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===Vowels===
===Vowels===
===Prosody===
====Stress====


The term ''stress'' refers to an articulatory phenomenon that causes one syllable in one word to be spoken at a higher pitch than all other syllables in a word. In Volapȕük nulíik this syllable is in defined position in verbs and nouns. Verbs feature a main stress and, under certain conditions a second, less higher pitch. Nouns only have one stressed syllable. The main stress is marked by an acute accent (´) on a vowel, giving [á, é, í, ó, ú] and on vowels with a trema [··] [ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. The main stress is always set first. The second stress is uniformously marked by grave accent [`] giving [à, è, ì, ò, ù, ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. In handwriting, the main stress is also done with a double acute accent on [ä, ö, ü], yet due to technical restriction this has not been possible and thus the language board has decided to allow a grave accent to mark main stress on these three vowel letters.
Volapȕük nulíik has a quite large vowel inventory. Besides the quality of a vowel, the length of a vowel plays an important role as well. In the proto-language, the inventory was rather small:


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || || u /u/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || || o /o/
|-
! Close-open
|| ä /ɛ/ || ||
|-
! Open
|| a /a/ || ||
|}


History
All vowels shared a closed quality and could be combined quite freely into combinations of two vowels which did not form a single syllable, thus dipthongs were unknown in the proto-language.


The main stress used to fall always on the last sylable in Volapük. This means that nouns used to have a main stress on its stem, e.g. dóm 'house', however when a case ending was added to the stem, it shifted from the stem to the last vowel, giving e.g domá 'of the house', domí 'the house (acc.)' This principle is still visible in the present noun declension: dóom : domá : domí : niđomé. In nouns this main stress on monosyllabical words led to a lengthening of the consonant and created finally the length distinction between nominative / vocative and all other oblique cases and nounforms with a reduced [unshortened] stem vowel. With verbs this principle gave the following pen'ön 'to write' : pen'ob 'I write' : epen'ob 'I have written'. Due to a reanalysis of the future forms, e.g. open'ob 'I will write', the second vowel before the personal pronoun suffix was reanalysed as the carrier of the tense information and thus changed analogically: epen'eb, open'ob, ipen'ib, etc. The first letter was abandoned leaving only the vowel before the personal pronoun suffix with the information concerning time. This gave rise to the present situation that the mains tress falls on the time slot and also explains why a tense has always to be stated in every verb. 


Over time this inventory underwent several changes. The first of those changes was that almost all highly articulated vowels were lowered when they occured in an open syllable. Later, this process took also place in closed syllables which had single vowels. Combinations of two vowels remained higher or kept a higher pronounciation. This devision broadened the vowel inventory:


Verbs


In conjugated verb forms falls the main stress on the first vowel after the stem and before the personal pronoun suffix: penáb 'I write', löfábaf 'I love her'. kabenbóleb. 'You will be able to write me.' In non-conjugated forms, however, not the tense marker is not stressed but the last suffix: pen'ön 'to write', pepen'öl 'written'. This main stress is however not marked on the last syllable as this rule dates back to the very beginning of the language.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front !! Central !! Back
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || || u /u/
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || || u: /ʊ/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || || o /o/
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || || o: /ɔ/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ||
|-
! Open
||  || a /ä/ ||
|}


====Intonation====


===Phonotactics===
The next big change in the inventory was the lengthening of short vowels which occur in main-stressed syllables of the stem. Vowels of inflectional suffixes do not undergo this shift. Due to this change in pronounciation, the opposition between short and long vowels is established.
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->


The syllabic structure of a language can be analysed from different perspectives. One perspective is to take a look at the maximum structure of a syllable. Another perspective is the question, which sounds are allowed on which position.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || || || || u /u/ ||
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || îî /ɪ:/ ûû /ʏ:/ || || || u: /ʊ/ || uu: /ʊ:/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || || || || o /o/ ||
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || ëë /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo: /ɔ:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
|-
! Open
|| || || a /ä/ ||  aa /ä:/ ||  ||
|}




''Maximum syllable structure''
This system starts to develop further in this sense that those combinations of vowels containing an /i/ as the second part start to shift to /e/ (with the exception of /ui/, /üi/ and /ii/) and furthermore become long vowels. The quantity of these long vowels is slightly longer than the quantity of those close-mid and near-open long vowels with a roughly distinction of (short : long 'open' : long 'closed') 1 : 1,75 : 2. This means that now both "closed" and "open" vowels have an opposition of quantity between long vs. short. The vowel /ä/ splits into the vowels /a/, /a:/ for open vowel positions and /ɑ/, /ɑ:/ for closed vowel positions.
 
 
The maximum syllable structure in Volapȕük nulíik is:


(C(C(CV)(V)C))C).


A minimum syllable consists of CV, which indicates that no syllable may beginn with a vowel. Personal pronouns are an exception to this rule, since they favour a syllabic structure V:C. The maximum structure consisting of three consonants in the onset is mainly reserved for clusters like ''str-'', ''skr-''.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || ii /i:/ üü /ü:/ || || || u /u/ || uu /u:/
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || îî /ɪ:/ ûû /ʏ:/ || || || u: /ʊ/ || uu: /ʊ:/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || ee /e:/ öö /ö:/ || || || o /o/ || oo /o:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || ëë /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo: /ɔ:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
|-
! Open
|| a /a/ || aa /a:/ || || || a: /ɑ/  || aa: /ɑ:/
|}


===Morphophonology===
The latest development was the creation of the sound /ɒ:/ <åå> that evolved from the combination / later dipthong /o.a/ ~ /o‿a/. This vowel does not occur in every dialect, however it is recognised as in the standard language.


===Lenition===


===Consonantal gemination===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
|-
! Close
| i /i/ ü /ü/ || ii /i:/ üü /ü:/ || || || u /u/ || uu /u:/
|-
! Near-close
|| î /ɪ/ û /ʏ/ || îî /ɪ:/ ûû /ʏ:/ || || || u: /ʊ/ || uu: /ʊ:/
|-
! Close-mid
|| e /e/ ö /ö/ || ee /e:/ öö /ö:/ || || || o /o/ || oo /o:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ë /ɛ/ ô /œ/ || ëë /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo: /ɔ:/
|-
! Near-open
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
|-
! Open
|| a /a/ || aa /a:/ || || || a: /ɑ/  || aa: /ɑ:/ åå /ɒ:/
|}


==Morphology==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
The basic morphology of '''Volapȕük nulíik''' encompasses only three categories:


-Nouns
The last change occurred in the 1920s, when the orthographic representation was modified to represent current usages:


-Verbs
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
 
|-
-Interjections
!  !! Front short !! Front long !! Central short !! Central long !! Back short !! Back long
 
'''Adjectives'''
 
Adjectives are predominantly nouns - they have a fixed position within the noun phrase and may function as nouns on their own. However, they may also function as a verb in conjunction with the copula verb "binön" or they may function as a verb on their own, which is considered a higher style.:
 
{|
|-
|-
|Binán             
! Close
||klotéedat                   
| î /i/ ü /ü/ || îi/íî /i:/ üü /ü:/ || || || û /u/ || ûu/úû /u:/
||šerlíik.
|-
|-
|Bin-á-n
! Near-close
||klotéed-at
|| i /ɪ/ ü /ʏ/ || ii /ɪ:/ üü /ʏ:/ || || || u /ʊ/ || uu /ʊ:/
||šer-líik.
|-
|-
|BE-pres.-3.sg.obj. 
! Close-mid
||LADYDRESS-demons.near       
|| ê /e/ ö /ö/ || êe/éê /e:/ öö /ö:/ || || || ô /o/ || ôo/óô /o:/
||EXPENSIVE-adj.
|}
 
{|
|-
|-
|Šerlikán                             
! Near-open
||klotéedat.
|| e /ɛ/ ö /œ/ || ee /ɛ:/ ôô /œ:/|| || || o: /ɔ/ || oo /ɔ:/
|-
|-
|Šer-lik-á-n 
! Near-open
||klotéed-at
|| ä /æ/ || ää /æ:/ || || || ||
|-
|-
|[EXPENSIVE-adj.]verb.copula-pres.-3.sg.obj.  
! Open
||LADYDRESS-demons.near
|| a /a/ || aa /a:/ || || || â /ɑ/ || âa/áâ /ɑ:/ åå /ɒ:/
|}
|}


"This dress is expensive."
===Prosody===
====Stress====


The first version is more common among speakers of a lower social status, whereas the second has a more official and literary style. The first version, however, may also be used by people of higher status, especially in situations when someone wants to emphasize that the dress really IS expensive. This is in contrast to languages like German or English, as Volapűük_nulíik expresses emphasis not on the intonational level but on the morphological.  
The term ''stress'' refers to an articulatory phenomenon that causes one syllable in one word to be spoken at a higher pitch than all other syllables in a word. In Volapȕük nulíik this syllable is in defined position in verbs and nouns. Verbs feature a main stress and, under certain conditions a second, less higher pitch. Nouns only have one stressed syllable. The main stress is marked by an acute accent (´) on a vowel, giving [á, é, í, ó, ú] and on vowels with a trema [··] [ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. The main stress is always set first. The second stress is uniformously marked by grave accent [`] giving [à, è, ì, ò, ù, ȁ, ȍ, ȕ]. In handwriting, the main stress is also done with a double acute accent on [ä, ö, ü], yet due to technical restriction this has not been possible and thus the language board has decided to allow a grave accent to mark main stress on these three vowel letters.  


'''Numerals'''


Numerals also belong, just like adjectives, predominantly to the category of nouns, but can be used as verbs as well:
History


{|
The main stress used to fall always on the last sylable in Volapük. This means that nouns used to have a main stress on its stem, e.g. dóm 'house', however when a case ending was added to the stem, it shifted from the stem to the last vowel, giving e.g domá 'of the house', domí 'the house (acc.)' This principle is still visible in the present noun declension: dóom : domá : domí : niđomé. In nouns this main stress on monosyllabical words led to a lengthening of the consonant and created finally the length distinction between nominative / vocative and all other oblique cases and nounforms with a reduced [unshortened] stem vowel. With verbs this principle gave the following pen'ön 'to write' : pen'ob 'I write' : epen'ob 'I have written'. Due to a reanalysis of the future forms, e.g. open'ob 'I will write', the second vowel before the personal pronoun suffix was reanalysed as the carrier of the tense information and thus changed analogically: epen'eb, open'ob, ipen'ib, etc. The first letter was abandoned leaving only the vowel before the personal pronoun suffix with the information concerning time. This gave rise to the present situation that the mains tress falls on the time slot and also explains why a tense has always to be stated in every verb.
|-
|Lödáps
||niđom
||žönlig
||giló
|-
|Löd-á-p-s
||ni-đom
||žön-lig
||gil-ó
|-
|RESIDE-pres.-m./f.pl.
||IN-HOUSE-abs.
||BEAUTIFUL-adj.abs.
||THREE-loc.
|}


"They live in three beautiful houses."


{|
Verbs
|-
|Telđegänáms.
|-
|Telđeg-an-á-m-s.
|-
|[TWENTY]verb.copula-pers.n-pres.-m.pl.
|}


"We are twenty men."
In conjugated verb forms falls the main stress on the first vowel after the stem and before the personal pronoun suffix: penáb 'I write', löfábaf 'I love her'. kabenbóleb. 'You will be able to write me.' In non-conjugated forms, however, not the tense marker is not stressed but the last suffix: pen'ön 'to write', pepen'öl 'written'. This main stress is however not marked on the last syllable as this rule dates back to the very beginning of the language.


====Intonation====


===Phonotactics===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->


Nummerals will be discussed in detail in the section "Nummerals".
The syllabic structure of a language can be analysed from different perspectives. One perspective is to take a look at the maximum structure of a syllable. Another perspective is the question, which sounds are allowed on which position.  




'''Adverbs'''


This category does not appear as a category of itself but appears in different forms:
''Maximum syllable structure''


1. suffixes


2. incorporated roots
The maximum syllable structure in Volapȕük nulíik is:


3. nouns in essive case
(C(C(CV)(V)C))C).  


4. nouns in a noun phrase starting with "mod".
A minimum syllable consists of CV, which indicates that no syllable may beginn with a vowel. Personal pronouns are an exception to this rule, since they favour a syllabic structure V:C. The maximum structure consisting of three consonants in the onset is mainly reserved for clusters like ''str-'', ''skr-''.


===Morphophonology===


===Lenition===


''Suffixes''
===Consonantal gemination===


This type of adverbs encompasses adverbs of time, place and degree. They are suffixed to verbal structures and nouns and thus cannot appear on their own. If one wants to emphasise these adverbal meanings, they have to use a similar meaning noun, add suffixes and place it before the verb, for example:
==Morphology==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
The basic morphology of '''Volapȕük nulíik''' encompasses only three categories:


"Deedȁpšimokdȁäl." [no emphasis]
-Nouns


-Verbs


DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-ok-dȁäl.
-Interjections


KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-here-yesterday
'''Adjectives'''


They killed him here yesterday.
Adjectives are predominantly nouns - they have a fixed position within the noun phrase and may function as nouns on their own. However, they may also function as a verb in conjunction with the copula verb "binön" or they may function as a verb on their own, which is considered a higher style.:


{|
|-
|Binán             
||klotéedat                   
||šerlíik.
|-
|Bin-á-n
||klotéed-at
||šer-líik.
|-
|BE-pres.-3.sg.obj. 
||LADYDRESS-demons.near       
||EXPENSIVE-adj.
|}


{|
|-
|Šerlikán                             
||klotéedat.
|-
|Šer-lik-á-n 
||klotéed-at
|-
|[EXPENSIVE-adj.]verb.copula-pres.-3.sg.obj. 
||LADYDRESS-demons.near
|}


"Topakó deedȁpšimdȁäl." [place emphasised]
"This dress is expensive."
 
 
TOP-ak-ó | DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-dȁäl


PLACE-this-loc. | KIIL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-yesterday
The first version is more common among speakers of a lower social status, whereas the second has a more official and literary style. The first version, however, may also be used by people of higher status, especially in situations when someone wants to emphasize that the dress really IS expensive. This is in contrast to languages like German or English, as Volapűük_nulíik expresses emphasis not on the intonational level but on the morphological.  


'''Numerals'''


Numerals also belong, just like adjectives, predominantly to the category of nouns, but can be used as verbs as well:


Dȁälú topakó deeddȁpšim. [place and time emphasised, place a bit more important than time]
{|
 
|-
|Lödáps
||niđom
||žönlig
||giló
|-
|Löd-á-p-s
||ni-đom
||žön-lig
||gil-ó
|-
|RESIDE-pres.-m./f.pl.
||IN-HOUSE-abs.
||BEAUTIFUL-adj.abs.
||THREE-loc.
|}


DÄÄL-ú. | TOP-ak-ó | DEEL-ȁ-pš-i-m
"They live in three beautiful houses."


YESTERDAY-ess. | PLACE-this-loc. | KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.
{|
|-
|Telđegänáms.
|-
|Telđeg-an-á-m-s.
|-
|[TWENTY]verb.copula-pers.n-pres.-m.pl.
|}


"We are twenty men."


The word right before the verb structure receives the most emphasis and the farer away a word stands, it is less emphasised. This implies that normally only about three or four words are put separately before a verbal structure.




Nummerals will be discussed in detail in the section "Nummerals".


''Incorporated roots''


'''Adverbs'''


This adverbal structure is reserved for verb-nouns ending in -íik or -líik. The verb-noun appears in a lenited form, example:
This category does not appear as a category of itself but appears in different forms:  


1. suffixes


Penžönlikfáminemnù penöní.  
2. incorporated roots


PEN-ŠÖNLIK-f-á-m-i-n-e-m-nù |PENÖN-í
3. nouns in essive case


WRITE-BEAUTIFUL-bitr.-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.-acc.-3.sg.inam.-dat.-3.sg.anim.masc.-now |LETTER-acc.
4. nouns in a noun phrase starting with "mod".




"He writes beautifully a letter to him."


''Suffixes''


This type of adverbal structure is reserved for single adverbs only. Adding several adverbs to a verb will need a noun structure.
This type of adverbs encompasses adverbs of time, place and degree. They are suffixed to verbal structures and nouns and thus cannot appear on their own. If one wants to emphasise these adverbal meanings, they have to use a similar meaning noun, add suffixes and place it before the verb, for example:


"Deedȁpšimokdȁäl." [no emphasis]




''Nouns in essive case''
DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-ok-dȁäl.


KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-here-yesterday


They killed him here yesterday.


