cases an attributive adjective may be compounded with the noun stem, where the relationship between the noun and adjective is stronger. Here, the adjective intervenes between the construct noun stem and prefixes, e.g. ''qasuupqral'' "the big house, the mansion", ''nehputek'' "an old man".

	A predicative adjective may be formed by adding the verbal prefixes to the stem where the subject is a pronoun, e.g. ''kiputiś'' "I am manly", ''hisuup'' "it is large". When the subject is a noun, the attributive structure is used and verbal prefixes are added to the noun, e.g. ''haqral suup'' "it is a large house" or "the house is large", ''siput neh'' "he is an old man" or "the man is old".		A predicative adjective may be formed by adding the verbal prefixes to the stem where the subject is a pronoun, e.g. ''kiputiś'' "I am manly", ''hisuup'' "it is large". When the subject is a noun the attributive structure is used and verbal prefixes are added to the noun, e.g. ''haqral suup'' "it is a large house" or "the house is large", ''siput neh'' "he is an old man" or "the man is old".

			:: <small> '''Note:''' the personal forms of adjectives and nouns are strictly tenseless, so that ''hisuup'' may be translated as "it is large", "it was large", or "it will be large" depending on context. </small>

			Adjective stems may function as nouns by taking the appropriate affixes, with gender and number matching the referent. The meaning is always "X one(s)" so ''qiisuup'' "the large ones (m.)" < ''SUUP'' "large", ''qrahets'' "this salt" (lit. "this salty one") < ''HETS'' "salty", ''humah'' "honey" (lit. "sweet one") < ''HUM'' "sweet".

			Adjectives may also take verbal affixes, typically with an inchoative meaning. Compare the following forms with ''MAL'' "hot": ''himali'' "it gets/is getting hot", ''himalimen'' "it got hot" (and stayed hot), ''himala'' "it got hot" (and is no longer), ''himalamen'' "it got hot earlier" (and is no longer), ''himalitti'' "it gets hot often", ''himalittimen'' "it got hot often", ''himalya'' "it will get hot".

	===Pronouns===		===Pronouns===

Psammead: /* Gender */

2020-12-26T14:22:34Z

Gender

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:22, 26 December 2020
Line 334:		Line 334:

	====Gender====		====Gender====
	The earliest recorded examples of Kelt appear to have had an unbalanced gender system in which singular nouns could be masculine (denoted by the suffix ''-e'' or ''-eh''), feminine (''-ah'') or neuter (''-a''). These classes appear to have been semantically driven based largely on natural gender, with some exceptions, for example ''fake'' "male", ''fakah'' "female", ''qrala'' "house". In the plural there were only two endings: ''-ii'' which seems to have been an animate plural (for both masculine and feminine nouns), and ''-aa'' which appears to have been an inanimate or neuter plural, but was also used to create animate collective nouns. For example, ''fakii'' "~~males and/or females~~", ''qralaa'' "houses", ''fakaa'' "people".		The earliest recorded examples of Kelt appear to have had an unbalanced gender system in which singular nouns could be masculine (denoted by the suffix ''-e'' or ''-eh''), feminine (''-ah'') or neuter (''-a''). These classes appear to have been semantically driven based largely on natural gender, with some exceptions, for example ''fake(h)'' "male", ''fakah'' "female", ''qrala'' "house". In the plural there were only two endings: ''-ii'' which seems to have been an animate plural (for both masculine and feminine nouns), and ''-aa'' which appears to have been an inanimate or neuter plural, but was also used to create animate collective nouns. For example, ''fakii'' "men, women", ''qralaa'' "houses", ''fakaa'' "people".

	{\| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"		{\| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
Line 344:		Line 344:
	\| colspan="2;" \| Animate <br> ''-ii'' \|\| Inanimate/Collective <br> ''-aa''		\| colspan="2;" \| Animate <br> ''-ii'' \|\| Inanimate/Collective <br> ''-aa''
	\|-		\|-
	\|+ style="text-align: ~~left~~;" \| Early Kelt Gender System		\|+ style="text-align: center;" \| Early Kelt Gender System
	\|}		\|}

	Already in the earliest historical period this system appears to have been breaking down due to the creation of a new masculine class with suffixes ending in ''-k'', probably derived from the honorific ending ''ke'' originally applied only to ~~those involved in~~ the warrior elite. ~~Remaining~~ nouns from this class initially passed into the feminine (with sg. ''-ah'', pl. ''-ii''), blurring the purely semantic boundaries of the classes, while the use of the collective plural for feminine nouns eventually led to the merger of the feminine and neuter classes (with sg. ''-ah'', pl. ''-aa(h)''.		Already in the earliest historical period this system appears to have been breaking down due to the creation of a new masculine class with suffixes ending in ''-k'', probably derived from the honorific ending ''ke'', originally applied only to nouns connected with the life of the warrior elite. Some remaining nouns from this class initially passed into the feminine (with sg. ''-ah'', pl. ''-ii''), blurring the purely semantic boundaries of the classes, while the use of the collective plural for feminine nouns eventually led to the merger of the feminine and neuter classes (with sg. ''-ah'', pl. ''-aa(h)''. Other masculine nouns fell together with the new class.

