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==Brief Description== | ==Brief Description== | ||
Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. | Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. The syntactic alignment is split ergative, with pronouns having nominative accusative alignment, and the rest of the language being ergative. Possessors are marked for alienability [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienable_possession] using tone, and come before the nouns they modify. Kämpya (at least in the standard dialect) uses postpositions rather than prepositions, and adjectives can come either before or after the nouns they modify if they are restrictive or non-restrictive respectively [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness]. | ||
In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/. | In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/. | ||
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/h/ never occurs after vowels with harsh phonation. | /h/ never occurs after vowels with harsh phonation. | ||
Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the benefactive clitic / | Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the benefactive clitic /àuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these process do not occur e.g. | ||
/à̤h jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]). | /à̤h jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]). | ||
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/dáʔh jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà]. | /dáʔh jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà]. | ||
/à̤h | /à̤h àuŋ/ - "for the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàuⁿ]. | ||
/dáʔh | /dáʔh àuŋ/ - "for the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàuⁿ]. | ||
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| alone || áˈlôṵn || áˈlòṵn || àˈlóṵn | | alone || áˈlôṵn || áˈlòṵn || àˈlóṵn | ||
|- | |- | ||
| alone + Genitive | | alone + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlôṵnjà || áˈlòṵnjá || àˈlóṵnjà | ||
|- | |- | ||
| all || áˈlòṳn || áˈlòṳn || àˈlǒṳn | | all || áˈlòṳn || áˈlòṳn || àˈlǒṳn | ||
|- | |- | ||
| all + Genitive | | all + Genitive clitic /ja/ || áˈlòṳnjà || áˈlòṳnjá || àˈlǒṳnjà | ||
|} | |} | ||
== | ==Pronouns== | ||
Pronouns are not marked for singular or plural, but there are two words for "we" depending on whether the listener is included [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clusivity]. The pronouns that do not include the listener are also used to only talk about the speaker. Another way of looking at this is that Kämpya makes no distinction between "us not including you" and "me", but uses different forms for "us including you". | |||
In each case, there is a different form of the word depending on whether they are immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel. There is also an "emphatic" form, which is used to emphasise the subject. The emphatic form does not depend on whether the following word starts with a vowel or not. Each form is listed below, with the normal form listed first, the form before a vowel second, and the emphatic form last: | |||
===Nominative Pronouns=== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
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! !! 1st Person Exclusive !! 1st Person Inclusive !! 2nd Person | ! !! 1st Person Exclusive !! 1st Person Inclusive !! 2nd Person | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Before a consonant || ái || wéi || jéi | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Before a vowel || ój- || wéj- || jéw- | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | Emphatic || òṵ || wèḭ || jèḭ | ||
|} | |} | ||
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=== | ====Accusative Pronouns==== | ||
There | There are a special set of object (accusative) pronouns that are used in transitive sentences. They also come immediately before the verb, and are not marked for number. Here is a list of them: | ||
1PS Exclusive ("me" and "us not including you"): /mi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /mj-/ (before a word starting with a vowel) | |||
1PS Inclusive ("us including you"): /lan-/ | |||
2PS (Singular or Plural): /bwo-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /bwos-/ (before a word starting with a vowel) | |||
3PS: /swi-/ (before a word starting with a consonant), /siw-/ (before a word starting with a vowel) | |||
Reflexive: /se-/ | |||
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===Copula=== | ===Copula=== | ||
Kämpya has no verb meaning "to be" [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_copula]. Instead, the two words are simply placed side by side in the sentence. | Kämpya has no verb meaning "to be" [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_copula]. Instead, the two words are simply placed side by side in the sentence. e.g. | ||
/jéi ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsíʔtà] | /jéi ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsíʔtà] | ||
2PS | 2PS guardian | ||