''Nouns in a noun phrase with "mod"''




"Topakó deedȁpšimdȁäl." [place emphasised]


==='''Nouns/Nemavȍöds'''===


The category of nouns encompasses all words that denote concrete and abstract objects, persons, animals, plants, feelings, and concepts. Noun is the basic category of words, since each adjective, verb, and so on is based on a nominal root and derived from it. Nouns inflect for case, number, and possession and may receive further conjunctive/modal particles
TOP-ak-ó | DEED-ȁ-pš-i-m-dȁäl


Each noun is built up according to a fixed scheme:
PLACE-this-loc. | KIIL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.-yesterday


{| class="wikitable"
! Prefix !! Stem !! Determiner !! Case suffix !! Number suffix !! Possessiv suffix !! Modal particles
|}




''Numbers/Núums''
Dȁälú topakó deeddȁpšim.  [place and time emphasised, place a bit more important than time]


Nouns inflect for number, meaning they indicate whether a noun appears as a single entity (singular), as a pair/in two (dual), or in more than one entity (plural). Each number has a specific marker:


{| class="wikitable"
DÄÄL-ú. | TOP-ak-ó | DEEL-ȁ-pš-i-m
! !!Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|Suffixes ||-ø-/-b- || -t-/-d- || -s-/-z- (-š-/-ž-)
|}


Since the singular is a category that almost any object, person, animal, idea, or anything else can appear in, it is considered the 'default' category and remains unmarked. This is also true for most natural languages, where there is no explicit suffix denoting a single unit of something. However, there are languages, such as Welsh, which provide a singular suffix for nouns that normally denominate entities that exist in conglomeration, e.g. the trees of a forest ''coed'', where a single tree is derived from the whole via the suffix -en, thus giving ''coeden'' 'a tree'. This system does not apply to Volapȕük nulíik. Every noun has the default numerical value 1, and thus is in the singular by default. The second suffix for the singular number is actually a suffix occasionally used, e.g. for poetic purposes or when a speaker wants to stress the singularity of a noun. The dual suffix has a correspondence with the number word for 'two' ''tel''. It can appear in a voiced alternative, which evolved as a result of voiced surrounding consonants. This applies also to the plural marker ''s'', which alternates with ''z''. In personal endings there is also the alternation -š-/-ž- which evolved due to phonological changes.
YESTERDAY-ess. | PLACE-this-loc. | KILL-past-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.mask.
 
 
The word right before the verb structure receives the most emphasis and the farer away a word stands, it is less emphasised. This implies that normally only about three or four words are put separately before a verbal structure.


===''Cases/Nemavödamagéeds''===


'''Volapȕük nulíik''' has a complex set of cases. The complexity arises from a set of nine primary cases, which exist independently but can also be combined with a set of prefixes of local, temporal, or abstract function. This combination creates more than seventy different cases, which can not all be named and are not all actually regarded as cases of their own.


The basic cases and their suffixes are:
''Incorporated roots''


{| class="wikitable"
!Case !! Name !! Suffix !! Main function(s)
|-
|Nominative || serafáal || -ø || Subject of transitive & intransitive verbs
|-
|Vocative || vokafáal || -ø/-ȍ || Form of a noun to call someone/something
|-
|Genitive || faláak || -á(-) || Relational case, direct object in negative sentences
|-
|Dative || faléek || -é(-) || Receiver of bitransitive verbs, [logical] subject of emotional verbs, locative: origin of movement
|-
|Accusative || falíik || -í(-) || Direct object of transitiv verbs
|-
|Locative || falóok || -ó(-) || Indicating position in a place, space etc.
|-
|Translative || falȕük || -úu(-)/-ȕ(-) || Change of state
|-
|Essive || falúuk || -ú(-) || Being in a changeable state
|-
|Exlative || falwéek || -wé(-)/-wȁ(-) ||  Ending of a state
|}


The Northern dialect has retained a tenth case, which has collapsed in other dialects with the dative suffix -é(-), and thus adding its meaning to the dative case:
This adverbal structure is reserved for verb-nouns ending in -íik or -líik. The verb-noun appears in a lenited form, example:


{| class="wikitable"
!Case !! Name !! Suffix !! Main function(s)
|-
|Nominative || serafáal || -ø || Subject of transitive & intransitive verbs
|-
|Vocative || vokafáal || -ø/-ȍ || Form of a noun to call someone/something
|-
|Genitive || faláak || -á(-) || Relational case, direct object in negative sentences
|-
|Dative || faléek || -é(-) || Receiver of bitransitive verbs, [logical] subject of emotional verbs
|-
|Accusative || falíik || -í(-) || Direct object of transitiv verbs
|-
|Locative || falóok || -ó(-) || Indicating position in a place, space etc.
|-
|Delative || falȁäk || -ȁ(-) || Origin of movement
|-
|Translative || falȕük || -úu(-)/-ȕ(-) || Change of state
|-
|Essive || falúuk || -ú(-) || Being in a changeable state
|-
|Exlative || falwéek || -wé(-)/-wȁ(-) ||  Ending of a state
|}


The '''Vocative''' provides two optional endings: a) a zero-ending, differing from the nominative only in this feature that the beginning of the word appears in its lenited form:
Penžönlikfáminemnù penöní.
 
PEN-ŠÖNLIK-f-á-m-i-n-e-m-nù |PENÖN-í
 
WRITE-BEAUTIFUL-bitr.-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.-acc.-3.sg.inam.-dat.-3.sg.anim.masc.-now |LETTER-acc.
 


{| class="wikitable"
"He writes beautifully a letter to him."
!Nominative !! Historical vocative !! Modern vocative !! Meaning
|-
|dóom || o đóom! || đóom! || house
|-
|táal || o dáal! || dáal! || earth
|-
|góod || o ghóod! || ghóod! || god / God
|-
|píid || o bíid! || bíid || regret
|}


The particle ''-ö'' was traditionally used to express exclamations, e.g. seelȍ! "Quiet!" < ''seel'' "being quiet", moȍ! "Get out of here!" < ''mo'' "away". This usage has extended towards nouns and names of persons: ''Kal'' ("Charles") > Kalȍ!, ''Floor'' ("flower") > Floorȍ!, etc.


In the Northern dialect this principle has remained to the very day and developed in a manner that adding the suffix showed the person addressed a form of respect. Addressing a "normal" person was gradually done by simply using the nominative form. However, about two hundred years ago, the people speaking the northern dialect started to adopt a fashion of using the lenited nominative form as a normal form of address. Therefore, the dialect incorporated both forms, having a "normal" vocative form and a "special" vocative form, showing extra respect to the person addressed.:
This type of adverbal structure is reserved for single adverbs only. Adding several adverbs to a verb will need a noun structure.


{| class="wikitable"
!Vocative !! Usage !! Meaning intended
|-
|o Gal! || Most dialects || normal form of adressing someone
|-
|Kal! || Northern dialect || normal form of adressing someone; other dialects: harsh adressing
|-
|Kalȍ! || Northern dialect || respectful manner of adressing someone
|}


The further development spread the ''-ȍ''-suffix to other dialects and within about 50 years the usage as a marker of respect evolved. Therefore, the language today has two forms of marking the vocative case: a) using the lenited nominative stem b) adding the suffix -ȍ to show more respect to the person addressed.


''Nouns in essive case''




'''Nominative'''


''Nouns in a noun phrase with "mod"''


'''Genitive'''




'''Dative'''
==='''Nouns/Nemavȍöds'''===


The category of nouns encompasses all words that denote concrete and abstract objects, persons, animals, plants, feelings, and concepts. Noun is the basic category of words, since each adjective, verb, and so on is based on a nominal root and derived from it. Nouns inflect for case, number, and possession and may receive further conjunctive/modal particles


'''Accusative'''
Each noun is built up according to a fixed scheme:


{| class="wikitable"
! Prefix !! Stem !! Determiner !! Case suffix !! Number suffix !! Possessiv suffix !! Modal particles
|}


'''Locative'''


''Numbers/Núums''


'''Delative'''
Nouns inflect for number, meaning they indicate whether a noun appears as a single entity (singular), as a pair/in two (dual), or in more than one entity (plural). Each number has a specific marker:


{| class="wikitable"
! !!Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|Suffixes ||-ø-/-b- || -t-/-d- || -s-/-z- (-š-/-ž-)
|}


'''Translative'''
Since the singular is a category that almost any object, person, animal, idea, or anything else can appear in, it is considered the 'default' category and remains unmarked. This is also true for most natural languages, where there is no explicit suffix denoting a single unit of something. However, there are languages, such as Welsh, which provide a singular suffix for nouns that normally denominate entities that exist in conglomeration, e.g. the trees of a forest ''coed'', where a single tree is derived from the whole via the suffix -en, thus giving ''coeden'' 'a tree'. This system does not apply to Volapȕük nulíik. Every noun has the default numerical value 1, and thus is in the singular by default. The second suffix for the singular number is actually a suffix occasionally used, e.g. for poetic purposes or when a speaker wants to stress the singularity of a noun. The dual suffix has a correspondence with the number word for 'two' ''tel''. It can appear in a voiced alternative, which evolved as a result of voiced surrounding consonants. This applies also to the plural marker ''s'', which alternates with ''z''. In personal endings there is also the alternation -š-/-ž- which evolved due to phonological changes.


===''Cases/Nemavödamagéeds''===


'''Essive'''
'''Volapȕük nulíik''' has a complex set of cases. The complexity arises from a set of nine primary cases, which exist independently but can also be combined with a set of prefixes of local, temporal, or abstract function. This combination creates more than seventy different cases, which can not all be named and are not all actually regarded as cases of their own.


The basic cases and their suffixes are:


'''Exlative'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Case !! Name !! Suffix !! Main function(s)
|-
|Nominative || serafáal || -ø || Subject of transitive & intransitive verbs
|-
|Vocative || vokafáal || -ø/-ȍ || Form of a noun to call someone/something
|-
|Genitive || faláak || -á(-) || Relational case, direct object in negative sentences
|-
|Dative || faléek || -é(-) || Receiver of bitransitive verbs, [logical] subject of emotional verbs, locative: origin of movement
|-
|Accusative || falíik || -í(-) || Direct object of transitiv verbs
|-
|Locative || falóok || -ó(-) || Indicating position in a place, space etc.
|-
|Translative || falȕük || -úu(-)/-ȕ(-) || Change of state
|-
|Essive || falúuk || -ú(-) || Being in a changeable state
|-
|Exlative || falwéek || -wé(-)/-wȁ(-) ||  Ending of a state
|}


===''Prefixes/Büyümóots''===
The Northern dialect has retained a tenth case, which has collapsed in other dialects with the dative suffix -é(-), and thus adding its meaning to the dative case:
 
The category ''Prefix'' encompasses a wide range of lexical elements that have two things in common:
 
a) all of them were prepositions and became attached to the stem at some point in the history of the language.
 
b) they change the beginning of the noun they are attached to by a process called lenition. This process is explained in detail in the section '''morphophonological processes'''.
 
c) they do occur alone but are always combined with a specific case suffix. In some cases a single prefix may be combined with more than one case suffix and thus giving a specific, different meaning with each case suffix.
 
 
Local prefixes
 
These prefixes indicate spatial relations. In most natlangs and conlangs these relations are expressed via separate words. In Volapȕük nulíik this used to be done as well. However, about two thousand years ago, speakers started combining adverbs with prepositions, e.g. ''in domó'' 'at the house' > ''indomó''. These new expressions were very quickly recognized and analyzed as complete words and only about 100 years after the first appearance of such constructions were they written with the initial syllabic structure CV-, including a change of the initial consonant: ''niddomó'' ( ''dd'' representing a dental fricative [ð]).
 
Most of these prefixes kept the phonetic structure they had as prepositions.
 
Since these prefixes inherit a local meaning they are combined with the locative case. They do this if they mean a place or a location ''where'' an action takes place. When they indicate the aim of a movement, they are combined - as e. g. in German or many Slavic languages with the accusative case. The third option is different depending on the style of language used. For indicating the origin of a movement, the Northern dialect employs the delative case (expressed by the suffix ''-ȁ-''), the other dialects and the standard language use the dative case (-é-) instead.
 
This table givs an overview of the local prefixes and their meaning:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Suffix !! Name !! Meaning !! Case combined (case in other languages) !! Example || Translation
!Case !! Name !! Suffix !! Main function(s)
|-
|-
|ni- || nivalóok || inside of || locative (inessive) || niđomó || in the house
|Nominative || serafáal || -ø || Subject of transitive & intransitive verbs
|-
|-
||ni- || nivalíik || into sth. || accusative (illative) || niđomí || into the house
|Vocative || vokafáal || -ø/-ȍ || Form of a noun to call someone/something
|-
|-
||ni- || nivaléek || out of sth.|| dative/delative (elative) || niđomé / niđomȁ || out of the house
|Genitive || faláak || -á(-) || Relational case, direct object in negative sentences
|-
|-
||fo- || fovalóok || in front of || locative (?) || fođomó || in front of the house
|Dative || faléek || -é(-) || Receiver of bitransitive verbs, [logical] subject of emotional verbs
|-
|-
||fo- || fovalíik || into the front of || accusative (?) || fođomí || into the front of the house
|Accusative || falíik || -í(-) || Direct object of transitiv verbs
|-
|-
||fo- || fovaléek || from the front of || dative/delative (?) || fođomé / fođomȁ || from the front of the house
|Locative || falóok || -ó(-) || Indicating position in a place, space etc.
|-
|-
||po- || povalóok || behind || locative (?) || pođomó || behind the house
|Delative || falȁäk || -ȁ(-) || Origin of movement
|-
|-
||po- || povalíik || into the backside of || accusative (?) || pođomí || into the backside of the house
|Translative || falȕük || -úu(-)/-ȕ(-) || Change of state
|-
|-
||po- || povaléek || from the backside of || dative/delative (?) || pođomé / pođomȁ || from the backside of the house
|Essive || falúuk || -ú(-) || Being in a changeable state
|-
|-
||di- || divalóok || under || locative (?) || diđomó || under the house
|Exlative || falwéek || -wé(-)/-wȁ(-) || Ending of a state
|}
 
The '''Vocative''' provides two optional endings: a) a zero-ending, differing from the nominative only in this feature that the beginning of the word appears in its lenited form:
 
{| class="wikitable"
!Nominative !! Historical vocative !! Modern vocative !! Meaning
|-
|-
||di- || divalíik || into the underside of || accusative (?) || diđomí || into the underside of the house
|dóom || o đóom! || đóom! || house
|-
|-
||di- || divaléek || from the underside of || dative/delative (?) || diđomé / diđomȁ || from the underside of the house
|táal || o dáal! || dáal! || earth
|-
|-
||lü- || lüvalóok || the direction of || locative (?) || lüđomó || in the direction of the house (place)
|góod || o ghóod! || ghóod! || god / God
|-
|-
||lü- || lüvalíik || into the front of || accusative (?) || lüđomí || in the direction of the house (movement)
|píid || o bíid! || bíid || regret
|}
 
The particle ''-ö'' was traditionally used to express exclamations, e.g. seelȍ! "Quiet!" < ''seel'' "being quiet", moȍ! "Get out of here!" < ''mo'' "away". This usage has extended towards nouns and names of persons: ''Kal'' ("Charles") > Kalȍ!, ''Floor'' ("flower") > Floorȍ!, etc.
 
In the Northern dialect this principle has remained to the very day and developed in a manner that adding the suffix showed the person addressed a form of respect. Addressing a "normal" person was gradually done by simply using the nominative form. However, about two hundred years ago, the people speaking the northern dialect started to adopt a fashion of using the lenited nominative form as a normal form of address. Therefore, the dialect incorporated both forms, having a "normal" vocative form and a "special" vocative form, showing extra respect to the person addressed.:
 
{| class="wikitable"
!Vocative !! Usage !! Meaning intended
|-
|-
||lü- || lüvaléek || from the direction of || dative/delative (?) || lüđomé / lüđomȁ || from the direction of the house
|o Gal! || Most dialects || normal form of adressing someone
|-
|-
||lo- || lovalóok || above || locative (?) || lođomó || above the house
|Kal! || Northern dialect || normal form of adressing someone; other dialects: harsh adressing
|-
|-
||lo- || lovalíik || into the space above of || accusative (?) || lođomí || above the house (movement)
|Kalȍ! || Northern dialect || respectful manner of adressing someone
|-
|}
||lo- || lovaléek || from the space above of || dative/delative (?) || lođomé / lođomȁ || from the space above of the house
 
|-
The further development spread the ''-ȍ''-suffix to other dialects and within about 50 years the usage as a marker of respect evolved. Therefore, the language today has two forms of marking the vocative case: a) using the lenited nominative stem b) adding the suffix -ȍ to show more respect to the person addressed.
||su- || suvalóok || on || locative (?) || suđomó || on the house
 
|-
 
||su- || suvalíik || onto || accusative (?) || suđomí || onto the house
 
|-
'''Nominative'''
||su- || suvaléek || from the upside of || dative/delative (?) || suđomé / suđomȁ || from the upside of the house
 
|-
 
||be- || bevalóok || between || locative (?) || beđomót || between the two houses
'''Genitive'''
|-
 
||be- || bevalíik || in between || accusative (?) || beđomít || in between the two houses (movement)
 
|-
'''Dative'''
||be- || bevaléek || from in between of || dative/delative (?) || beđomét / beđomȁt || from in between of the two houses
 
|-
 
||da- || davalóok || through || locative (?) || dađomó || through the two houses (place)
'''Accusative'''
|-
 
||da- || davalíik || through sth. || accusative (?) || dađomí || through the house (aim)
 
|-
'''Locative'''
||da- || davaléek || from through of || dative/delative (?) || dađomé / dađomȁ || from in through the house (origin)
 
|-
 
||le- || levalóok || into the space at || locative (?) || lođomó || into the space at the house
'''Delative'''
|-
 
||le- || levalíik || from the space at sth. || accusative (?) || lođomí || from the space at the house (movement)
 
|-
'''Translative'''
||le- || levaléek || from at  || dative/delative (?) || lođomé / lođomȁ || from at the house
 
|-
 
||mu- || muvalóok || next to || locative (?) || muđomó || next to the house
'''Essive'''
|-
 
||mu- || muvalíik || into the space next of || accusative (?) || muđomí || next to the house (movement)
 
|-
'''Exlative'''
||mu- || muvaléek || from the space next of || dative/delative (?) || muđomé / muđomȁ || from the space next of the house
 
|-
===''Prefixes/Büyümóots''===
||ta- || tavalóok || against [local] || locative (?) || tađomó || against the house
 
|-
The category ''Prefix'' encompasses a wide range of lexical elements that have two things in common:
||ta- || tavalíik || against [movement] || accusative (?) || tađomí || against the house (movement)
 
|-
a) all of them were prepositions and became attached to the stem at some point in the history of the language.  
||ta- || tavaléek || from the space against of || dative/delative (?) || tađomé / tađomȁ || from the space against of the house
|-
||plö- || plövalóok || outside of [local] || locative (?) || plöđomó || outside of the house
|-
||plö- || plövalíik || outside of [movement] || accusative (?) || plöđomí || into the space outside of the house
|-
||plö- || plövaléek || from the space outside of || dative/delative (?) || plöđomé / plöđomȁ || from the space outside of the house
|-
||nü- || nüvalóok || inside of [local] || locative (?) || nüđomó || inside of the house
|-
||nü- || nüvalíik || inside of [movement] || accusative (?) || nüđomí || into the space inside of the house
|-
||nü- || nüvaléek || from the space inside of || dative/delative (?) || nüđomé / nüđomȁ || from the space inside of the house
|-
||de- || devaléek || from [loc.] || dative (ablative) || deđomé || from the house
|-
||šü- || šüvalíik || until || accusative (terminative) || šüđomí || up to the house
|}


b) they change the beginning of the noun they are attached to by a process called lenition. This process is explained in detail in the section '''morphophonological processes'''.