			By the better attested Middle Kelt period the gender system was based on two largely semantic classes:
	~~The exact nature of~~ the gender system ~~is unclear, but it appears to be~~ based on two largely semantic classes: ~~a masculine class and an other class. The~~ '''masculine''' class (also called the E-class) included male humans, animals and deities along with other 'masculine' objects denoted by shape (i.e. long/tall and narrow), material (all metal and some stone objects belong here), purpose (e.g. weapons) or importance (including many celestial bodies). ~~The~~ '''other''' class (or A-class) contains all other nouns that don't belong to the masculine category, including all female living beings and deities, and many abstracts.		* the '''masculine''' class (also called the E-class) included male humans, animals and deities along with other 'masculine' objects denoted by shape (i.e. long/tall and narrow), material (all metal and some stone objects belong here), purpose (e.g. weapons) or importance (including many celestial bodies).
			* the '''other''' class (or A-class) contains all other nouns that don't belong to the masculine category, including all female living beings and deities, and many abstracts.

	As gender is semantically determined, stems usually have inherent gender but some nouns may belong to more than one gender with a difference of meaning, e.g. the root ''HATAL'' "child" may be masculine ''qehatal'' "the boy" or other ''qahatal'' "the girl, the child". Masculine nouns may be declined as 'other' to give a pejorative sense, e.g. ''putah'' "effeminate or weak man".		As gender is semantically determined, stems usually have inherent gender but some nouns may belong to more than one gender with a difference of meaning, e.g. the root ''HATAL'' "child" may be masculine ''qehatal'' "the boy" or other ''qahatal'' "the girl, the child". Masculine nouns may be declined as 'other' to give a pejorative sense, e.g. ''putah'' "effeminate or weak man".

Psammead: /* Gender */

2020-12-26T11:35:00Z

Gender

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:35, 26 December 2020
Line 334:		Line 334:

	====Gender====		====Gender====
			The earliest recorded examples of Kelt appear to have had an unbalanced gender system in which singular nouns could be masculine (denoted by the suffix ''-e'' or ''-eh''), feminine (''-ah'') or neuter (''-a''). These classes appear to have been semantically driven based largely on natural gender, with some exceptions, for example ''fake'' "male", ''fakah'' "female", ''qrala'' "house". In the plural there were only two endings: ''-ii'' which seems to have been an animate plural (for both masculine and feminine nouns), and ''-aa'' which appears to have been an inanimate or neuter plural, but was also used to create animate collective nouns. For example, ''fakii'' "males and/or females", ''qralaa'' "houses", ''fakaa'' "people".

			{\| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
			\|-
			! Singular
			\| Masculine <br> ''-e(h)'' \|\| Feminine <br> ''-ah'' \|\| Neuter <br> ''-a''
			\|-
			! Plural
			\| colspan="2;" \| Animate <br> ''-ii'' \|\| Inanimate/Collective <br> ''-aa''
			\|-
			\|+ style="text-align: left;" \| Early Kelt Gender System
			\|}

			Already in the earliest historical period this system appears to have been breaking down due to the creation of a new masculine class with suffixes ending in ''-k'', probably derived from the honorific ending ''ke'' originally applied only to those involved in the warrior elite. Remaining nouns from this class initially passed into the feminine (with sg. ''-ah'', pl. ''-ii''), blurring the purely semantic boundaries of the classes, while the use of the collective plural for feminine nouns eventually led to the merger of the feminine and neuter classes (with sg. ''-ah'', pl. ''-aa(h)''.


	The exact nature of the gender system is unclear, but it appears to be based on two largely semantic classes: a masculine class and an other class. The '''masculine''' class (also called the E-class) included male humans, animals and deities along with other 'masculine' objects denoted by shape (i.e. long/tall and narrow), material (all metal and some stone objects belong here), purpose (e.g. weapons) or importance (including many celestial bodies). The '''other''' class (or A-class) contains all other nouns that don't belong to the masculine category, including all female living beings and deities, and many abstracts.		The exact nature of the gender system is unclear, but it appears to be based on two largely semantic classes: a masculine class and an other class. The '''masculine''' class (also called the E-class) included male humans, animals and deities along with other 'masculine' objects denoted by shape (i.e. long/tall and narrow), material (all metal and some stone objects belong here), purpose (e.g. weapons) or importance (including many celestial bodies). The '''other''' class (or A-class) contains all other nouns that don't belong to the masculine category, including all female living beings and deities, and many abstracts.