You are / were the guardian(s). | You are / were / will be the guardian(s). | ||
/jéw ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jéˈwḛ̂nèmì] | |||
2PS enemy | |||
You are / were / will be the enemy. | |||
/jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì] | |||
2PS.EMP enemy | |||
'''You''' are the enemy. | |||
'''You''' are the enemy | |||
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/ | /kʰwèi̤ áˈlôṵn/ | ||
dog alone | |||
The | The dog is / was / will be '''alone'''. | ||
as well as | as well as | ||
/áˈlôṵn | /áˈlôṵn kʰwèi̤/ | ||
alone | alone dog | ||
The ''' | The '''dog''' is / was / will be alone. | ||
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====With Pronouns==== | ====With Pronouns==== | ||
The same | The same subject pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g. | ||
/ | /jéi kúʔn/ | ||
2PS | 2PS depart | ||
You are setting off. | You are setting off. | ||
/ | However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */kúʔn jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ is ungrammatical (unlike sentences such as /ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ which are grammatical). It is only grammatical to say: | ||
/ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à jéi kúʔn/ | |||
ˈkʰóʔnàt=from 2PS depart | |||
ˈkʰóʔnàt=from 2PS | |||
You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt. | You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt. | ||
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or | or | ||
/ | /jéi kúʔn ˈkʰóʔnàt=m̥à/ | ||
2PS | 2PS depart ˈkʰóʔnàt=from | ||
You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt. | You are departing from ˈkʰóʔnàt. | ||
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===Transitive Sentences=== | ===Transitive Sentences=== | ||
In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /- | In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g. | ||
/ˈkʰwèi̤= | /ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/ | ||
dog=ERG bite lizard | dog=ERG bite lizard | ||
It was the dog that bit the lizard. | It was the dog that bit the lizard. | ||
However, immediately after an open syllable with a stressed vowel, the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g. | |||
/ŋà̤=ɾu káiʔk gáʔɾ/ | |||
fish=ERG bite lizard | |||
It was the fish that bit the lizard. | |||
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However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g. | However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g. | ||
/gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤= | /gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk/ | ||
lizard dog=ERG bite | lizard dog=ERG bite | ||
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The dog bit the lizard. | The dog bit the lizard. | ||
The difference between this and /kʰwèi̤ | The difference between this and /kʰwèi̤ zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese. | ||
Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤ káiʔk/ or anything like that. | Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤ káiʔk/ or anything like that. | ||
==== | ====With Pronouns==== | ||
The | The nominative pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs, with no restrictions other than the time of the action must be made clear (on the pronoun) e.g. | ||
/ | /jéi=káiʔk gáʔɾ/ | ||
2PS | 2PS.NOM=bite lizard | ||
You are biting the lizard. | You are biting the lizard. | ||
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As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g. | As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g. | ||
/gáʔɾ | /gáʔɾ jéi=káiʔk/ | ||
lizard 2PS | lizard 2PS.NOM=bite | ||
You are biting the lizard. | You are biting the lizard. | ||
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When a verb takes an accusative pronoun as its object, it becomes intransitive i.e. the subject will be unmarked (in the absolutive case) and can come either before or after the verb e.g. | |||
/kʰwèi̤ bwó=káiʔk/ | /kʰwèi̤ bwó=káiʔk/ | ||
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You will be bitten by the dog. | You will be bitten by the dog. | ||
Using the ergative form /kʰwèi̤= | Using the ergative form /kʰwèi̤=zù/ is ungrammatical here. | ||
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==== | ====Reciprocal Voice==== | ||
This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. /ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak" -> /dé ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak to each other". | |||
However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /káiʔk/ - "to bite" -> /ká káiʔk/ - "to bite each other". | |||
Also if the onset of the first syllable contains an aspirated consonant, the aspiration is lost in the reduplication e.g. /sʰwè̤/ - "to pull" -> /sé sʰwè̤/ - "to pull each other". | |||
If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. - /m̥â̰n/ "to correct" -> /má m̥â̰n/ - "to correct each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hwêg/ - "to play" -> /wé hwêg/ - "to play with each other". | |||
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