Temporal prefixes
c) they do occur alone but are always combined with a specific case suffix. In some cases a single prefix may be combined with more than one case suffix and thus giving a specific, different meaning with each case suffix.


The second large group of prefixes is the group of temporal prefixes, which indicate information on time. Due to their specific meaning they occur normally only in time-related words and expressions. They have in common that they combine only with the essive case suffix. As an example the noun ''déel'' "day" will be used, except for ''dü-'' which is only used with a specific point of time.


{|class="wikitable"
Local prefixes
! Suffix !! Name !! Meaning !! Case combined (case in other languages) !! Example || Translation  
 
|-
These prefixes indicate spatial relations. In most natlangs and conlangs these relations are expressed via separate words. In Volapȕük nulíik this used to be done as well. However, about two thousand years ago, speakers started combining adverbs with prepositions, e.g. ''in domó'' 'at the house' > ''indomó''. These new expressions were very quickly recognized and analyzed as complete words and only about 100 years after the first appearance of such constructions were they written with the initial syllabic structure CV-, including a change of the initial consonant: ''niddomó'' ( ''dd'' representing a dental fricative [ð]).
|nö- || növalúuk || at / in / on [temporal] || essive (?) || nöđelú || on a day
 
Most of these prefixes kept the phonetic structure they had as prepositions.
 
Since these prefixes inherit a local meaning they are combined with the locative case. They do this if they mean a place or a location ''where'' an action takes place. When they indicate the aim of a movement, they are combined - as e. g. in German or many Slavic languages with the accusative case. The third option is different depending on the style of language used. For indicating the origin of a movement, the Northern dialect employs the delative case (expressed by the suffix ''-ȁ-''), the other dialects and the standard language use the dative case (-é-) instead.
 
This table givs an overview of the local prefixes and their meaning:
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Suffix !! Name !! Meaning !! Case combined (case in other languages) !! Example || Translation  
|-
|-
||bü- || büvalúuk || before || essive (?) || büđelú || before the day
|ni- || nivalóok || inside of || locative (inessive) || niđomó || in the house
|-
|-
||po- || povalúuk || after [temp.] ||essive (?) || pođelú || after the day
||ni- || nivalíik || into sth. || accusative (illative) || niđomí || into the house
|-
|-
||de- || devalúuk || from [temp.] || essive (ablative) || deđelú || from the day on
||ni- || nivaléek || out of sth.|| dative/delative (elative) || niđomé / niđomȁ || out of the house
|-
|-
||du- || duvalúuk || during || essive (?) || duđelú || during the day (as a period of 24 hours)
||fo- || fovalóok || in front of || locative (?) || fođomó || in front of the house
|-
|-
||šü- || šüvalúuk || to / until || essiv (?) || šüđelú || to the day
||fo- || fovalíik || into the front of || accusative (?) || fođomí || into the front of the house
|-
|-
||dü- || düvalúuk || at ... o'clock || essive (?) || düdegú || at ten o'clock
||fo- || fovaléek || from the front of || dative/delative (?) || fođomé / fođomȁ || from the front of the house
|-
|-
||plö- || plövalúuk || outside of || essive (?) || plöwobú || outside of working hours
||po- || povalóok || behind || locative (?) || pođomó || behind the house
|-
|-
||tü- || tüvalúuk || within [temp.] || essive (?) || tüđelút || within two days
||po- || povalíik || into the backside of || accusative (?) || pođomí || into the backside of the house
|-
|-
||si- || sivalúuk || since [point of time] || essive (?) || siđelatú || since this day
||po- || povaléek || from the backside of || dative/delative (?) || pođomé / pođomȁ || from the backside of the house
|-
|-
||fo- || fovalúuk || for [space of time] || essive (?) || fođelút || for two days
||di- || divalóok || under || locative (?) || diđomó || under the house
|-
|-
||tö-/te- || tövalúuk/tevalúuk || in ... time || essive (?) || töwekú/tewekú || in one week
||di- || divalíik || into the underside of || accusative (?) || diđomí || into the underside of the house
|}
 
 
Modal prefixes
 
Another category are modal prefixes. This prefixes transfer a variety of meanings, e. g. the mean by which something is done or the medium via something has been transmitted. Therefore, their case suffixes vary and
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Suffix !! Name !! Meaning !! Case combined (case in other languages) !! Example !! Translation
|-
|-
|fa- || favalúuk || through sth. [abstract] || essive (mediative?) || fawüretodú, favlenú ||through the internet, through a friend
||di- || divaléek || from the underside of || dative/delative (?) || diđomé / diđomȁ || from the underside of the house
|-
|-
||me- || mevalúuk || with sth. [instrument] || essive (instrumental) || menneefú || with a knife
||lü- || lüvalóok || the direction of || locative (?) || lüđomó || in the direction of the house (place)
|-
|-
||ko- || kovalúuk || with s.o. [comitative] || essive (comitative) || kovlenú || with a friend
||lü- || lüvalíik || into the front of || accusative (?) || lüđomí || in the direction of the house (movement)
|-
|-
||sä- || sävalúuk || as if / like || essive (comparative?) || sämmotú, sännaanú || as a mother [standard, northern dialect]
||lü- || lüvaléek || from the direction of || dative/delative (?) || lüđomé / lüđomȁ || from the direction of the house
|-
|-
||sa- || savalúuk || as (same quality) || essive (comparative) || sammotú, savlenúba || as my friend (the same height, the same weight)
||lo- || lovalóok || above || locative (?) || lođomó || above the house
|-
|-
||ka- || kavaléek || than [comparison] || dative (comparative) || kavlenéba || than my friend
||lo- || lovalíik || into the space above of || accusative (?) || lođomí || above the house (movement)
|-
|-
||ko- || kovaléek || because of [circumstance] || dative (circumstantial causative || kovlenéba || because of my friend being there (no direct causation)
||lo- || lovaléek || from the space above of || dative/delative (?) || lođomé / lođomȁ || from the space above of the house
|-
|-
||bi- || bivaléek || because of [causation] || dative (direct causative effect) || bizdoné || because of the stone (the stone fell and the vase broke)
||su- || suvalóok || on || locative (?) || suđomó || on the house
|-
|-
||ma- || mavalúuk || according to [oral citation] || essive (quotative) || mawödúfes/mawödúfäs || according to her words (the words she said, according to her opinion)
||su- || suvalíik || onto || accusative (?) || suđomí || onto the house
|-
|-
||ba- || bavalúuk || according to [written text] || essive (quotative) || ballonú || according to the law (as it is written)
||su- || suvaléek || from the upside of || dative/delative (?) || suđomé / suđomȁ || from the upside of the house
|-
|-
||ta- || tavulúuk || against (abstract) || essive (?) || binön tagrigú || to be against war
||be- || bevalóok || between || locative (?) || beđomót || between the two houses
|-
|-
||pro- || provalúuk || for, in favour of || essive (?) || binön prollon nulikú || to be for / in favour of the new law
||be- || bevalíik || in between || accusative (?) || beđomít || in between the two houses (movement)
|-
|-
||dö- || dövalúuk || about [sth., a theme] || essive (?) || dödzarús buk || a book about the Tsars
||be- || bevaléek || from in between of || dative/delative (?) || beđomét / beđomȁt || from in between of the two houses
|-
||da- || davalóok || through || locative (?) || dađomó || through the two houses (place)
|-
||da- || davalíik || through sth. || accusative (?) || dađomí || through the house (aim)
|-
|-
||be- || bevalúuk || among [concrete, visible] || essive (?) || bemmenatús || among those people
||da- || davaléek || from through of || dative/delative (?) || dađomé / dađomȁ || from in through the house (origin)
|-
|-
||vü- || vüvalúuk || among [abstract] || essive(?) || vünnetús || among nations, internationally [vünnetulíik = international]
||le- || levalóok || into the space at || locative (?) || lođomó || into the space at the house
|-
|-
||se- || sevaláak || from, out of || genitive (?) || sellaná || out of wool, [made] from wool
||le- || levalíik || from the space at sth. || accusative (?) || lođomí || from the space at the house (movement)
|}
 
 
The two cases used for quotation are used for different quotation purposes. '''Mavalúuk''' indicates an oral citation, something that is said and not recorded, something from the memory, a citation of an oppinion. '''Bavalúuk''' on the other hand quotes texts, written sources or natural laws, in general things that are fixed in stone, on paper and not an opinion. If there is an opinion written down on a paper, '''mavalúuk''' is used instead.
 
 
Negative preffixes
 
 
Negative prefixes encompass meanings of negativity and exclusion. They combine exclusively with the genitive suffix, which is also used in verbal structures to mark a direct object in a negative statement or question.
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Suffix !! Name !! Meaning !! Case combined (case in other languages) !! Example !! Translation
|-
|-
|ne- || nevaláak || without || genitive (abessive) || nevlená || without a friend
||le- || levaléek || from at  || dative/delative (?) || lođomé / lođomȁ || from at the house
|-
|-
||plä- || plävaláak || except for || genitive (privitative) || plävlenába || except for my friend
||mu- || muvalóok || next to || locative (?) || muđomó || next to the house
|-
|-
||da- || davaláak || of sth. || genitive (partitive) || davlená || a friend/no friend (usage cf. partitive in Basque and Finnish in neg. sentences)
||mu- || muvalíik || into the space next of || accusative (?) || muđomí || next to the house (movement)
|}
|-
 
||mu- || muvaléek || from the space next of || dative/delative (?) || muđomé / muđomȁ || from the space next of the house
Negation is normally marked on the verb (by the prefix no-), however sometimes also a noun or a whole noun phrase needs to be negated, e.g. "I am not searching for peace, not for clarity, not for freedom, but for war, for misconception, for slavery." In this case, the negation can also be expressed on a noun or a noun phrase. The noun/noun phrase remains as it is in a positive statement, however the prefix "no-" is added [no lenition is applied] and at the end of the noun/the noun phrase the suffix -k is added, to mark the end of the negation. Since negation accourse very often of direct objects, the following case is genitive, but in general any other case could be used. As an example the phrase will be used:
|-
||ta- || tavalóok || against [local] || locative (?) || tađomó || against the house
|-
||ta- || tavalíik || against [movement] || accusative (?) || tađomí || against the house (movement)
|-
||ta- || tavaléek || from the space against of || dative/delative (?) || tađomé / tađomȁ || from the space against of the house
|-
||plö- || plövalóok || outside of [local] || locative (?) || plöđomó || outside of the house
|-
||plö- || plövalíik || outside of [movement] || accusative (?) || plöđomí || into the space outside of the house
|-
||plö- || plövaléek || from the space outside of || dative/delative (?) || plöđomé / plöđomȁ || from the space outside of the house
|-
||nü- || nüvalóok || inside of [local] || locative (?) || nüđomó || inside of the house
|-
||nü- || nüvalíik || inside of [movement] || accusative (?) || nüđomí || into the space inside of the house
|-
||nü- || nüvaléek || from the space inside of || dative/delative (?) || nüđomé / nüđomȁ || from the space inside of the house
|-
||de- || devaléek || from [loc.] || dative (ablative) || deđomé || from the house
|-
||šü- || šüvalíik || until || accusative (terminative) || šüđomí || up to the house
|}


"I am not searching for peace, not for clarity, not for freedom, but for war, for misconception, for slavery."


"Zukkában püdá, nokleeliká, nolibiká, sukkábintà krigí, pölsuemí, slafí."
Temporal prefixes
{|
 
|Zukk-á-b-a-n
The second large group of prefixes is the group of temporal prefixes, which indicate information on time. Due to their specific meaning they occur normally only in time-related words and expressions. They have in common that they combine only with the essive case suffix. As an example the noun ''déel'' "day" will be used, except for ''dü-'' which is only used with a specific point of time.
||püd-á
||no-kleel-i-k-á
||no-lib-i-k-á
||suk-k-á-b-i-n-tà
||krig-í
||pöl-suem-í
||slaf-í.
|-
||LOOK FORneg.-pres.-1.sg.-gen.-3.sg.obj.
||PEACE-gen.
||neg.-CLARITY-acc.-nominalizer-gen.
||neg.-FREEDOM-acc.-nominalizer-gen.
||LOOK FOR-pres.-1.sg.-acc.-3.sg.obj.-in contrast
||WAR-acc.
||ERROR-UNDERSTANDING-acc.
||SLAVERY-acc.
|}


===''Determiners/Fümetéeds''===
{|class="wikitable"
 
! Suffix !! Name !! Meaning !! Case combined (case in other languages) !! Example || Translation  
Determiners are used to specify a noun. In Volapȕük nulíik they follow the noun immidiately but in contrast to derivational suffixes they do never take the stress of the word which reminds before or after the determiner.
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Suffix !! Etymology !! Meaning !! Example !! Person !! Translation !! Place !! Translation
|-
|-
||-ak || ak < *at || this  || dóomak "this house" || pösóodak || this one / this man || tóopak || this place / the place here
|nö- || növalúuk || at / in / on [temporal] || essive (?) || nöđelú || on a day
|-
|-
||-ek || ek < *et || that || dóomek "that house" || pösóodek || that one / that man || tóopek || that place / the place there
||bü- || büvalúuk || before || essive (?) || büđelú || before the day
|-
|-
||-al || al < *al, alik || every || dóomal "every house" || pösóodal || every person / everyone || tóopal || every place, everywhere
||po- || povalúuk || after [temp.] ||essive (?) || pođelú || after the day
|-
|-
||-Cal || Cal < *val, valik || all || dóommal "all houses" (coll. dóommals) || pösóoddal || all people, everyone || tóoppal || all the places
||de- || devalúuk || from [temp.] || essive (ablative) || deđelú || from the day on
|-
|-
||-an || an < *anik || some || dóoman "some house(s)" (coll. dóomans) || pösóoddan || some persons / people || tóopan || some places
||du- || duvalúuk || during || essive (?) || duđelú || during the day (as a period of 24 hours)
|-
|-
||-on || on < *no || no || dóomon "no house" || pösóodon || no one / nobody || tóopon || no place, nowhere
||šü- || šüvalúuk || to / until || essiv (?) || šüđelú || to the day
|-
|-
||-em || em < *seimik || any || dóomem "any house" || pösóodem || any person, anyone || tóopem || any place, anywhere
||dü- || düvalúuk || at ... o'clock || essive (?) || düdegú || at ten o'clock
|-
|-
||-om || om < *somik || such || dóomom "such a house" || pösóodom || such a person || tóopom || such a place
||plö- || plövalúuk || outside of || essive (?) || plöwobú || outside of working hours
|-
|-
||-ot || ot < *ot || same || dóomot "the same house" || pösóodot || the same person || tóopot || the same place
||tü- || tüvalúuk || within [temp.] || essive (?) || tüđelút || within two days
|-
|-
||-Cot || Cot <  *vot- || other || dóommot "the other house" || pösóoddot || the other person || tóoppot || the other place
||si- || sivalúuk || since [point of time] || essive (?) || siđelatú || since this day
|-
|-
||-[C]im || im < prim || the [very] first || dóom[m]im "the very first house" || pösóoddim || the very first person || tóoppim || the very first place
||fo- || fovalúuk || for [space of time] || essive (?) || fođelút || for two days
|-
|-
||-Cät || lät < lätik || the [very] last || dóommät " the very last house" || pösóoddät || the very last person || tóoppät || the very last place
||tö-/te- || tövalúuk/tevalúuk || in ... time || essive (?) || töwekú/tewekú || in one week
|}
|}


