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Vinnish (view source)

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* hå-'''ar''' -> h'''år'''
* hå-'''ar''' -> h'''år'''
* hå-'''a''' -> h'''å'''
* hå-'''e''' -> h'''å'''
* tru-'''em''' -> tru'''m'''
* tru-'''em''' -> tru'''m'''


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I-Umlaut is a somewhat more complicated process: It affects many more vowels than u-umlaut does, and as such, each pattern needs to be memorized separately. Note that also in some cases, one vowel can have multiple realizations after i-umlaut for etymological reasons relating to Old Norse. In these cases, I try to list the most common realization first and the less common ones last.
I-Umlaut is a somewhat more complicated process: It affects many more vowels than u-umlaut does, and as such, each pattern needs to be memorized separately. Note that also in some cases, one vowel can have multiple realizations after i-umlaut for etymological reasons relating to Old Norse. In these cases, I try to list the most common realization first and the less common ones last.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Vowel'''
!'''Vowel'''
|'''I-Umlauted'''
!'''I-Umlauted'''
|-
|-
|a, ja
|a, ja
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** gal'''t'''- + t > gal'''st'''
** gal'''t'''- + t > gal'''st'''


==Morphology==
==Nouns==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
===Nouns===
Vinnish nouns fall into one of two genders, common and neuter. The common gender comes from the conflation of the masculine and feminine genders in Old Norse. Nouns inflect for number and case.
Vinnish nouns fall into one of two genders, common and neuter. The common gender comes from the conflation of the masculine and feminine genders in Old Norse. Nouns inflect for number and case.
====Common Nouns====
===Common Nouns===
On the whole, common nouns show a much larger variance in declension patterns than neuter nouns. There are two overarching declension patterns among common nouns: strong and weak.
On the whole, common nouns show a much larger variance in declension patterns than neuter nouns. There are two overarching declension patterns among common nouns: strong and weak.


Note that "(u)" refers to the presence of u-umlaut and "∅" refers to a null ending.
Note that "(u)" refers to the presence of u-umlaut and "∅" refers to a null ending.
====Strong Common Nouns====


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Strong Common Nouns
|+ Strong Common Noun Endings
|-
|-
!  !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive
!  !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Dative !! Genitive
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|+ Examples of Strong Common Nouns
|+ Examples of Strong Common Nouns
|-
|-
| colspan="5" |'''viner''' - “friend”
! colspan="5" | '''viner''' - “friend”
|-
|-
|Singular
!Singular
|vin'''er'''
|vin'''er'''
|vin
|vin
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|vin'''ar'''
|vin'''ar'''
|-
|-
|Plural
!Plural
|vin'''ar'''
|vin'''ar'''
|vin'''e'''
|vin'''e'''
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|vin'''e'''
|vin'''e'''
|-
|-
| colspan="5" |'''is''' - “ice”
! colspan="5" |'''is''' - “ice”
|-
|-
|Singular
!Singular
|is
|is
|is
|is
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|is'''ar'''
|is'''ar'''
|-
|-
|Plural
!Plural
|is'''ar'''
|is'''ar'''
|is'''e'''
|is'''e'''
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|is'''e'''
|is'''e'''
|-
|-
| colspan="5" |'''fjål''' - “plank, board, table”
! colspan="5" |'''fjål''' - “plank, board, table”
|-
|-
|Singular
!Singular
|fjål
|fjål
|fjål
|fjål
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|fjål'''ar'''
|fjål'''ar'''
|-
|-
|Plural
!Plural
|fjål'''ar'''
|fjål'''ar'''
|fjål'''e'''
|fjål'''e'''
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|fjål'''e'''
|fjål'''e'''
|-
|-
| colspan="5" |'''stein''' - “stone”
! colspan="5" |'''stein''' - “stone”
|-
|-
|Singular
!Singular
|stein
|stein
|stein
|stein
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|stein'''s'''
|stein'''s'''
|-
|-
|Plural
!Plural
|stein'''ar'''
|stein'''ar'''
|stein'''e'''
|stein'''e'''
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|stein'''e'''
|stein'''e'''
|-
|-
| colspan="5" |'''hrafen''' - “raven”
! colspan="5" |'''hrafen''' - “raven”
|-
|-
|Singular
!Singular
|hrafen
|hrafen
|hrafen
|hrafen
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|hrafen'''s'''
|hrafen'''s'''
|-
|-
|Plural
!Plural
|hrafn'''ar'''
|hrafn'''ar'''
|hrafn'''e'''
|hrafn'''e'''
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|}
|}