Psammead: /* Derivation */

2020-11-04T20:02:08Z

Derivation

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:02, 4 November 2020
Line 607:		Line 607:

	==Derivation==		==Derivation==
	~~All lexical or content words in~~ Kelt ~~are compose of a~~ root~~, usually with affixes that determine its nature. An individual root need not belong to a particular part~~ of ~~speech, for example~~ ''~~ETS~~'' ~~can be a noun (~~''~~etsah'~~' ~~"salt"), an adjective meaning~~ '~~of or pertaining to~~' (''~~ets~~'~~' "salty") or a verb usually~~ meaning '~~to make use of~~' (''~~kiwunetsi~~'' ~~"I salt it").~~		Derivation of the Kelt root is carried out in one of three ways:
			# '''zero-derivation''' simply uses the root in another part of speech.
	~~Further derivation is carried out by (1)~~ the ~~addition of derivative affixes, or (2) compounding~~.		# '''affixation''' uses prefixes and suffixes to alter the meaning
			# '''compounding''' joins roots or stems together to alter the meaning.

	===Derivative Affixes===		===Derivative Affixes===
Line 619:		Line 620:
	* ''-kun'': comitative, "together" (e.g. ''wikalkunitti'' "they eat together")		* ''-kun'': comitative, "together" (e.g. ''wikalkunitti'' "they eat together")
	* ''-ts'': causative (e.g. ''sikuneentsa'' "he showed me")		* ''-ts'': causative (e.g. ''sikuneentsa'' "he showed me")
	* ''-ut'': reciprocal (e.g. ''nipiinutimen'' "we love each other")

	===Compounding===		===Compounding===

Psammead: /* Verbs */

2020-11-03T20:14:42Z

Verbs

← Older revision		Revision as of 20:14, 3 November 2020
Line 238:		Line 238:

	===Verbs===		===Verbs===
	~~Verbal morphology is agglutinative, based~~ on ~~an immutable~~ stem ~~to which affixes are added~~. The verb is composed of the following elements:		Verbs are defined by the presence of both a subject prefix and an aspect suffix on the stem. The verb is composed of the following elements:

	:: [SUBJECT PREFIX] + ([OBJECT PREFIX]) + [STEM] + ([DERIVATIVE]) + [ASPECT SUFFIX] + ([TENSE SUFFIX])		:: [SUBJECT PREFIX] + ([OBJECT PREFIX]) + [STEM] + ([DERIVATIVE]) + [ASPECT SUFFIX] + ([TENSE SUFFIX])

Psammead: /* Personal Prefixes */

2020-11-03T19:48:52Z

Personal Prefixes

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:48, 3 November 2020
Line 117:		Line 117:

	===Personal Prefixes===		===Personal Prefixes===
	Prefixes denoting person and number were widely used in Kelt and form an important part of the morphology.		Prefixes denoting person and number were widely used in Kelt and form an important part of the morphology. They exist in subject, object and possessive forms. Each class has prefixes for each of the three persons, singular and plural (with a distinction of gender in the 3rd singular only), plus an indefinite form meaning roughly "someone, something" when the referent is unknown or deemed irrelevant. Additionally, the subject class has an impersonal and the object class has a reflexive/reciprocal.

	====Subject Prefixes====		====Subject Prefixes====
	~~Subject prefixes exist for each of the persons in singular and plural with separate 'masculine' and 'other' prefixes in~~ the ~~3rd singular only. There is also an indefinite subject meaning "someone~~, ~~something" when~~ the ~~actual~~ subject ~~is unknown or not relevant, and~~ an impersonal subject, which effectively acts as a placeholder when there is no apparent agent.		As well as the normal personal forms, the subject prefixes include an impersonal subject, which effectively acts as a placeholder when there is no apparent agent.

	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
Line 167:		Line 167:

	====Object Prefixes====		====Object Prefixes====
	Object pronouns are similar to subject forms, but have an additional reflexive form~~. The indefinite form is used when the object is either unknown or unspecified~~.		Object pronouns are similar to subject forms, but have an additional reflexive/reciprocal form and no impersonal.

	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
Line 200:		Line 200:
	:: ''ni'''tśu'''kali'' "we are eating (something)".		:: ''ni'''tśu'''kali'' "we are eating (something)".

	The reflexive is used with all persons but only with verb stems, e.g. ''li'''keru'''neenamen'' "you saw yourself", ''si'''keru'''tanya'' "he will kill himself".		The reflexive/reciprocal is used with all persons but only with verb stems, e.g. ''li'''keru'''neenamen'' "you saw yourself", ''si'''keru'''tanya'' "he will kill himself". With plural referents, it may be interpreted as either reflexive or reciprocal, the distinction being understood through context, e.g. ''wikerutinita'' "they hit themselves" or "they hit each other".