===''Personal pronouns/Pösodenéem pösodlíiks''===


Since verbs and nouns contain all personal related information, personal pronouns do occur quite rarely on their own. One situation they are used is when a speaker wants to give another person / other persons the chance to say somehting.
Modal prefixes


The basis of every personal pronoun is the personal suffix that is added as the possessive stem to nouns.  
Another category are modal prefixes. This prefixes transfer a variety of meanings, e. g. the mean by which something is done or the medium via something has been transmitted. Therefore, their case suffixes vary and


As an example for all cases, the firs singular pronouns will be presented:
{| class="wikitable"
 
! Suffix !! Name !! Meaning !! Case combined (case in other languages) !! Example !! Translation
{| class="wikitable"  
! Case name !! Pronoun 1.sg. !! Remarks
|-
|-
||serafáal || oob ||  
|fa- || favalúuk || through sth. [abstract] || essive (mediative?) || fawüretodú, favlenú ||through the internet, through a friend
|-
|-
||vokafáal || vob! ||
||me- || mevalúuk || with sth. [instrument] || essive (instrumental) || menneefú || with a knife
|-
|-
||faláak || aab ||
||ko- || kovalúuk || with s.o. [comitative] || essive (comitative) || kovlenú || with a friend
|-
|-
||faléek || eeb ||
||sä- || sävalúuk || as if / like || essive (comparative?) || sämmotú, sännaanú || as a mother [standard, northern dialect]
|-
|-
||falíik || iib ||
||sa- || savalúuk || as (same quality) || essive (comparative) || sammotú, savlenúba || as my friend (the same height, the same weight)
|-
|-
||falóok || obó ||
||ka- || kavaléek || than [comparison] || dative (comparative) || kavlenéba || than my friend
|-
||ko- || kovaléek || because of [circumstance] || dative (circumstantial causative || kovlenéba || because of my friend being there (no direct causation)
|-
||bi- || bivaléek || because of [causation] || dative (direct causative effect) || bizdoné || because of the stone (the stone fell and the vase broke)
|-
||ma- || mavalúuk || according to [oral citation] || essive (quotative) || mawödúfes/mawödúfäs || according to her words (the words she said, according to her opinion)
|-
||ba- || bavalúuk || according to [written text] || essive (quotative) || ballonú || according to the law (as it is written)
|-
||ta- || tavulúuk || against (abstract) || essive (?) || binön tagrigú || to be against war
|-
||pro- || provalúuk || for, in favour of || essive (?) || binön prollon nulikú || to be for / in favour of the new law
|-
|-
||falȁäk || obȁ ||
||dö- || dövalúuk || about [sth., a theme] || essive (?) || dödzarús buk || a book about the Tsars
|-
|-
||falúuk || obú ||
||be- || bevalúuk || among [concrete, visible] || essive (?) || bemmenatús || among those people
|-
|-
||falȕük || obȕ ||
||vü- || vüvalúuk || among [abstract] || essive(?) || vünnetús || among nations, internationally [vünnetulíik = international]
|-
|-
||falwéek || obwé ||
||se- || sevaláak || from, out of || genitive (?) || sellaná || out of wool, [made] from wool
|}
|}




Personal pronouns with prefixes
The two cases used for quotation are used for different quotation purposes. '''Mavalúuk''' indicates an oral citation, something that is said and not recorded, something from the memory, a citation of an oppinion. '''Bavalúuk''' on the other hand quotes texts, written sources or natural laws, in general things that are fixed in stone, on paper and not an opinion. If there is an opinion written down on a paper, '''mavalúuk''' is used instead.


The prefixed forms on personal pronuns are a bit mor complicated than the nominal forms. Since pronominal forms retain very often old features or forms that have been used centuries ago, they appear irregular, even in languages that otherwise feature regular nominal forms, e.g. Finnish talo : talo-n : talo-a vs. minä : minu-n (!): minu-a (!) or Turkish dil : dile : dili vs. ben : bana (!) : beni. Volapȕük nulíik is no exception to this type of rule. Since the prefixes used to be indipendent prepositions with a different ending, at first, they were glued together quite easily: kod 'because of' obú > kodobú 'because of me', pos 'behind' + obú > posobú, ni 'in' + obó > niobó. A lot of this prepositions were nouns and thus had a structure (C)CVC which after adding the noun to the personal pronoun created a final structure CVCV'C((C)C)V. This structure became widespread and even prepositions with the syllabic structure CV that had no final consonant received an extra consonant, as a rule, the initial consonant, before the first ''o'' of the pronoun, e. g. niobé 'in me' > ninobé. suobé 'on me' > susobé and so on. This intervocalic voiceless consonant got during a period of around 100 years (Volapȕük tsenolíik) period) voiced and created a new set of scheme for personal pronouns: C1VC2VC3((C)C)V, where C1 and C2 are identical, except for voicing: C1 voiceless, C2 voiced. This new rule changed the pronominal system alot: pos + obú > posobú >> pobobú; kod + obú > kodobú >> kogobú; su + obé > susobé > suzobé. This process did not simply stop, but over a period of about another 100 - 150 years, these forms began to become simplier. The voiced consonant between vowels started to fell out: suzobé > suobé; pobobú > poobú; kogobú > koobú. The forms with a /b/ as C2 were the first to lose their /b/, especially in first person and third person neutral animate forms. After around another 200 years, these pronouns had evolved into a structure CVV'CV. These forms are today accepted as literal forms which should be used in books, written texts in general. However, during the last 300 years [this development took place within the last 800 years], these standard forms have changed in spoken and colloquial language. Nowadays the standard pronoun reference form is CV'C((C)C)V, where CV marks the prefix and 'C((C)C)V marks the  pronoun. In the dialects, espcially the northern dialect the older forms still exist and especially for monoconsonantal pronouns (singular) are preferred: plööbé [Northern dialect] vs. plöobé [stan.] / plöbé [coll.]. Because of this, the next table will not only show the given forms used today but also provide information on earlier stages and the etymology of the prefixes.


===''Posession''===
Negative preffixes


The category of possession is build up the same way as the personal suffixes for verbs. So, the category features three numbers (singular, dual and plural) and three persons: speaker, person addressed and a third person. The third person itself divides itself into the main categories animated and inanimated, dividing the first category into three other subcategories, masculine, feminine and a neutral person. This neutral person is either used to indicate a person of unknown gender / sex or is used to refer to person who do not identify themselves as masculine or feminine. From a etymological perspective this suffix arose from a mixture of the masculine /-m/ and feminine suffix /-f/ giving a preform *-mf which later developped into *-mp and finally losing the nasal part giving ''-p'' as a fully productive personal suffix which can be combined with various other persons.


Negative prefixes encompass meanings of negativity and exclusion. They combine exclusively with the genitive suffix, which is also used in verbal structures to mark a direct object in a negative statement or question.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: centre;"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Basic suffixes of the possessive suffixes
! Suffix !! Name !! Meaning !! Case combined (case in other languages) !! Example !! Translation
!colspan ="3" | category
|-
!colspan ="1" | suffix
|ne- || nevaláak || without || genitive (abessive) || nevlená || without a friend
|-
|-
!colspan ="3" style="text-align: left;" | singular
||plä- || plävaláak || except for || genitive (privitative) || plävlenába || except for my friend
|| Ø
|-
|-
!colspan ="3" style="text-align: left;" | dual
||da- || davaláak || of sth. || genitive (partitive) || davlená || a friend/no friend (usage cf. partitive in Basque and Finnish in neg. sentences)
||-t
|}
 
Negation is normally marked on the verb (by the prefix no-), however sometimes also a noun or a whole noun phrase needs to be negated, e.g. "I am not searching for peace, not for clarity, not for freedom, but for war, for misconception, for slavery." In this case, the negation can also be expressed on a noun or a noun phrase. The noun/noun phrase remains as it is in a positive statement, however the prefix "no-" is added [no lenition is applied] and at the end of the noun/the noun phrase the suffix -k is added, to mark the end of the negation. Since negation accourse very often of direct objects, the following case is genitive, but in general any other case could be used. As an example the phrase will be used:
 
"I am not searching for peace, not for clarity, not for freedom, but for war, for misconception, for slavery."
 
"Zukkában püdá, nokleeliká, nolibiká, sukkábintà krigí, pölsuemí, slafí."
{|
|Zukk-á-b-a-n
||püd-á
||no-kleel-i-k-á
||no-lib-i-k-á
||suk-k-á-b-i-n-tà
||krig-í
||pöl-suem-í
||slaf-í.
|-
|-
!colspan ="3" style="text-align: left;" | plural
||LOOK FORneg.-pres.-1.sg.-gen.-3.sg.obj.
||-s
||PEACE-gen.
|-
||neg.-CLARITY-acc.-nominalizer-gen.
!colspan ="3"  style="text-align: left;" | 1. person
||neg.-FREEDOM-acc.-nominalizer-gen.
||-b
||LOOK FOR-pres.-1.sg.-acc.-3.sg.obj.-in contrast
||WAR-acc.
||ERROR-UNDERSTANDING-acc.
||SLAVERY-acc.
|}
 
===''Determiners/Fümetéeds''===
 
Determiners are used to specify a noun. In Volapȕük nulíik they follow the noun immidiately but in contrast to derivational suffixes they do never take the stress of the word which reminds before or after the determiner.
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Suffix !! Etymology !! Meaning !! Example !! Person !! Translation !! Place !! Translation
|-
||-ak || ak < *at || this || dóomak "this house" || pösóodak || this one / this man || tóopak || this place / the place here
|-
|-
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="2"  style="text-align: left;" | 2. person
||-ek || ek < *et || that || dóomek "that house" || pösóodek || that one / that man || tóopek || that place / the place there
!colspan ="1" | formal
||-r
|-
|-
!colspan ="1" | informal
||-al || al < *al, alik || every || dóomal "every house" || pösóodal || every person / everyone || tóopal || every place, everywhere
||-l
|-
|-
! rowspan ="4" colspan ="1"  style="text-align: left;" | 3.person
||-Cal || Cal < *val, valik || all || dóommal "all houses" (coll. dóommals) || pösóoddal || all people, everyone || tóoppal || all the places
! rowspan ="3" colspan "1" | animate
!masculine
||-m
|-
|-
!feminine
||-an || an < *anik || some || dóoman "some house(s)" (coll. dóomans) || pösóoddan || some persons / people || tóopan || some places
||-f
|-
|-
!neutral
||-on || on < *no || no || dóomon "no house" || pösóodon || no one / nobody || tóopon || no place, nowhere
||-p < *mp < *mf
|-
|-
! rowspan ="1" colspan ="1" |inanimate
||-em || em < *seimik || any || dóomem "any house" || pösóodem || any person, anyone || tóopem || any place, anywhere
!object
|-
||-n
||-om || om < *somik || such || dóomom "such a house" || pösóodom || such a person || tóopom || such a place
|-
||-ot || ot < *ot || same || dóomot "the same house" || pösóodot || the same person || tóopot || the same place
|-
||-Cot || Cot <  *vot- || other || dóommot "the other house" || pösóoddot || the other person || tóoppot || the other place
|-
||-[C]im || im < prim || the [very] first || dóom[m]im "the very first house" || pösóoddim || the very first person || tóoppim || the very first place
|-
||-Cät || lät < lätik || the [very] last || dóommät " the very last house" || pösóoddät || the very last person || tóoppät || the very last place
|}
|}


===''Personal pronouns/Pösodenéem pösodlíiks''===
Since verbs and nouns contain all personal related information, personal pronouns do occur quite rarely on their own. One situation they are used is when a speaker wants to give another person / other persons the chance to say somehting.
The basis of every personal pronoun is the personal suffix that is added as the possessive stem to nouns.
As an example for all cases, the firs singular pronouns will be presented:


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable"  
|+ Overview of possessive suffixes [standard language]
! Case name !! Pronoun 1.sg. !! Remarks
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="4"|
!rowspan ="2" | Singular
!rowspan ="2" | Dual
!colspan ="4" | Plural
|-
|-
||Dual +1
||serafáal || oob ||  
||Plural + 1
||Plural + 2
||Plural + 3+
|-
|-
!rowspan ="6" | 1. Person
||vokafáal || vob! ||
!colspan ="3" | general
||-b-
||-bd- / -dd- [bd < *bt]
|colspan ="4" | -bz- / -zz-
|-
|-
!rowspan = "2" colspan ="2" | inclusive
||faláak || aab ||
!informal
||
||-lb-
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
|colspan ="3" | -lbz-
|-
|-
!formal
||faléek || eeb ||
||
||-rb-
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
|colspan ="3" | -rbz-
|-
|-
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="2" | exclusive
||falíik || iib ||
!masculine
||
||-mb- < -m- + -b-
||
||-mbz-
||-mdž- < *mtbž < *mtbz [d < tb]
||-zbž- < *msbž < *msbz
|-
|-
!feminine
||falóok || obó ||
||
||-vb- < -f- + -b-
||
||-vbz-
||-vdž- < *fdž < *ftbž < *ftbz
||-sbž- < *fsbž < *fsbz
|-
|-
!neutral
||falȁäk || obȁ ||
||
||-bb- < -p + -b-
||
||-bbz-
||-bdž- < *ptbž
||-spš- < *sps
|-
|-
!rowspan ="8" | 2. Person
||falúuk || obú ||
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="2" | inclusive
!informal
||-l-
||-lt-
|colspan ="4" | -lz-
|-
|-
!formal
||falȕük || obȕ ||
||-r-
||-rt-
|colspan ="4" | -rz-
|-
|-
!rowspan ="6" colspan ="1" | exclusive
||falwéek || obwé ||
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="1" | informal
|}
!masculine
 
||
 
||-lmV-
Personal pronouns with prefixes
|colspan ="4" |-lmzV-
 
|-
The prefixed forms on personal pronuns are a bit mor complicated than the nominal forms. Since pronominal forms retain very often old features or forms that have been used centuries ago, they appear irregular, even in languages that otherwise feature regular nominal forms, e.g. Finnish talo : talo-n : talo-a vs. minä : minu-n (!): minu-a (!) or Turkish dil : dile : dili vs. ben : bana (!) : beni. Volapȕük nulíik is no exception to this type of rule. Since the prefixes used to be indipendent prepositions with a different ending, at first, they were glued together quite easily: kod 'because of' obú > kodobú 'because of me', pos 'behind' + obú > posobú, ni 'in' + obó > niobó. A lot of this prepositions were nouns and thus had a structure (C)CVC which after adding the noun to the personal pronoun created a final structure CVCV'C((C)C)V. This structure became widespread and even prepositions with the syllabic structure CV that had no final consonant received an extra consonant, as a rule, the initial consonant, before the first ''o'' of the pronoun, e. g. niobé 'in me' > ninobé. suobé 'on me' > susobé and so on. This intervocalic voiceless consonant got during a period of around 100 years (Volapȕük tsenolíik) period) voiced and created a new set of scheme for personal pronouns: C1VC2VC3((C)C)V, where C1 and C2 are identical, except for voicing: C1 voiceless, C2 voiced. This new rule changed the pronominal system alot: pos + obú > posobú >> pobobú; kod + obú > kodobú >> kogobú; su + obé > susobé > suzobé. This process did not simply stop, but over a period of about another 100 - 150 years, these forms began to become simplier. The voiced consonant between vowels started to fell out: suzobé > suobé; pobobú > poobú; kogobú > koobú. The forms with a /b/ as C2 were the first to lose their /b/, especially in first person and third person neutral animate forms. After around another 200 years, these pronouns had evolved into a structure CVV'CV. These forms are today accepted as literal forms which should be used in books, written texts in general. However, during the last 300 years [this development took place within the last 800 years], these standard forms have changed in spoken and colloquial language. Nowadays the standard pronoun reference form is CV'C((C)C)V, where CV marks the prefix and 'C((C)C)V marks the  pronoun. In the dialects, espcially the northern dialect the older forms still exist and especially for monoconsonantal pronouns (singular) are preferred: plööbé [Northern dialect] vs. plöobé [stan.] / plöbé [coll.]. Because of this, the next table will not only show the given forms used today but also provide information on earlier stages and the etymology of the prefixes.
!feminine
 
||
===''Posession''===
||-lfV-
 
|colspan ="4" |-lvzV-
The category of possession is build up the same way as the personal suffixes for verbs. So, the category features three numbers (singular, dual and plural) and three persons: speaker, person addressed and a third person. The third person itself divides itself into the main categories animated and inanimated, dividing the first category into three other subcategories, masculine, feminine and a neutral person. This neutral person is either used to indicate a person of unknown gender / sex or is used to refer to person who do not identify themselves as masculine or feminine. From a etymological perspective this suffix arose from a mixture of the masculine /-m/ and feminine suffix /-f/ giving a preform *-mf which later developped into *-mp and finally losing the nasal part giving ''-p'' as a fully productive personal suffix which can be combined with various other persons.
 