====Neuter Nouns====
=====i-Umlaut Strong Common Nouns=====
A number of strong common nouns show an i-umlaut in the dative singular and in the nominative and accusative plurals, as well as an ending of -er in the nominative and accusative plurals.


====Definite Article====
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Singular
!Plural
|-
! colspan="3" |'''hånd - “hand”'''
|-
!'''Nominative'''
|hånd
|h'''e'''nd'''er'''
|-
!'''Accusative'''
|hånd
|h'''e'''nd'''er'''
|-
!'''Dative'''
|h'''e'''nd'''i'''
|hånd'''em'''
|-
!'''Genitive'''
|hånd'''ar'''
|hånd'''e'''
|-
! colspan="3" |'''tån - “tooth”'''
|-
!'''Nominative'''
|tån
|t'''e'''nn'''er'''
|-
!'''Accusative'''
|tån
|t'''e'''nn'''er'''
|-
!'''Dative'''
|t'''e'''n'''i'''
|tånn'''em'''
|-
!'''Genitive'''
|tån'''ar'''
|tånn'''e'''
|-
! colspan="3" |'''rot - “root”'''
|-
!'''Nominative'''
|rot
|r'''y'''t'''er'''
|-
!'''Accusative'''
|rot
|r'''y'''t'''er'''
|-
!'''Dative'''
|r'''y'''t'''i'''
|rot'''em'''
|-
!'''Genitive'''
|rot'''ar'''
|rot'''e'''
|}
 
=====The Family Declension=====
These nouns all refer to family members. They are characterized by a consistent -ar ending in the cases of the singular, and an i-umlaut in the stem in the plural cases.
 
{| class="wikitable"
!
!'''father'''
!'''mother'''
!'''brother'''
!'''sister'''
|-
! colspan="5" |Singular
|-
!'''Nom, Acc, Dat'''
|faðar
|moðar
|broðar
|søstar
|-
!'''Gen'''
|faðar'''s'''
|moðar'''s'''
|broðar'''s'''
|søstar'''s'''
|-
! colspan="5" |'''Plural'''
|-
!'''Nom, Acc'''
|f'''e'''ðer
|m'''y'''ðer
|br'''y'''ðer
|s'''ø'''ster
|-
!'''Dat'''
|f'''e'''ðr'''em'''
|m'''y'''ðrem
|br'''y'''ðr'''em'''
|s'''ø'''str'''em'''
|-
!'''Gen'''
|f'''e'''ðr'''e'''
|m'''y'''ðre
|br'''y'''ðr'''e'''
|s'''ø'''str'''e'''
|}
 
=====I-Final Common Nouns=====
A few common strong nouns end in -i. These usually refer to abstract concepts, do not have a plural, and only show case marking in the genitive.
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="3" |Nominative, Accusative, Dative
!Genitive
|-
! colspan="5" |'''fryði''' - “knowledge; science”
|-
!Singular
| colspan="3" |fryð'''i'''
|fryð'''is'''
|}
 
====Weak Common Nouns====
The weak declension pattern of common nouns is somewhat simpler than that of the strong common nouns.
 