	====Possessive Prefixes====		====Possessive Prefixes====
	Possessive prefixes form part of a series of personal prefixes which occur for each person and number, as well as masculine and other in the 3rd person singular only (3rd pl. ''wey-'' is used for both genders). There is also an impersonal prefix ''tśey-'' "someone's" used when the possessor is not known or when speaking generally (e.g. ''tśeyenuuk'' "someone's dog").

	{\| class="wikitable"		{\| class="wikitable"
	\|-		\|-
Line 224:		Line 222:
	\| ''hey-''		\| ''hey-''
	\|-		\|-
	! ~~Imp~~.		! Ind.
	\| colspan="2; \| ''tśey-''		\| colspan="2; \| ''tśey-''
	\|}		\|}

Psammead: /* Roots and Stems */

2020-11-03T19:37:21Z

Roots and Stems

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:37, 3 November 2020
Line 106:		Line 106:
	==Grammar==		==Grammar==
	===Roots and Stems===		===Roots and Stems===
	The basic element of the Kelt word is a ~~root, usually~~ mono- or disyllabic, which has a basic meaning but does not belong to a particular part of speech.		The basic element of the Kelt word is a mono- or disyllabic '''root''', which has a basic meaning (or set of meanings) but does not belong to a particular part of speech, e.g. ''LAAN'' "air; breathe", ''NEH'' "old; to be old; old man/woman/thing".

	~~Words are transformed into particular parts of speech~~ with the ~~addition of affixes~~.		Roots may be extended with derivational affixes to create longer '''stems'''. Affixes include the diminutive ''-ap'' (e.g. ''putap'' "little man" < PUT "man") or the noun ending ''-t'' (e.g. ''kelt'' "language" < KEL "speak").

	~~There~~ are ~~two basic patterns~~ of ~~relationship:~~		Roots and stems are transformed into different parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositions etc.) either through the addition of inflectional affixes or through syntax. These will be discussed in more detail in the sections below.
	~~# '''Noun/Verb''' in which the verb root indicates an action performed with or using the noun~~ (~~e.g~~. ~~''HEEN'' means "to see" and "eye"~~)
	~~# '''Adjective/Verb''' in which the verb root indicates~~ the ~~state~~ of ~~being the adjective (e~~.~~g. ''SUUP'' means "to~~ be ~~large" and "large"). From this a noun may be formed indicating an object that represents~~ the ~~adjective (e.g. ''SUUP'' "a big thing")~~.

	~~Roots may be extended with derivational affixes to create longer stems, such as~~ the ~~diminutive~~ ''~~-ap~~'' (e.g. ''~~putap~~'' "~~little man~~" ~~< PUT~~) ~~or the noun ending~~ ''-t'' (e.g. ''~~kelt~~'' "~~language~~" ~~< KEL~~ "~~speak~~").		There are two basic patterns of relationship governing how the meaning of a root or stem appears in different parts of speech:
			# '''Noun/Verb''' in which the verb root indicates an action performed with or using the noun (e.g. ''HEEN'' means "to see" and "eye");
			# '''Adjective/Verb''' in which the verb root indicates the state of being the adjective (e.g. ''SUUP'' means "to be large" and "large"). From this a noun may be formed indicating an object that represents the adjective (e.g. ''SUUP'' "a big thing").

	===Personal Prefixes===		===Personal Prefixes===

Psammead: /* Grammar */

2020-11-02T20:07:25Z

Grammar

@@ Line 106: / Line 106: @@
 ==Grammar==
 ===Roots and Stems===
-The basic element of the Kelt word is a root, usually mono- or disyllabic, which has a basic meaning but does not belong to a particular part of speech. Inflections are used to indicate the particular part of speech and meaning of the root.
+The basic element of the Kelt word is a root, usually mono- or disyllabic, which has a basic meaning but does not belong to a particular part of speech.
 There are two basic patterns of relationship:
@@ Line 197: / Line 199: @@
 :: ''ki'''sun'''eenamen'' "I saw him"
 :: ''ni'''tśu'''kali'' "we are eating (something)".
 The reflexive is used with all persons but only with verb stems, e.g. ''li'''keru'''neenamen'' "you saw yourself", ''si'''keru'''tanya'' "he will kill himself".
 ===Verbs===
@@ Line 352: / Line 388: @@
 * ''p-'' "this", denoting things close to the speaker or recently mentioned, e.g. ''piiput'' "these men"
 * ''qr-'' "that" denoting things far away or abstract, e.g. ''qrahatal'' "that girl/child".
 ====Verbal Prefixes====