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: centre;"
|+ Basic suffixes of the possessive suffixes
!colspan ="3" | category
!colspan ="1" | suffix
|-
|-
!neutral
!colspan ="3" style="text-align: left;" | singular
||
|| Ø
||-lpV-
|colspan ="4" |-lpsV- / -lbzV-
|-
|-
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="1" |formal
!colspan ="3" style="text-align: left;" | dual
!masculine
||-t
||
||-rmV-
|colspan ="4" |-rmzV-
|-
|-
!feminine
!colspan ="3" style="text-align: left;" | plural
||
||-s
||-rfV-
|colspan ="4" |-rvzV-
|-
|-
!neutral
!colspan ="3"  style="text-align: left;" | 1. person
||
||-b
||-rpV-
|-
|colspan ="4" |-rpsV- / -rbzV-
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="2"  style="text-align: left;" | 2. person
!colspan ="1" | formal
||-r
|-
!colspan ="1" | informal
||-l
|-
|-
!rowspan ="4" | 3.Person
! rowspan ="4" colspan ="1"  style="text-align: left;" | 3.person
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="2" | animate
! rowspan ="3" colspan "1" | animate
!masculine  
!masculine
||-m-
||-m
||-mt-
|colspan ="4" | -mz-
|-
|-
!feminine
!feminine
||-f-
||-f
||-ft-
|colspan ="4" | -fs-
|-
|-
!neutral
!neutral
||-p-
||-p < *mp < *mf
||-pt-
|colspan ="4" | -ps-
|-
!rowspan ="1" colspan ="3" | inanimate
||-n-
||-nt-
|colspan ="4" | -nz-
|-
|-
! rowspan ="1" colspan ="1" |inanimate
!object
||-n
|}
|}
A general formular for composing the suffixes cannot be given, hower there some tendency visible:
1. The speaker / person addressed appears first and gives the first element of complex suffixes.
2. The plural / dual suffix is the last to be attached.
3. The plural suffix is voiced when possible
4. The dual suffix is almost never voiced, except /b_
5. Additional persons are placed in between.
6. An exception to this rule are the first person plural + 1 suffixes which indicate a group of people (we)with another single person. Here the extra person is mentioned first hand and the 'group'-suffix is rendered afterwards. This difference in ordering is due to phonotactic rules that prohibit the following of a sibilant by another sibilant, nasal or plosive sound.
7. Inanimate objects are never combined with animate suffixes.




{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Overview of possessive suffixes [colloquial language]
|+ Overview of possessive suffixes [standard language]
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="4"|
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="4"|
!rowspan ="2" |Singular
!rowspan ="2" | Singular
!rowspan ="2" | Dual
!rowspan ="2" | Dual
!colspan ="4" | Plural
!colspan ="4" | Plural
Line 1,382: Line 1,393:
!colspan ="3" | general
!colspan ="3" | general
||-b-  
||-b-  
||-dd- / -d-  
||-bd- / -dd- [bd < *bt]
|colspan ="4" | -z- / -ž- (-bž-)
|colspan ="4" | -bz- / -zz-
|-
|-
!rowspan = "2" colspan ="2" | inclusive
!rowspan = "2" colspan ="2" | inclusive
Line 1,390: Line 1,401:
||-lb-  
||-lb-  
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
|colspan ="3" | -lž- / -lbž-
|colspan ="3" | -lbz-
|-
|-
!formal
!formal
Line 1,396: Line 1,407:
||-rb-  
||-rb-  
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
|colspan ="3" | -rž- / -rbž-
|colspan ="3" | -rbz-
|-
|-
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="2" | exclusive
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="2" | exclusive
Line 1,403: Line 1,414:
||-mb- < -m- + -b-  
||-mb- < -m- + -b-  
||
||
||-mž-
||-mbz-
||-mdž- < *mtbž < *mtbz [d < tb]
||-mdž- < *mtbž < *mtbz [d < tb]
||-zbž- < *msbž < *msbz
||-zbž- < *msbž < *msbz
Line 1,411: Line 1,422:
||-vb- < -f- + -b-  
||-vb- < -f- + -b-  
||
||
||-vž-
||-vbz-
||-vdž- < *fdž < *ftbz  
||-vdž- < *fdž < *ftbž < *ftbz
||-sbž- < *fsbž < *fsbz
||-sbž- < *fsbž < *fsbz
|-
|-
Line 1,419: Line 1,430:
||-bb- < -p + -b-
||-bb- < -p + -b-
||
||
||-bž-
||-bbz-
||-bdž- < *ptbž [d < tb]
||-bdž- < *ptbž
||-spš- < *sps
||-spš- < *sps
|-
|-
Line 1,428: Line 1,439:
||-l-
||-l-
||-lt-
||-lt-
|colspan ="4" | -lš-
|colspan ="4" | -lz-
|-
|-
!formal
!formal
||-r-
||-r-
||-rt-
||-rt-
|colspan ="4" | -rš-
|colspan ="4" | -rz-
|-
|-
!rowspan ="6" colspan ="1" | exclusive
!rowspan ="6" colspan ="1" | exclusive
Line 1,440: Line 1,451:
||
||
||-lmV-  
||-lmV-  
|colspan ="4" |-lmšV-
|colspan ="4" |-lmzV-
|-
|-
!feminine
!feminine
||
||
||-lfV-
||-lfV-
|colspan ="4" |-lfšV-
|colspan ="4" |-lvzV-
|-
|-
!neutral
!neutral
||
||
||-lpV-
||-lpV-
|colspan ="4" |-lpšV-
|colspan ="4" |-lpsV- / -lbzV-
|-
|-
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="1" |formal
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="1" |formal
Line 1,456: Line 1,467:
||
||
||-rmV-
||-rmV-
|colspan ="4" |-rmšV-
|colspan ="4" |-rmzV-
|-
|-
!feminine
!feminine
||
||
||-rfV-
||-rfV-
|colspan ="4" |-rfšV-
|colspan ="4" |-rvzV-
|-
|-
!neutral
!neutral
||
||
||-rpV-
||-rpV-
|colspan ="4" |-rpšV-  
|colspan ="4" |-rpsV- / -rbzV-
|-
|-
!rowspan ="4" | 3.Person
!rowspan ="4" | 3.Person
Line 1,473: Line 1,484:
||-m-
||-m-
||-mt-
||-mt-
|colspan ="4" | -mš-
|colspan ="4" | -mz-
|-
|-
!feminine
!feminine
||-f-
||-f-
||-ft-
||-ft-
|colspan ="4" | -fš-
|colspan ="4" | -fs-
|-
|-
!neutral
!neutral
||-p-
||-p-
||-pt-
||-pt-
|colspan ="4" | -pš-
|colspan ="4" | -ps-
|-
|-
!rowspan ="1" colspan ="3" | inanimate
!rowspan ="1" colspan ="3" | inanimate
||-n-
||-n-
||-nt-
||-nt-
|colspan ="4" | -nš-
|colspan ="4" | -nz-
|-
|-
|}
|}


The difference between standard and colloquial language is mainly a  difference in the plural suffix (standard: -s- / -z- (rarely -ž-), colloquial: -š- / -ž- (in general after /b/, which falls out)). First persona general forms are even more reduced, very often to just one letter: -b- (singular), -d- (dual), -z- / -ž- (plural). A more formal colloquial language retains the geminated -dd- (dual) and the plural suffix -bž-. The overall number of categories is the same, independently of standard or colloquial language. This indicates that these categories are well established and vastly accepted by the speakers.


===''Modal particles''===
A general formular for composing the suffixes cannot be given, hower there some tendency visible:
 
1. The speaker / person addressed appears first and gives the first element of complex suffixes.
 
2. The plural / dual suffix is the last to be attached.
 
3. The plural suffix is voiced when possible
 
4. The dual suffix is almost never voiced, except /b_
 
5. Additional persons are placed in between.
 
6. An exception to this rule are the first person plural + 1 suffixes which indicate a group of people (we)with another single person. Here the extra person is mentioned first hand and the 'group'-suffix is rendered afterwards. This difference in ordering is due to phonotactic rules that prohibit the following of a sibilant by another sibilant, nasal or plosive sound.
 
7. Inanimate objects are never combined with animate suffixes.
 


These particles do not only appear in nouns but are also used in verbal construction. They encompass different types of lexical particles, e.g. conjunctions, particles of degree and so on. This means the particles in this category have different functions but have one common place to be put into in each noun or noun phrase. Therefore, they are grouped under this term.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!suffix !! meaning !! example !! translation
|+ Overview of possessive suffixes [colloquial language]
|-ya ||already || bukíya || [I have read] the book already
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="4"|
!rowspan ="2" |Singular
!rowspan ="2" | Dual
!colspan ="4" | Plural
|-
|-
||-te || only || kaf balíte || [I take] only one coffee
||Dual +1
||Plural + 1
||Plural + 2
||Plural + 3+
|-
|-
||-ti || almost || šitsilíti || [he hit] almost the girl
!rowspan ="6" | 1. Person
!colspan ="3" | general
||-b-
||-dd- / -d-
|colspan ="4" | -z- / -ž- (-bž-)
|-
|-
||-mu || extreme || fit grandíikmu || an extrem big fish
!rowspan = "2" colspan ="2" | inclusive
!informal
||
||-lb-
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
|colspan ="3" | -lž- / -lbž-
|-
|-
||-(g)ee || and || Petéer Páulee || Peter and Paul
!formal
||
||-rb-
||-dmV- / -dvV- / -dbV- [d < *bd]
|colspan ="3" | -rž- / -rbž-
|-
|-
||-(g)ee ... -(g)ee || both ... and ... || Petéeree Páulee || both Peter and Paul
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="2" | exclusive
!masculine
||
||-mb- < -m- + -b-  
||
||-mž-
||-mdž- < *mtbž < *mtbz [d < tb]
||-zbž- < *msbž < *msbz
|-
|-
||-(g)uu || or || Petéer Páuluu || Peter or Paul
!feminine
|-
||
||-(g)uu ... -(g)uu || either ... or ... ||Petéeruu Páuluu || either Peter or Paul
||-vb- < -f- + -b-
||
||-vž-
||-vdž- < *fdž < *ftbz
||-sbž- < *fsbž < *fsbz
|-
|-
||-ba || maybe, perheps || ? || ?
!neutral
||
||-bb- < -p + -b-
||
||-bž-
||-bdž- < *ptbž [d < tb]
||-spš- < *sps
|-
|-
||-la || possibly || ? || ?
!rowspan ="8" | 2. Person
!rowspan ="2" colspan ="2" | inclusive
!informal
||-l-
||-lt-
|colspan ="4" | -lš-
|-
|-
||-le ||completely, the whole; not at all || ? || ?
!formal
||-r-
||-rt-
|colspan ="4" | -rš-
|-
|-
||-no || yet / not yet || ? || ?
!rowspan ="6" colspan ="1" | exclusive
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="1" | informal
!masculine
||
||-lmV-
|colspan ="4" |-lmšV-
|-
|-
||-(g)ii || too, also || Petéerii || Peter, too
!feminine
|-
||
||-mö || much || níifmö || much snow
||-lfV-
|colspan ="4" |-lfšV-
|-
!neutral
||
||-lpV-
|colspan ="4" |-lpšV-
|-
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="1" |formal
!masculine
||
||-rmV-
|colspan ="4" |-rmšV-
|-
!feminine
||
||-rfV-
|colspan ="4" |-rfšV-
|-
|-
||-ve || very || váad koldíikve || very cold water
!neutral
|}
||
 
||-rpV-
 
|colspan ="4" |-rpšV-
===''Examples / sáams''===
|-
 
!rowspan ="4" | 3.Person
kozdudannotúbabagee
!rowspan ="3" colspan ="2" | animate
 
!masculine
ko-STUDAN-[n]ot-ú-ba-ba-ee
||-m-
 
||-mt-
with-STUDENT-all-ess.-1.sg.-gen.-maybe-and
|colspan ="4" | -mš-
 
|-
"and maybe with all my students"
!feminine
 
||-f-
 
||-ft-
kååpáfa mevaabotúnotiguu
|colspan ="4" | -fš-
 
|-
kååp-á-f-a | me-FAAB-ot-ú-n-o-ti-uu
!neutral
 
||-p-
BODY-gen.-3.sg.anim.fem.-gen. | instr.-FIBRE-every-essive-3.sg.inam.-loc.-almost-or
||-pt-
|colspan ="4" | -pš-
|-
!rowspan ="1" colspan ="3" | inanimate
||-n-
||-nt-
|colspan ="4" | -nš-
|-
|}


"or with every fibre of her body."
The difference between standard and colloquial language is mainly a  difference in the plural suffix (standard: -s- / -z- (rarely -ž-), colloquial: -š- / -ž- (in general after /b/, which falls out)). First persona general forms are even more reduced, very often to just one letter: -b- (singular), -d- (dual), -z- / -ž- (plural). A more formal colloquial language retains the geminated -dd- (dual) and the plural suffix -bž-. The overall number of categories is the same, independently of standard or colloquial language. This indicates that these categories are well established and vastly accepted by the speakers.


==='''Nummerals / Nȕüms'''===
===''Modal particles''===


 
These particles do not only appear in nouns but are also used in verbal construction. They encompass different types of lexical particles, e.g. conjunctions, particles of degree and so on. This means the particles in this category have different functions but have one common place to be put into in each noun or noun phrase. Therefore, they are grouped under this term.
The numeral system in Volapȕük nulíik consists of cardinal and ordinal numbers. Both types of numbers are part of the larger realm of nouns. The original counting system is a decimal system with seperate words for ''hundred'' and ''thousand''. Due to the immigration of Inuit and Irish a vigesimal system has evolved. This system has a fixed range of uses, especially counting people, units of time [years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds, the age of a person]. Due the presence of two counting systems and the speakers' ability to switch between the two systems, the development of a third system has taken place. this system is not officially regulated but depends on the individual abillity of every speaker two switch between the two systems. This third system presents itself as a mixture between decimal and vigesimal to varying degrees and replacements. In general, the tens are kept in the vigesimal and the hundreds, thousens and so one are used in decimal. However, different collocations are possible, too. This third system is an integer part of colloquial speech and will be avoided completely in the written and official language. In recent years, it has become a dominant system to count non-human animate entities, such as animals and plants. In the written language, these have to be counted in decimal, not vigesimal.
 
 
'''The basic numbers'''
 
The basic numbers include the numbers from 0 to 20. These numbers do not change, independently of the counting system. The numbers from 0 to 10 are monosyllabic and have a short vowel.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
!suffix !! meaning !! example !! translation
|-ya ||already || bukíya || [I have read] the book already
|-
||-te || only || kaf balíte || [I take] only one coffee
|-
|-
| 0 || ser || - || zero
||-ti || almost || šitsilíti || [he hit] almost the girl
|-
|-
|| 1 || bal || - || one
||-mu || extreme || fit grandíikmu || an extrem big fish
|-
|-
|| 2 || tel || - || two
||-(g)ee || and || Petéer Páulee || Peter and Paul
|-
|-
|| 3 || kil || - || three
||-(g)ee ... -(g)ee || both ... and ... || Petéeree Páulee || both Peter and Paul
|-
|-
|| 4 || fol || - || four
||-(g)uu || or || Petéer Páuluu || Peter or Paul
|-
|-
|| 5 || lul || - || five
||-(g)uu ... -(g)uu || either ... or ... ||Petéeruu Páuluu || either Peter or Paul
|-
|-
|| 6 || mäl || - || six
||-ba || maybe, perheps || ? || ?
|-
|-
|| 7 || vel || - || seven
||-la || possibly || ? || ?
|-
|-
|| 8 || šöl || - || eight
||-le ||completely, the whole; not at all || ? || ?
|-
|-
|| 9 || tsül || - || nine
||-no || yet / not yet || ? || ?
|-
|-
|| 10 || deg || - || ten
||-(g)ii || too, also || Petéerii || Peter, too
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
| 11 || degbal || debal || eleven
||-mö || much || níifmö || much snow
|-
|-
|| 12 || dektel || dekel || twelve
||-ve || very || váad koldíikve || very cold water
|-
|| 13 || dekkil || dekil || thirteen
|-
|| 14 || dekfol || defol || fourteen
|-
|| 15 || deglul || delul || fifteen
|-
|| 16 || degmäl || demäl || sixteen
|-
|| 17 || degvel || devel / devvel || seventeen
|-
|| 18 || dekšöl || dešöl || eighteen
|-
|| 19 || dektsül || detsül / desül || nineteen
|-
|| 20 || telđeg || teleg / teeg || twenty
|}
|}


The short form ''teeg'' is the basis of the vigesimal system. This number has led to a colloquial short form of tens.