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Nominative
!Accusative
!Dative
!Genitive
|-
!Singular
|<nowiki>-e, -i</nowiki>
| colspan="2" |-e
|<nowiki>-es</nowiki>
|-
!Plural
|<nowiki>-ar</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-e</nowiki>
|(+u)-em
|<nowiki>-e</nowiki>
|}
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="5" |Examples of Weak Common Nouns
|-
!
!Nominative
!Accusative
!Dative
!Genitive
|-
! colspan="5" |'''hagi''' - “meadow”
|-
!Singular
|hag'''i'''
| colspan="2" |hag'''e'''
|hag'''es'''
|-
!Plural
|hag'''ar'''
|hag'''e'''
|h'''å'''g'''em'''
|hag'''e'''
|-
! colspan="5" |'''gofe''' - “steam”
|-
!Singular
| colspan="3" |gof'''e'''
|gof'''es'''
|-
!Plural
|gof'''ar'''
|gof'''e'''
|gof'''em'''
|gof'''e'''
|}
There are also some loanwords that end in -a. These are otherwise treated like “standard” weak common nouns, but in the singular retain their -a.
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Nominative
!Accusative
!Dative
!Genitive
|-
!Singular
| colspan="3" |zebr'''a'''
|zebr'''as'''
|-
!Plural
|zebr'''ar'''
|zebr'''e'''
|zebr'''em'''
|zebr'''e'''
|}
 
===Neuter Nouns===
 
===Definite Article===
Definiteness is shown via a cliticized definite article on the end of a noun. This definite article inflects for gender, case, and number.
Definiteness is shown via a cliticized definite article on the end of a noun. This definite article inflects for gender, case, and number.


===Adjectives===
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Common
!Neuter
|-
! colspan="3" |Singular
|-
!Nominative
| rowspan="2" |-(e)n
| rowspan="2" |-(e)t
|-
!Accusative
|-
!Dative
|<nowiki>-inem</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-ine</nowiki>
|-
!Genitive
| colspan="2" |-(e)ns*
|-
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!Nominative
|<nowiki>-nar</nowiki>
| rowspan="2" |-(e)n
|-
!Accusative
|<nowiki>-ne</nowiki>
|-
!Dative
| colspan="2" |-nem**
|-
!Genitive
| colspan="2" |-nne
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki>In nouns who end in a vowel in the nominative, the “-s” ending is overridden by the “-ns” definite article; ergo, the words “fryð'''is'''”, “hag'''es'''” and “zebr'''as'''” have definite counterparts “fryð'''ins'''”, “hag'''ens'''” and “zebr'''ans'''” respectively, rather than “*fryðisins”, “*hagesens” and “*zebrasens”
 
<nowiki>**</nowiki>The dative plural article also overrides the final “-m” of the dative plural noun form; ergo, the word “hest'''em'''” (dat. pl. of hester “horse”) has the definite counterpart “hest'''enem'''”, rather than the expected *hestemnem.
 
==Adjectives==
Adjectives in Vinnish agree with the nouns they modify in gender, case, number, and definiteness. There are two inflections for adjectives: strong and weak adjectives.
Adjectives in Vinnish agree with the nouns they modify in gender, case, number, and definiteness. There are two inflections for adjectives: strong and weak adjectives.
====Strong Adjectives====
===Strong Adjectives===
Strong adjectives are used attributively with indefinite nouns and predicatively with all nouns. They inflect for gender, case, and number.
Strong adjectives are used attributively with indefinite nouns and predicatively with all nouns. They inflect for gender, case, and number.


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| Gen ||! colspan="2" | -re
| Gen ||! colspan="2" | -re
|}
|}
====Weak Adjectives====
===Weak Adjectives===
Weak adjectives are formed by adding an ending of -e to the stem of the adjective, and do not change form for case or number in Modern Vinnish. They are used with definite nouns and nouns modified by a demonstrative.
Weak adjectives are formed by adding an ending of -e to the stem of the adjective, and do not change form for case or number in Modern Vinnish. They are used with definite nouns and nouns modified by a demonstrative.


In more archaic texts in Vinnish, a naturally or semantically masculine noun can optionally take the ending -i in the nominative singular case. In all other cases of the noun, the ending -e is used.
In more archaic texts in Vinnish, a naturally or semantically masculine noun can optionally take the ending -i in the nominative singular case. In all other cases of the noun, the ending -e is used.