{| class="wikitable"
===''Examples / sáams''===
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
 
|-
kozdudannotúbabagèe
| 21 || telegbal || teegbal / teebal || twenty-one
 
ko-STUDAN-[n]ot-ú-bi-ba-èe
 
with-STUDENT-all-ess.-1.sg.-acc.-maybe-and
 
"and maybe with all my students"
 
 
kååpáfa mevaabotúnotigùu
 
kååp-á-f-a | me-FAAB-ot-ú-n-o-ti-uu
 
BODY-gen.-3.sg.anim.fem.-gen. | instr.-FIBRE-every-essive-3.sg.inam.-loc.-almost-or
 
"or with every fibre of her body."
 
==='''Nummerals / Nȕüms'''===
 
 
The numeral system in Volapȕük nulíik consists of cardinal and ordinal numbers. Both types of numbers are part of the larger realm of nouns. The original counting system is a decimal system with seperate words for ''hundred'' and ''thousand''. Due to the immigration of Inuit and Irish a vigesimal system has evolved. This system has a fixed range of uses, especially counting people, units of time [years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds, the age of a person]. Due the presence of two counting systems and the speakers' ability to switch between the two systems, the development of a third system has taken place. this system is not officially regulated but depends on the individual abillity of every speaker two switch between the two systems. This third system presents itself as a mixture between decimal and vigesimal to varying degrees and replacements. In general, the tens are kept in the vigesimal and the hundreds, thousens and so one are used in decimal. However, different collocations are possible, too. This third system is an integer part of colloquial speech and will be avoided completely in the written and official language. In recent years, it has become a dominant system to count non-human animate entities, such as animals and plants. In the written language, these have to be counted in decimal, not vigesimal.
 
 
'''The basic numbers'''
 
The basic numbers include the numbers from 0 to 20. These numbers do not change, independently of the counting system. The numbers from 0 to 10 are monosyllabic and have a short vowel.
 
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
|| 22 || telektel || teektel / teetel || twenty-two
| 0 || ser || - || zero
|-
|-
|| 23 || telekkil || teekkil / teekil || twenty-three
|| 1 || bal || - || one
|-
|-
|| 24 || telekfol || teekfol / teefol || twenty-four
|| 2 || tel || - || two
|-
|-
|| 25 || teleglul || teeglul / teelul || twenty-five
|| 3 || kil || - || three
|-
|-
|| 26 || telegmäl || teegmäl / teemäl || twenty-six
|| 4 || fol || - || four
|-
|-
|| 27 || telegvel || teegvel / teevel || twenty-seven
|| 5 || lul || - || five
|-
|-
|| 28 || telekšöl || teekšöl / teešöl || twenty-eight
|| 6 || mäl || - || six
|-
|| 7 || vel || - || seven
|-
|| 8 || šöl || - || eight
|-
|-
|| 29 || telektsül || teektsül / teetsül / teesül [slang] || twenty-nine
|| 9 || tsül || - || nine
|-
|-
|| 30 || kilđeg [teegdeg] || kileg / kiig || thirty
|| 10 || deg || - || ten
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
!Numerical value !! Word !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
| 31 || kilegbal [tee[g]de[g]bal / teedeg bal] || kiigbal / kiibal || thirty-one
| 11 || degbal || debal || eleven
|-
|-
|| 32 || kilektel [tee[g]de[k]tel / teedeg tel] || kiiktel / kiitel || thirty-two
|| 12 || dektel || dekel || twelve
|-
|-
|| 33 || kilekkil [tee[g]de[k]kil / teedeg kil] || kiikkil / kiikil || thirty-three
|| 13 || dekkil || dekil || thirteen
|-
|-
|| 34 || kilekfol [tee[g]de[k]fol / teedeg fol] || kiikfol / kiifol || thirty-four
|| 14 || dekfol || defol || fourteen
|-
|-
|| 35 || kileglul [tee[g]de[g]lul / teedeg lul] || kiiglul / kiilul || thirty-five
|| 15 || deglul || delul || fifteen
|-
|-
|| 36 || kilegmäl [tee[g]de[g]mäl / teedeg mäl] || kiigmäl / kiimäl || thirty-six
|| 16 || degmäl || demäl || sixteen
|-
|-
|| 37 || kilegvel [tee[g]de[g]vel / teedeg vel] || kiigvel / kiivel || thirty-seven
|| 17 || degvel || devel / devvel || seventeen
|-
|-
|| 38 || kilekšöl [tee[g]de[k]šöl / teedeg šöl] || kiikšöl / kiišöl || thirty-eight
|| 18 || dekšöl || dešöl || eighteen
|-
|-
|| 39 || kilektsül [tee[g]de[k]tsül / teedeg tsül] || kiiktsül / kiitsül / kiisül [slang] || thirty-nine
|| 19 || dektsül || detsül / desül || nineteen
|-
|-
|| 40 || folđeg [teldeeg] || foleg / foog || fourty
|| 20 || telđeg || teleg / teeg || twenty
|}
|}
The short form ''teeg'' is the basis of the vigesimal system. This number has led to a colloquial short form of tens.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
| 41 || folegbal [teldee[g]bal / teldeeg bal] || foogbal / foobal || fourty-one
| 21 || telegbal || teegbal / teebal || twenty-one
|-
|-
|| 42 || folektel [teldee[k]tel / teldeeg tel] || fooktel / footel || fourty-two
|| 22 || telektel || teektel / teetel || twenty-two
|-
|-
|| 43 || folekkil [teldee[k]kil / teldeeg kil] || fookkil / fookil || fourty-three
|| 23 || telekkil || teekkil / teekil || twenty-three
|-
|-
|| 44 || folekfol [teldee[k]fol / teldeeg fol] || fookfol / foofol || fourty-four
|| 24 || telekfol || teekfol / teefol || twenty-four
|-
|-
|| 45 || foleglul [teldee[g]lul / teldeeg lul] || fooglul / foolul || fourty-five
|| 25 || teleglul || teeglul / teelul || twenty-five
|-
|-
|| 46 || folegmäl [teldee[g]mäl / teldeeg mäl] || foogmäl / foomäl || fourty-six
|| 26 || telegmäl || teegmäl / teemäl || twenty-six
|-
|-
|| 47 || folegvel [teldee[g]vel / teldeeg vel] || foogvel / foovel || fourty-seven
|| 27 || telegvel || teegvel / teevel || twenty-seven
|-
|-
|| 48 || folekšöl [teldee[k]šöl / teldeeg šöl] || fookšöl / foošöl || fourty-eight
|| 28 || telekšöl || teekšöl / teešöl || twenty-eight
|-
|-
|| 49 || folektsül [teldee[k]tsül / teldeeg tsül] || fooktsül / footsül / foosül [slang] || fourty-nine
|| 29 || telektsül || teektsül / teetsül / teesül [slang] || twenty-nine
|-
|-
|| 50 || lulđeg [teldee[g]deg] || luleg / luug || fifty
|| 30 || kilđeg [teegdeg] || kileg / kiig || thirty
|}
|}


Line 1,688: Line 1,795:
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
| 51 || lulegbal [teldeeg de[g]bal] || luugbal / luubal || fifty-one
| 31 || kilegbal [tee[g]de[g]bal / teedeg bal] || kiigbal / kiibal || thirty-one
|-
|-
|| 52 || lulektel [teldeeg de[k]tel] || luuktel / luutel || fifty-two
|| 32 || kilektel [tee[g]de[k]tel / teedeg tel] || kiiktel / kiitel || thirty-two
|-
|-
|| 53 || lulekkil [teldeeg de[k]kil] || luukkil / luukil || fifty-three
|| 33 || kilekkil [tee[g]de[k]kil / teedeg kil] || kiikkil / kiikil || thirty-three
|-
|-
|| 54 || lulekfol [teldeeg de[k]fol] || luukfol / luufol || fifty-four
|| 34 || kilekfol [tee[g]de[k]fol / teedeg fol] || kiikfol / kiifol || thirty-four
|-
|-
|| 55 || luleglul [teldeeg de[g]lul] || luuglul / luulul || fifty-five
|| 35 || kileglul [tee[g]de[g]lul / teedeg lul] || kiiglul / kiilul || thirty-five
|-
|-
|| 56 || lulegmäl [teldeeg de[g]mäl] || luugmäl / luumäl || fifty-six
|| 36 || kilegmäl [tee[g]de[g]mäl / teedeg mäl] || kiigmäl / kiimäl || thirty-six
|-
|-
|| 57 || lulegvel [teldeeg de[g]vel] || luugvel / luuvel || fifty-seven
|| 37 || kilegvel [tee[g]de[g]vel / teedeg vel] || kiigvel / kiivel || thirty-seven
|-
|-
|| 58 || lulekšöl [teldeeg de[k]šöl] || luukšöl / luušöl || fifty-eight
|| 38 || kilekšöl [tee[g]de[k]šöl / teedeg šöl] || kiikšöl / kiišöl || thirty-eight
|-
|-
|| 59 || lulektsül [teldeeg de[k][t]sül] || luuktsül / luutsül / luusül [slang] || fifty-nine
|| 39 || kilektsül [tee[g]de[k]tsül / teedeg tsül] || kiiktsül / kiitsül / kiisül [slang] || thirty-nine
|-
|-
|| 60 || mälđeg [kildeeg] || mäleg / määg || sixty
|| 40 || folđeg [teldeeg] || foleg / foog || fourty
|}
|}


Line 1,712: Line 1,819:
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
| 61 || mälegbal [kildee[g]bal / kildeeg bal] || määgbal / määbal || sixty-one
| 41 || folegbal [teldee[g]bal / teldeeg bal] || foogbal / foobal || fourty-one
|-
|-
|| 62 || mälektel [kildee[k]tel / kildeeg tel] || määktel / määtel || sixty-two
|| 42 || folektel [teldee[k]tel / teldeeg tel] || fooktel / footel || fourty-two
|-
|-
|| 63 || mälekkil [kildee[k]kil / kildeeg kil] || määkkil / määkil || sixty-three
|| 43 || folekkil [teldee[k]kil / teldeeg kil] || fookkil / fookil || fourty-three
|-
|-
|| 64 || mälekfol [kildee[k]fol / kildeeg fol] || määkfol / määfol || sixty-four
|| 44 || folekfol [teldee[k]fol / teldeeg fol] || fookfol / foofol || fourty-four
|-
|-
|| 65 || mäleglul [kildee[g]lul / kildeeg lul] || määglul / määlul || sixty-five
|| 45 || foleglul [teldee[g]lul / teldeeg lul] || fooglul / foolul || fourty-five
|-
|-
|| 66 || mälegmäl [kildee[g]mäl / kildeeg mäl] || määgmäl / määmäl || sixty-six
|| 46 || folegmäl [teldee[g]mäl / teldeeg mäl] || foogmäl / foomäl || fourty-six
|-
|-
|| 67 || mälegvel [kildee[g]vel / kildeeg vel] || määgvel / määvel || sixty-seven
|| 47 || folegvel [teldee[g]vel / teldeeg vel] || foogvel / foovel || fourty-seven
|-
|-
|| 68 || mälekšöl [kildee[k]šöl / kildeeg šöl] || määkšöl / määšöl || sixty-eight
|| 48 || folekšöl [teldee[k]šöl / teldeeg šöl] || fookšöl / foošöl || fourty-eight
|-
|-
|| 69 || mälektsül [kildee[k][t]sül / kildeeg tsül] || määktsül / määtsül / määsül [slang] || sixty-nine
|| 49 || folektsül [teldee[k]tsül / teldeeg tsül] || fooktsül / footsül / foosül [slang] || fourty-nine
|-
|-
|| 70 || velđeg [kildee[g]deg] || veleg / veeg || seventy
|| 50 || lulđeg [teldee[g]deg] || luleg / luug || fifty
|}
|}


Line 1,736: Line 1,843:
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
| 71 || velegbal [kildeeg de[g]bal] || veegbal / veebal || seventy-one
| 51 || lulegbal [teldeeg de[g]bal] || luugbal / luubal || fifty-one
|-
|-
|| 72 || velektel [kildeeg de[k]tel] || veektel / veetel || seventy-two
|| 52 || lulektel [teldeeg de[k]tel] || luuktel / luutel || fifty-two
|-
|-
|| 73 || velekkil [kildeeg de[k]kil] || veekkil / veekil || seventy-three
|| 53 || lulekkil [teldeeg de[k]kil] || luukkil / luukil || fifty-three
|-
|-
|| 74 || velekfol [kildeeg de[k]fol] || veekfol / veefol || seventy-four
|| 54 || lulekfol [teldeeg de[k]fol] || luukfol / luufol || fifty-four
|-
|-
|| 75 || veleglul [kildeeg de[g]lul] || veeglul / veelul || seventy-five
|| 55 || luleglul [teldeeg de[g]lul] || luuglul / luulul || fifty-five
|-
|-
|| 76 || velegmäl [kildeeg de[g]mäl] || veegmäl / veemäl || seventy-six
|| 56 || lulegmäl [teldeeg de[g]mäl] || luugmäl / luumäl || fifty-six
|-
|-
|| 77 || velegvel [kildeeg de[g]vel] || veegvel / veevel || seventy-seven
|| 57 || lulegvel [teldeeg de[g]vel] || luugvel / luuvel || fifty-seven
|-
|-
|| 78 || velekšöl [kildeeg de[k]šöl] || veekšöl / veešöl || seventy-eight
|| 58 || lulekšöl [teldeeg de[k]šöl] || luukšöl / luušöl || fifty-eight
|-
|-
|| 79 || velektsül [kildeeg de[k][t]sül] || veektsül / veetsül / veesül [slang] || seventy-nine
|| 59 || lulektsül [teldeeg de[k][t]sül] || luuktsül / luutsül / luusül [slang] || fifty-nine
|-
|-
|| 80 || šölđeg [foldeeg] || šöleg / šöög || sixty
|| 60 || mälđeg [kildeeg] || mäleg / määg || sixty
|}
|}


Line 1,760: Line 1,867:
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
| 81 || šölegbal [foldee[g]bal / foldeeg bal] || šöögbal / šööbal || eighty-one
| 61 || mälegbal [kildee[g]bal / kildeeg bal] || määgbal / määbal || sixty-one
|-
|-
|| 82 || šölektel [foldee[k]tel / foldeeg tel] || šööktel / šöötel || eighty-two
|| 62 || mälektel [kildee[k]tel / kildeeg tel] || määktel / määtel || sixty-two
|-
|-
|| 83 || šölekkil [foldee[k]kil / foldeeg kil] || šöökkil / šöökil || eighty-three
|| 63 || mälekkil [kildee[k]kil / kildeeg kil] || määkkil / määkil || sixty-three
|-
|-
|| 84 || šölekfol [foldee[k]fol / foldeeg fol] || šöökfol / määfol || eighty-four
|| 64 || mälekfol [kildee[k]fol / kildeeg fol] || määkfol / määfol || sixty-four
|-
|-
|| 85 || šöleglul [foldee[g]lul / foldeeg lul] || šööglul / šöölul || eighty-five
|| 65 || mäleglul [kildee[g]lul / kildeeg lul] || määglul / määlul || sixty-five
|-
|-
|| 86 || šölegmäl [foldee[g]mäl / foldeeg mäl] || šöögmäl / šöömäl || eighty-six
|| 66 || mälegmäl [kildee[g]mäl / kildeeg mäl] || määgmäl / määmäl || sixty-six
|-
|-
|| 87 || šölegvel [foldee[g]vel / foldeeg vel] || šöögvel / šöövel || eighty-seven
|| 67 || mälegvel [kildee[g]vel / kildeeg vel] || määgvel / määvel || sixty-seven
|-
|-
|| 88 || šölekšöl [foldee[k]šöl / foldeeg šöl] || šöökšöl / šööšöl || eighty-eight
|| 68 || mälekšöl [kildee[k]šöl / kildeeg šöl] || määkšöl / määšöl || sixty-eight
|-
|-
|| 89 || šölektsül [foldee[k][t]sül / foldeeg tsül] || šööktsül / šöötsül / šöösül [slang] || eighty-nine
|| 69 || mälektsül [kildee[k][t]sül / kildeeg tsül] || määktsül / määtsül / määsül [slang] || sixty-nine
|-
|-
|| 90 || tsülđeg [foldee[g]deg] || tsüleg / tsüüg || ninety
|| 70 || velđeg [kildee[g]deg] || veleg / veeg || seventy
|}
|}


Line 1,784: Line 1,891:
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
| 91 || tsülegbal [foldeeg de[g]bal] || tsüügbal / tsüübal || ninety-one
| 71 || velegbal [kildeeg de[g]bal] || veegbal / veebal || seventy-one
|-
|-
|| 92 || tsülektel [foldeeg de[k]tel] || tsüüktel / tsüütel || ninety-two
|| 72 || velektel [kildeeg de[k]tel] || veektel / veetel || seventy-two
|-
|-
|| 93 || tsülekkil [foldeeg de[k]kil] || tsüükkil / tsüükil || ninety-three
|| 73 || velekkil [kildeeg de[k]kil] || veekkil / veekil || seventy-three
|-
|-
|| 94 || tsülekfol [foldeeg de[k]fol] || tsüükfol / tsüüfol || ninety-four
|| 74 || velekfol [kildeeg de[k]fol] || veekfol / veefol || seventy-four
|-
|-
|| 95 || tsüleglul [foldeeg de[g]lul] || tsüüglul / tsüülul || ninety-five
|| 75 || veleglul [kildeeg de[g]lul] || veeglul / veelul || seventy-five
|-
|-
|| 96 || tsülegmäl [foldeeg de[g]mäl] || tsüügmäl / tsüümäl || ninety-six
|| 76 || velegmäl [kildeeg de[g]mäl] || veegmäl / veemäl || seventy-six
|-
|-
|| 97 || tsülegvel [foldeeg de[g]vel] || tsüügvel / tsüüvel || ninety-seven
|| 77 || velegvel [kildeeg de[g]vel] || veegvel / veevel || seventy-seven
|-
|-
|| 98 || tsülekšöl [foldeeg de[k]šöl] || tsüükšöl / tsüüšöl || ninety-eight
|| 78 || velekšöl [kildeeg de[k]šöl] || veekšöl / veešöl || seventy-eight
|-
|-
|| 99 || tsülektsül [foldeeg de[k][t]sül] || tsüüktsül / tsüütsül / tsüüsül [slang] || ninety-nine
|| 79 || velektsül [kildeeg de[k][t]sül] || veektsül / veetsül / veesül [slang] || seventy-nine
|-
|-
|| 100 || tum [luldeeg] || baldum || a hundred
|| 80 || šölđeg [foldeeg] || šöleg / šöög || sixty
|}
|}


Line 1,808: Line 1,915:
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
| 101 || tumbal [luldee[g]bal / luldeeg bal] || baldumbal || a hundred and one
| 81 || šölegbal [foldee[g]bal / foldeeg bal] || šöögbal / šööbal || eighty-one
|-
|-
|| 102 || tumtel [luldee[k]tel / luldeeg tel] || baldumtel || a hundred and two
|| 82 || šölektel [foldee[k]tel / foldeeg tel] || šööktel / šöötel || eighty-two
|-
|-
|| 103 || tumkil [luldee[k]kil / luldeeg kil] || baldumkil || a hundred and three
|| 83 || šölekkil [foldee[k]kil / foldeeg kil] || šöökkil / šöökil || eighty-three
|-
|-
|| 104 || tumfol [luldee[k]fol / luldeeg fol] || baldumfol || a hundred and four
|| 84 || šölekfol [foldee[k]fol / foldeeg fol] || šöökfol / määfol || eighty-four
|-
|-
|| 105 || tumlul [luldee[g]lul / luldeeg lul] || baldumlul || a hundred and five
|| 85 || šöleglul [foldee[g]lul / foldeeg lul] || šööglul / šöölul || eighty-five
|-
|-
|| 106 || tummäl [luldee[g]mäl / luldeeg mäl] || baldummäl || a hundred and six
|| 86 || šölegmäl [foldee[g]mäl / foldeeg mäl] || šöögmäl / šöömäl || eighty-six
|-
|-
|| 107 || tumvel [luldee[g]vel / luldeeg vel] || baldumvel || a hundred and seven
|| 87 || šölegvel [foldee[g]vel / foldeeg vel] || šöögvel / šöövel || eighty-seven
|-
|-
|| 108 || tumšöl [luldee[k]šöl / luldeeg šöl] || baldumšöl || a hundred and eight
|| 88 || šölekšöl [foldee[k]šöl / foldeeg šöl] || šöökšöl / šööšöl || eighty-eight
|-
|-
|| 109 || tumtsül [luldee[k][t]sül / luldeeg tsül] || baldumtsül / baldumtsül / baldumsül [slang] || a hundred and nine
|| 89 || šölektsül [foldee[k][t]sül / foldeeg tsül] || šööktsül / šöötsül / šöösül [slang] || eighty-nine
|-
|-
|| 110 || tumdeg [luldee[g]deg / luldeeg deg] || baldumdeg || a hundred and ten
|| 90 || tsülđeg [foldee[g]deg] || tsüleg / tsüüg || ninety
|}
|}


Line 1,832: Line 1,939:
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
| 111 || tum de[g]bal [luldeeg de[g]bal] || baldum de[g]bal || hundred-eleven
| 91 || tsülegbal [foldeeg de[g]bal] || tsüügbal / tsüübal || ninety-one
|-
|-
|| 112 || tum de[k]tel [luldeeg de[k]tel] || baldum de[k]tel || hundred-twelve
|| 92 || tsülektel [foldeeg de[k]tel] || tsüüktel / tsüütel || ninety-two
|-
|-
|| 113 || tum de[k]kil [luldeeg de[k]kil] || baldum de[k]kil || hundred-thirteen
|| 93 || tsülekkil [foldeeg de[k]kil] || tsüükkil / tsüükil || ninety-three
|-
|-
|| 114 || tum de[k]fol [luldeeg de[k]fol] || baldum de[k]fol || hundred-fourteen
|| 94 || tsülekfol [foldeeg de[k]fol] || tsüükfol / tsüüfol || ninety-four
|-
|-
|| 115 || tum de[g]lul [luldeeg de[g]lul] || baldum de[g]lul || hundred-fifteen
|| 95 || tsüleglul [foldeeg de[g]lul] || tsüüglul / tsüülul || ninety-five
|-
|-
|| 116 || tum de[g]mäl [luldeeg de[g]mäl] || baldum de[g]mäl || hundred-sixteen
|| 96 || tsülegmäl [foldeeg de[g]mäl] || tsüügmäl / tsüümäl || ninety-six
|-
|-
|| 117 || tum de[g]vel [luldeeg de[g]vel] || baldum de[g]vel || hundred-seventeen
|| 97 || tsülegvel [foldeeg de[g]vel] || tsüügvel / tsüüvel || ninety-seven
|-
|-
|| 118 || tum de[k]šöl [luldeeg de[k]šöl] || baldum de[k]šöl || hundred-eighteen
|| 98 || tsülekšöl [foldeeg de[k]šöl] || tsüükšöl / tsüüšöl || ninety-eight
|-
|-
|| 119 || tum de[k]tsül [luldeeg de[k][t]sül] || baldum / de[k]tsül / de[t]sül [slang] || hundred-nineteen
|| 99 || tsülektsül [foldeeg de[k][t]sül] || tsüüktsül / tsüütsül / tsüüsül [slang] || ninety-nine
|-
|-
|| 120 || tumteleg [mäldeeg] || baldumteeg || a hundred-twenty
|| 100 || tum [luldeeg] || baldum || a hundred
|}
|}
Besides the vigesimal and decimal system, a second system has developped that is used to express larger numbers. It is based on the basic decimal numbers - deg [10], tum [100] and mil [1000]. These bases are combined with suffixes that are derived from the numbers 1 - 9 and indicate the times the base number is multiplied with itself.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word basic !! suffix !! numerical value
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
|| 1 || bal || -Cab || x^1
| 101 || tumbal [luldee[g]bal / luldeeg bal] || baldumbal || a hundred and one
|-
|-
|| 2 || tel || -Cet || x^2
|| 102 || tumtel [luldee[k]tel / luldeeg tel] || baldumtel || a hundred and two
|-
|-
|| 3 || kil || -Cik || x^3
|| 103 || tumkil [luldee[k]kil / luldeeg kil] || baldumkil || a hundred and three
|-
|-
|| 4 || fol || -Cof || x^4
|| 104 || tumfol [luldee[k]fol / luldeeg fol] || baldumfol || a hundred and four
|-
|-
|| 5 || lul || -Cul || x^5
|| 105 || tumlul [luldee[g]lul / luldeeg lul] || baldumlul || a hundred and five
|-
|-
|| 6 || mäl || -Cäm || x^6
|| 106 || tummäl [luldee[g]mäl / luldeeg mäl] || baldummäl || a hundred and six
|-
|-
|| 7 || vel || -Cev || x^7
|| 107 || tumvel [luldee[g]vel / luldeeg vel] || baldumvel || a hundred and seven
|-
|-
|| 8 || šöl || -Cöš || x^8
|| 108 || tumšöl [luldee[k]šöl / luldeeg šöl] || baldumšöl || a hundred and eight
|-
|-
|| 9 || tsül || -Cüts || x^9
|| 109 || tumtsül [luldee[k][t]sül / luldeeg tsül] || baldumtsül / baldumtsül / baldumsül [slang] || a hundred and nine
|-
|-
|| 10 || deg || -Ceg/-Ced || x^10
|| 110 || tumdeg [luldee[g]deg / luldeeg deg] || baldumdeg || a hundred and ten
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!Suffix !! base 10 [numerical value] !! base 100 [numerical value] !! base 1000 [numerical value]
!Numerical value !! Word [vigesimal] !! Colloquial forms !! Translation
|-
|-
|| [-Cab] || deggab [10] || tummab [100] || millab [1.000]
| 111 || tum de[g]bal [luldeeg de[g]bal] || baldum de[g]bal || hundred-eleven
|-
|-
|| [-Cet] || degget [100] || tummet [10.000] || millet [1.000.000]
|| 112 || tum de[k]tel [luldeeg de[k]tel] || baldum de[k]tel || hundred-twelve
|-
|-
|| [-Cik] || deggik [1.000] || tummik [1.000.000] || millik [1.000.000.000]
|| 113 || tum de[k]kil [luldeeg de[k]kil] || baldum de[k]kil || hundred-thirteen
|-
|-
|| [-Cöf] || deggöf [10.000] || tummöf [100.000.000] || millöf [1.000.000.000.000]
|| 114 || tum de[k]fol [luldeeg de[k]fol] || baldum de[k]fol || hundred-fourteen
|-
|-
|| [-Cul] || deggul [100.000] || tummul [1.000.000.000] || millul [1.000.000.000.000.000]
|| 115 || tum de[g]lul [luldeeg de[g]lul] || baldum de[g]lul || hundred-fifteen
|-
|-
|| [-Cäm] || deggäm [1.000.000] || tummäm [100.000.000.000] || milläm [1.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|| 116 || tum de[g]mäl [luldeeg de[g]mäl] || baldum de[g]mäl || hundred-sixteen
|-
|-
|| [-Cev] ||
|| 117 || tum de[g]vel [luldeeg de[g]vel] || baldum de[g]vel || hundred-seventeen
|-
|-
|| [-Cöš] ||
|| 118 || tum de[k]šöl [luldeeg de[k]šöl] || baldum de[k]šöl || hundred-eighteen
|-
|-
|| [-Cüts] ||
|| 119 || tum de[k]tsül [luldeeg de[k][t]sül] || baldum / de[k]tsül / de[t]sül [slang] || hundred-nineteen
|-
|-
|| [-Ceg/-Ced] ||
|| 120 || tumteleg [mäldeeg] || baldumteeg || a hundred-twenty
|}
|}




Numbers with the suffix -Cab do exist theoretically but are not used neither in written nor in spoken language.
Besides the vigesimal and decimal system, a second system has developped that is used to express larger numbers. It is based on the basic decimal numbers - deg [10], tum [100] and mil [1000]. These bases are combined with suffixes that are derived from the numbers 1 - 9 and indicate the times the base number is multiplied with itself.


The suffixes may also be used for units of surface and space:
{| class="wikitable"
!Numerical value !! Word basic !! suffix !! numerical value
|-
|| 1 || bal || -Cab || x^1
|-
|| 2 || tel || -Cet || x^2
|-
|| 3 || kil || -Cik || x^3
|-
|| 4 || fol || -Cof || x^4
|-
|| 5 || lul || -Cul || x^5
|-
|| 6 || mäl || -Cäm || x^6
|-
|| 7 || vel || -Cev || x^7
|-
|| 8 || šöl || -Cöš || x^8
|-
|| 9 || tsül || -Cüts || x^9
|-
|| 10 || deg || -Ceg/-Ced || x^10
|}


 
{| class="wikitable"
méet [metre] + Cet > *méettet > mettéet 'squaremetre' [m.-et]
!Suffix !! base 10 [numerical value] !! base 100 [numerical value] !! base 1000 [numerical value]
 
|-
 
|| [-Cab] || deggab [10] || tummab [100] || millab [1.000]
méet [metre] + Cik > *méettik > mettíik 'cubic metre' [m.-ik]
|-
|| [-Cet] || degget [100] || tummet [10.000] || millet [1.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cik] || deggik [1.000] || tummik [1.000.000] || millik [1.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cöf] || deggöf [10.000] || tummöf [100.000.000] || millöf [1.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cul] || deggul [100.000] || tummul [1.000.000.000] || millul [1.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cäm] || deggäm [1.000.000] || tummäm [100.000.000.000] || milläm [1.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cev] || deggev [10.000.000] || tummev [100.000.000.000.000] || millev [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cöš] || deggöš [100.000.000] || tummöš [10.000.000.000.000.000] || millöš [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Cüts] || deggüts [1.000.000.000] || tummüts [1.000.000.000.000.000.000] || millüts [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|-
|| [-Ceg/-Ced] || deggeg/degged [10.000.000.000] tummeg / tummed [100.000.000.000.000.000.000] || milleg / milled [1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000]
|}




Since numeral expressions follow the noun, kilo-, mega - a.s.o. are expressed in the format ''unit of measurement''[partitive] + numeral expression. Examples:
Numbers with the suffix -Cab do exist theoretically but are not used neither in written nor in spoken language.


kilometre:
The suffixes may also be used for units of surface and space:


dammetá [metre, part.] + mil > dammetamíil [mm.] 'kilometre' [coll. metíil]


méet [metre] + Cet > *méettet > mettéet 'squaremetre' [m.-et]


daghramá [gram, part.] + mil > daghramamíil [gm.]'kilogram' [coll. gramíil]


metíil [kilometre] + Cet > *metiillet > metilléet 'squarekilometre' [mm.-et]


daghramá [gram, part.] + deggäm > daghramadeggȁäm [gg.] 'ton' [coll. gramȁäm]


metáak [centimetre] + Cet > *metaakket > metakkéet 'squarecentimetre' [mdg.-et]


dametá [metre, part.] + dađegá > dametadađegáak [mdđ.] 'centimetre' [coll. međáak]


méet [metre] + Cik > *méettik > mettíik 'cubic metre' [m.-ik]


dametá [metre, part.] + dammilá > dametadammiláak [mdm.] 'millimetre' [coll. memáak]


metáak [centimetre] + Cik > *metaakkik > metakkíik 'cubic centimetre' [mdg.-ik]


dawatá [watt, part.] + millet > dawatamilléet [vmt.]'megawatt' [coll. vatéet]


metíll [kilometre] + Cik > *metiillik > metillíik 'cubic kilometre' [mm.-ik]


daghramämá [ton, part.] + millet > daghramämamilléet [gmm.] 'megaton' [coll. gramäméet]


Since numeral expressions follow the noun, kilo-, mega - a.s.o. are expressed in the format ''unit of measurement''[partitive] + numeral expression. Examples:


dawatá [watt, part.] + millik > dawatamillíik [vmk.]'gigawatt' [coll. vatíik]


dammetá [metre, part.] + mil > dammetamíil [mm.] 'kilometre' [coll. metíil]


daghramämá [ton, part.] + millik > daghramämamillíik [gmk.]  'gigawatt' [coll. gramämíik]


==='''Verbs/Dunavȍöds'''===
daghramá [gram, part.] + mil > daghramamíil [gm.]'kilogram' [coll. gramíil]




Verbs are the core of every sentence in Volapȕük nulíik. A sentence can be made without any noun but may not lack a verb, be it even an adjective used as a verb. This focus on verbal structures is expressed in that way that verbs normally open a sentence, except e. g. for emphasis. Verbs are so important because they bear a lot of information which allow them to function as single-word sentences. Each verb is built up in a strict manner and though a verb can have several suffixes following the stem and giving special information on space, time and point of view, they all follow the very same structure.
daghramá [gram, part.] + deggäm > daghramadeggȁäm [gg.] 'ton' [coll. gramȁäm]


Verbal structures encompass the following information based on slots:
 
dametá [metre, part.] + dađegá > dametadađegáak [mdđ.] 'dekametre' [coll. međáak]
 
 
dametá [metre, part.]+ dađeggetá > dametadeggetáak [mdg.] 'centimetre' [coll. metáak] 
 
 
dametá [metre, part.] + dammilá > dametadammiláak [mdm.] 'millimetre' [coll. memáak]
 
 
dametá [metre, part.] + dammilletá > dametadammilletáak [mdmt.] 'micrometre' [coll. meláak]
 
 
dametá [metre, part.] + dadummulá > dametadadummuláak [mdtl.] 'nanometre' [coll. medáak]
 
 
dawatá [watt, part.] + millet > dawatamilléet [vmt.]'megawatt' [coll. vatéet]
 
 
daghramämá [ton, part.] + millet > daghramämamilléet [gmm.] 'megaton' [coll. gramäméet]
 
 
dawatá [watt, part.] + millik > dawatamillíik [vmk.]'gigawatt' [coll. vatíik]
 
 
daghramämá [ton, part.] + millik > daghramämamillíik [gmk.]  'gigaton' [coll. gramämíik]
 
==='''Verbs/Dunavȍöds'''===
 
 
Verbs are the core of every sentence in Volapȕük nulíik. A sentence can be made without any noun but may not lack a verb, be it even an adjective used as a verb. This focus on verbal structures is expressed in that way that verbs normally open a sentence, except e. g. for emphasis. Verbs are so important because they bear a lot of information which allow them to function as single-word sentences. Each verb is built up in a strict manner and though a verb can have several suffixes following the stem and giving special information on space, time and point of view, they all follow the very same structure.
 