===Verbs===
==Verbs==
There are two overarching types of verbs in Vinnish, strong and weak verbs. Weak verbs form the past stem via a dental suffix on the present stem, while strong verbs form the past stem via vowel alternation. Vinnish verbs inflect for two tenses (past and present), person, and number. In addition, they make use of certain auxiliary verbs to show aspect, and one of two moods: indicative and subjunctive. Verbs also have both a past and a present participle, and inflect for active and mediopassive voice.
There are two overarching types of verbs in Vinnish, strong and weak verbs. Weak verbs form the past stem via a dental suffix on the present stem, while strong verbs form the past stem via vowel alternation. Vinnish verbs inflect for two tenses (past and present), person, and number. In addition, they make use of certain auxiliary verbs to show aspect, and one of two moods: indicative and subjunctive. Verbs also have both a past and a present participle, and inflect for active and mediopassive voice.


====Weak Verbs====
===Weak Verbs===
Weak verbs are characterized by their usage of a dental consonant to form their past stem. This dental consonant can be either -d, -ð, or -t. Which consonant is used is not always readily predictable for a weak verb, and so must simply be memorized along with the verb; however, the majority of Vinnish verbs use -ð.
Weak verbs are characterized by their usage of a dental consonant to form their past stem. This dental consonant can be either -d, -ð, or -t. Which consonant is used is not always readily predictable for a weak verb, and so must simply be memorized along with the verb; however, the majority of Vinnish verbs use -ð.


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|}
|}


====Strong Verbs====
===Strong Verbs===
Strong verbs show tense via a change in the stem vowel. There are seven classes of strong verbs in Vinnish, each characterized by a different alternation pattern.
Strong verbs show tense via a change in the stem vowel. There are seven classes of strong verbs in Vinnish, each characterized by a different alternation pattern.


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==Example texts==
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Opening Monologue of First and Final Book in the ''How To Train Your Dragon'' Series by Cressida Cowell===
<blockquote>“Ðar våre lindormar, ðår om dågenem sem eg var svein. Ðar våre miklar, grimar himenslindormar sem gørðe sin hreiðer i fjallenne hæstem klettem, like storar hræðandi foglar. Litlar, brunar, skriðandi lindormar sem vedde mys ok rotte i flokkem like ølgjar. Otruligvegi jåtenligar sjøslindormar sem våre totge styrðar styrri en styrstar blågvalar, ok sem dråpe jene før leik.
“Ðir ðorfeð at true mit orð, ðvi lindormarnar gverfes ut so fløte ðat må at ðeir bråt skøli verðe utdånar or vårem veråldi.
“Jengver veit ekki gvat gøras. Ðeir søkkve i sjøn sem ðeir kome or, låte ekki ut i jårð jetgvert bein, jengvern tån, slike at men om framdage mege vite at ðeir våre hir i vårem veråldi.
“Af ðvi, før at ðessar konengligar gørnar skøli ekki glømes, eg mon tale ðenne saðen sage af minem barndomi.” - [https://www.reddit.com/r/httyd/comments/uqvhoz/there_were_dragons_when_i_was_a_boy_start_of_book/ Gvernig at Venje Sin Lindorm]</blockquote>
===Schleicher's Fable===
<blockquote>Jen sauðer sem sir var ekki jetgvert hår leit heste: jen togði ðongen vagen, jen helt å bakine stort bereng, ok jen helt å bakine man fløtevegi. Sauðren sagði hestenem: “Eg em sår i hjartene at eg lit at maðer leðar heste.” Hestarnar sågðe: “Hør ðu, sauðer, vir erem sårar i hjartene at vir litem ðette slike: at maðer, jarlen, gørar sir heitist klæði af sauðshåri. Ok sauðinem er ekki jetgvert hår.” Sauðren hørði ðette ok koms onden i hagene.</blockquote>
==Other resources==
==Other resources==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
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