Verbal structures encompass the following information based on slots:


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
Line 2,135: Line 2,310:
|-
|-
||pri- || <prim- || to start || Prillärngábin Volapük nulikí. 'I start learning Volapȕük nulíik.'
||pri- || <prim- || to start || Prillärngábin Volapük nulikí. 'I start learning Volapȕük nulíik.'
|-
||ro- || <rop- || to interrupt || Rozbikodpábem Hyacinthé. 'I interrupt my conversation with Hyacinth [and continue it later].'
|-
|-
||fi- || <fin- || to end || Firreedgébinfò bukakí. 'I have finally reading this book.'  
||fi- || <fin- || to end || Firreedgébinfò bukakí. 'I have finally reading this book.'  
Line 2,140: Line 2,317:
||ko- || <komand- || to recomend || Korreedvábinel buketí. 'I recommend you reading this book.'
||ko- || <komand- || to recomend || Korreedvábinel buketí. 'I recommend you reading this book.'
|-
|-
||pro- || prom- || to promise || Pronniđaadilamkábvoog. 'I promise to come to your banquet next week.'
||pro- || <prom- || to promise || Pronniđaadilamkábvoog. 'I promise to come to your banquet next week.'
|-
||slu- || <slud- || to decide || Slummerikiglém. 'He has taken the decision to go to America.'
|-
||se- || <sed- || to let, to have done || Sebeneddenbámeb. 'He has the letter written by me.'
|-
||ke- || <koed- || to permit, to refuse to prevent || Keđeadgȁfim. 'She let him die.' [she did nothing to prevent him from dying]
|-
||le- ||<lead- || to permit, to allow || Lenniveriglépsib. 'I was allowed to enter university.' [to enroll in studies]
|}
|}


Line 2,187: Line 2,372:
|-
|-
|| tse- || tsed- || to mean || Tseđitfóbimellà. I think you should leave him.  
|| tse- || tsed- || to mean || Tseđitfóbimellà. I think you should leave him.  
|-
|| ši- || šin- || to appear || Pežiđeedbémep katé. He seems to be killed by the cat.
|}
|}


Line 2,313: Line 2,500:
!valence marker !! suffixes !! case suffix filled in slot VIII !! translation  
!valence marker !! suffixes !! case suffix filled in slot VIII !! translation  
|-
|-
|| accusative || -k- / -g-  || -i- || normally direct object
|| accusative || -k- / -g-  || -i- || normally direct object [also used for negated verbal complexes where it corresponds with genitive.]
|-
|-
|| dative || -p- / -b- || -e- || indirect object, benefective
|| dative || -p- / -b- || -e- || indirect object, benefective, obligative for passive voice
|-
|-
|| accusative-dativ || -f- / -v- || -i- / -e- || direct & indirect object are given
|| accusative-dativ || -f- / -v- || -i- / -e- || direct & indirect object are given
Line 2,321: Line 2,508:


The object of verbs of transformation / abstraction are rendered in this slot via the tranlative, exlative and essive case.
The object of verbs of transformation / abstraction are rendered in this slot via the tranlative, exlative and essive case.
The origin of these suffixes is rather obscure. -p- / -b- seems to be related to the passive prefix ''p-'' and and therefore at the beginning it may have been used as a reinforcement of the passive voice. Later on the relation nominative - dative might have established and then, later on, it has become a valence marker.
The marker for accusative seems to be related to the deictic suffix -k. Probably this suffix was used as a shortening / ellipse structure: Logéb diní at. > Logéb diní ak. > Logéb dinakí. > Logkéb dinakí > Loggéb [dinakí.] > Loggéb diní. If this theory holds true, the suffix denoted at the beginning a definite object and only gradually changed to become a general valence marker. The structure with the direct object being inserted after the subject marker, which is standard nowadays "Loggébin diní." appears roughly at 1500 for the first time and becomes standard within ca. 200 - 300 years. The definite meaning vanishes and is now expressed via the deictic suffixes -ak / -et.


===''Slot IX / Bóok IX''===
===''Slot IX / Bóok IX''===
Line 2,453: Line 2,644:
|-
|-
||-sä || as if || ? || ?
||-sä || as if || ? || ?
|-
||-fä || if only || ? || ?
|-
|-
||-bo/-so || little, not much || Nollärnȁbdäälbo. || I did not study much yesterday.
||-bo/-so || little, not much || Nollärnȁbdäälbo. || I did not study much yesterday.
Line 2,467: Line 2,660:
|-
|-
||-te || only || kaf balíte || [I take] only one coffee
||-te || only || kaf balíte || [I take] only one coffee
|-
||-sö || consequently, so || kvisinbábel, mövidádd. || I cook for you, so we both can eat [together].
|-
||-su || immediately || Robledabsugȍd kođogú gufpabemeegȍd! || Stop playing with the dog immediately and help me!
|}
|}


Line 2,472: Line 2,669:




1. completion of action/time information [-ya | -no | -le | -ti | -tää]
1. completion of action/time information [-ya | -no | -le | -ti | -tää | -sö]


2. emphasis [-te | -ve]
2. emphasis [-te | -ve]
Line 2,508: Line 2,705:


This slot includes suffixes that make the whole following phrase a subordinated clauses. The syntax of subordinated and main clauses does not differ, the question if a clause is a main or a subordinated clause is rather marked by the presence or absence of a subordinated clause marker. A subordinated marker may receive a second stress.
This slot includes suffixes that make the whole following phrase a subordinated clauses. The syntax of subordinated and main clauses does not differ, the question if a clause is a main or a subordinated clause is rather marked by the presence or absence of a subordinated clause marker. A subordinated marker may receive a second stress.
{| class= "bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;"
!suffix !! meaning !! example !! translation
|-
||-bi ||because || Lüvgóbil löfkábilbì. || I leave you because I love you.
|-
||-do ||although || Plödiglábs reenánotdò. || We go outside, although it is raining there.
|-
||-da || that || Saggábin domimakmémda Markus. || I say that Markus has come from his home.
|-
||-ne || without || Lüvém dinonnagémne. || He has left without saying anything.]
|-
||-fi || if || ||
|-
||-ad || in order to || ||
|-
||-(i)bsä || unless || ||
|}


===''Slot XII / Bóok XII ''===
===''Slot XII / Bóok XII ''===
Line 2,720: Line 2,935:




If the person mentioned washes another person of the same gender, the deictic pronoun -k is used:
If the person mentioned washes another person of the same gender, the deictic pronoun -t is used:




"Lavgámik."
"Lavgámit."


LAV-g-á-m-i-k
LAV-g-á-m-i-t


WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.-acc.-3.sg.deic.close
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.sg.anim.masc.-acc.-3.sg.deic.dist.


"He washes him."
"He washes him."


===Co-verb suffixes===


Supposedly upon Inuktitut influence there has been a development of suffixes which were derived from basic verbs and attached to nouns. When attached to nouns, they lengthen the last consonant of the noun / noun phase and by this are seperated from similar derivational suffixes. These new suffixes turned the whole structure into verbs which can be conjugated the same any other verb can be. These verbs encompass verbs of perception (logön, lilön, smelön), basic human activities (drinön, fidön. Most of the nouns they are attached to function as the object of the action and thus are considered accusative objects. In contrast to accusative objects which are used independently, they do not change the case to genitive in a negated sentence nor do they receive any pronominal conjuncture after the subject phrase.
In singular contexts, this procedure is not complicated or causes much problems. In dual or plural contexts, however, more possible constellations are possible and theirfore require a different approach.
Due to phonological restraints (a syllable initial consonant cluster may not involve a long consonant), these suffixes can only be placed after a singular stem. This means that nouns in plural or dual are not licensed for suffixation.  
 
 
1) Each member of group is doing something to themself.  
 
If a group of two, three or more members is undergoing the process of washing and the recipient is identical to the agent, then the doer is in the dual / plural and the recipient is singular:
 
"Lavgápsip."
 
LAV-g-á-ps-i-p
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.neutr.
 
"They wash themselves." [each one individually]


Examples:


"Lavgáptip."


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
LAV-g-á-pt-i-p
!suffix !! etymology !! meaning !! example sentence
 
|-
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.du.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.anim.neutr.
||-Cind || *-rind < *drinön || to drink || Vattindáb niwäreté. vat-TIND-á-b 'I drink water out of a glass.'
 
|-
"They two wash themselves." [each one individually]
||-Cid || *fidön || to eat  || Nommittidábnèe. no-mit-TID-á-b-nèe 'I never eat meat.'
 
|-
 
 
2) Within a group of three or more members, one member is the patient / receiver and all other members are doing the work. In this case the deictic closeness pronoun is used:
 
"Lavgápsik."
 
LAV-g-á-pt-i-k
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.sg.deict.clos.
 
"They wash him." [He is a member of the group].
 
 
3) Within a group of three or more people, each member is washing every other member. This case is considered a case of reflexivity and thus expressed via repetition of the plural subject marker:
 
"Lavgápsips."
 
LAV-g-á-pt-i-ps
 
WASH-val.acc.-pres.-3.pl.anim.neutr.-acc.-3.pl.anim.neutr.
 
"They wash themselves." [every member every other member]
 
===Co-verb suffixes===
 
Supposedly upon Inuktitut influence there has been a development of suffixes which were derived from basic verbs and attached to nouns. When attached to nouns, they lengthen the last consonant of the noun / noun phase and by this are seperated from similar derivational suffixes. These new suffixes turned the whole structure into verbs which can be conjugated the same any other verb can be. These verbs encompass verbs of perception (logön, lilön, smelön), basic human activities (drinön, fidön. Most of the nouns they are attached to function as the object of the action and thus are considered accusative objects. In contrast to accusative objects which are used independently, they do not change the case to genitive in a negated sentence nor do they receive any pronominal conjuncture after the subject phrase.
Due to phonological restraints (a syllable initial consonant cluster may not involve a long consonant), these suffixes can only be placed after a singular stem. This means that nouns in plural or dual are not licensed for suffixation.
 
Examples:
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!suffix !! etymology !! meaning !! example sentence
|-
||-Cind || *-rind < *drinön || to drink || Vattindáb niwäreté. vat-TIND-á-b 'I drink water out of a glass.'
|-
||-Cid || *fidön || to eat  || Nommittidábnèe. no-mit-TID-á-b-nèe 'I never eat meat.'
|-
||-Cet || *getön || to receive || Florretáabeldȍl.  flor-RET-á-b-e-l-dȍl 'I receive flowers from you every day.'
||-Cet || *getön || to receive || Florretáabeldȍl.  flor-RET-á-b-e-l-dȍl 'I receive flowers from you every day.'
|-
|-
Line 2,754: Line 3,017:
||-Cok || *sokön < sukön || to look for || Kikabbokábnu. 'I am looking for my key.'
||-Cok || *sokön < sukön || to look for || Kikabbokábnu. 'I am looking for my key.'
|-
|-
||-Cuv || *tuvön || to find sth. || Kikabbuvébnu. 'I have found my key.'
||-Cuv || *tuvön || to find sth. || Kikabbuvébnu. 'I have found just my key.'
|-
|-
||-Civ || *rivön || to reach || Nisulliváb. nisul-LIV-á-b 'I reach the island.'
||-Civ || *rivön || to reach || Nisulliváb. nisul-LIV-á-b 'I reach the island.'
Line 2,768: Line 3,031:
||-Cek || *meekön || to make [non-food] || Tooddekémš. tood-DEK-é-mš. 'The men have made a car.' [coll.]
||-Cek || *meekön || to make [non-food] || Tooddekémš. tood-DEK-é-mš. 'The men have made a car.' [coll.]
|-
|-
||-Ced || *nedön || to need [sth.] || Nünömmedálksüp? 'Why do you need a computer?'
||-Ced || *nedön || to need [sth.] || Nünömmedálksüp? nünüm-MED-á-l-ksüp 'Why do you need a computer?'
|-
||-Cof || *yofön || to enjoy || Pennofpábef motéba. pen-NOF-p-á-b-e-f 'I enjoy writing my mother.'
|-
||-Cen || *penön || to write || Peneddenáb. pened-DEN-á-b 'I write a letter.'
|-
|-
||-Cof || *yofön || to enjoy || Pennofpábef motéba. 'I enjoy writing my mother.'
||-Cad || *readön || to read || Peneddadáb. pened-DAD-á-b 'I read a letter.'
|-
|-
||-Cen || *penön || to write || Peneddenáb. 'I write a letter.'
||-Cif || *tifön || to steal || Kaparabbifél. kapar-ab-BIF-é-l 'You have stolen my goat.'
|-
|-
||-Cad || *readön || to read || Peneddadáb. 'I read a letter.'
||-Cin || *binön || to exist || Dawatakkináan niđärsätó. 'There is water in the dessert.' Niđärsätokkináan dawatá. 'In the desert, there is water.'
|}  
|-
||-Cüt || *mütön || to cause to do [by force] || Penedakkennütpépsem. 'They have forced him to write this letter.'
|-
||-Cun || *flunön || to influence s.o. || Penedakkennunbépsem. 'They have influenced him to write this letter.'
|-
||-Cag || *sagön || to say, to tell || Konottagbémeb. 'He has told me a story.
|}
 
 
-Cüt / -Cun are also used to create causatives in Volap'üük nulíik.
 
Verbs of motion can also combine with placenames to indicate a motion to or from a certain place. These co-verb suffixes do take either the accusative (-i-) for a movement directed to the place or the dative (-e-) case for movement from this place. The Northern dialect will use the ablative (-ä-) here.
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!suffix !! etymology !! meaning !! example sentence
|-
|| -gl- || *gol- || to go || Merikiglób! 'I'll go to America!'
|-
|| -km- || *köm- || to come || Domilakmél nüdzälülúu. 'You came from [your] home to the party.'
|-
|| -rg- || *rig- || to originate || Helsinkikergáaf. 'She is from Helsinki.' [the generic present is used, since it is an unchangeable fact.]
|-
|| -sl- || *solu- || to die [in a place] || Moskovisléf. 'She has died in Moscow. [the original meaning 'to dissolve' was used as a metaphore of a soul that loses its connection to the material world when a a person dies. Since the original meaning implies a directional movement (dissolve into something), the placename appears in the accusative case.]
|-
|| -bl- || *ble- || to stay || domoblársöd! Stay at home!
|-
|}  




Line 3,054: Line 3,347:
||minúut
||minúut
||šöl-za
||šöl-za
||sekúun
||sekúun
||telđeg-ee
||telđeg-ee
||kontag-áa-n-ad-la
||kontag-áa-n-ad-la
||sola-líit  
||sola-líit  
||tal-á
||tal-á
||su-zürfat-í
||su-zürfat-í
|-
|-
|BE-pres.gen.-3.sg.obj.-pl.
|BE-pres.gen.-3.sg.obj.-pl.
||MINUTE
||MINUTE
||EIGHT-about
||EIGHT-about
||SECOND
||SECOND
||TWENTY-and
||TWENTY-and
||TOUCH-pres.gen.-3.sg.obj.-fin.-subj.
||TOUCH-pres.gen.-3.sg.obj.-fin.-subj.
||SUN-LIGHT
||SUN-LIGHT
||EARTH-gen.
||EARTH-gen.
||on-SURFACE-acc.
||on-SURFACE-acc.
|}
|}
 
 
 
 
'''Greetings'''
 
 
'''Daily greetings'''
 
"Gudikáperös / Gudikápelös Múun." -> Good day. [literally: May the God of time be good to you.]
 
"Slippudólös / Slippudórös dunneetú." -> Good night. [literally: May you sleep good during the night.]
 
"Gudikónös déella." -> Good morning. [literally: May your day be good.]
 
 
Informal greeting:
 
"Dazauná éel / éelt / éels / éelš" [Hello]
"Saun éel / éelt / éelš" [Youth talk / colloquially]


Welcoming someone:


'''Greetings'''
"Gudikékelà nikömelen!" [lit. May your having come in be good]
 
 
'''Daily greetings'''
 
"Gudikáperös / Gudikápelös Múun." -> Good day. [literally: May the God of time be good to you.]
 
"Slippudólös / Slippudórös dunneetú." -> Good night. [literally: May you sleep good during the night.]
 
"Gudikónös déella." -> Good morning. [literally: May your day be good.]
 
 
Informal greeting:
 
"Dazauná éel / éelt / éels / éelš" [Hello]
"Saun éel / éelt / éelš" [Youth talk / colloquially]


'''Thankfulness'''
'''Thankfulness'''
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