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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image =  
|image = Ahba.svg
|imagesize = 100px
|imagesize = 100px
|imagecaption = [[Verse:Ash/Onnawasta|Onnawasta]] emblem of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]]
|name = Ash
|name = Ash
|nativename = ''ahgaa''
|nativename = ''ảhga''
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑ̞ħˌqɑ̞ː]
|pronunciation = [ˈʔɑħˌqə]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|creator = [[User:Prinsessa|Ava Skoog]]
|familycolor = ?
|familycolor = ?
Line 12: Line 13:
==Introduction==
==Introduction==


'''Ash''' (''ahgaa'', lit. "seaspeak", pronounced [ˈʔɑ̞ħˌqɑ̞ː]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of Appa (''ahba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.
'''Ash''' (''ảhga'', lit. "seaspeak", IPA [ˈʔɑħˌqə]) is the anglicised name of a language mostly spoken around coastal areas, notably the town of [[Verse:Ash/Appa|Appa]] (''ảhba''). Its speakers are familiar with technological advancements such as nautical vessels and steam locomotives.


The language is mildly synthetic to polysynthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.
The language is synthetic, largely based around agglutination with fusional elements. There is a great focus on verbs, nominals being mostly uninflected, and significant pro-drop tendencies and a general focus around deixis rather than pronominal distinctions. The word order is heavily SOV.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Line 20: Line 21:
===Phonemes===
===Phonemes===


The underlying sounds of Ash are few enough that a simple listing is preferable to a traditional table:
Due to the small number of underlying sounds in Ash and their high degree of allophonicity, a simple listing of phonemes according to phonotactic patterning is more suitable than a traditional consonant table and vowel trapezium.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Vocalic
! Vocalic
| {{IPA|/a~Ø i~j~Ø u~w~Ø/}}
| {{IPA|/a i~j u~w/}}
|-
|-
! Plosive
! Plosive
Line 32: Line 33:
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ~ɬ t͡s~s/}}
| {{IPA|/t͡ɬ~ɬ t͡s~s/}}
|-
|-
! Fricative
! Glottal
| {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ~h/}}
|-
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
Line 39: Line 40:
|}
|}


The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. The pair or triplet given for each phoneme refers to an alternation between various allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.
The reasoning for this rather unusual classification is down to phonotactic patterning: these five groups all behave somewhat differently and serve as a more useful distinction than point of articulation when describing the phonology of Ash. The pair given for each phoneme refers to an alternation between various allophonic realisations despite the relatively low number of underlying sounds, an important feature of the language that makes the variation richer on the surface. For instance, long vowels (romanised by doubling the vowel) and nasal vowels (romanised using a tilde) are not analysed as phonemic.


===Romanisation===
===Romanisation===


The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following seventeen letters:
The romanisation strikes a balance between representing phonemes versus surface realisations and uses the following letters:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| a
| a
| ã
| ı
| e
| e
| ẽ
| y
| y
| o
| o
| õ
| w
| w
| b
| b
Line 64: Line 63:
| ŋ
| ŋ
|}
|}
Tilde (e.g. '''ã''') is used to mark nasalisation. Hook above (e.g. '''ả''') denotes a word-initial glottal stop.


An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:
An example of a word with its archiphonemic, phonemic and surface transcriptions as well as romanisation:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| {{IPA|//ˈwat.ha.ku//}}
| {{IPA|//iʔ.Vʔˈu.wi//}}
| → {{IPA|/ˈwah.taˌku/}}
| → {{IPA|/ʔiʔˈwu.wi/}}
| → {{IPA|[ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ]}}
| → {{IPA|[çɪʍˈʍʊ͡ɪ̯ː]}}
| → ''oahdago'' "during the day"
| → ''ẻhhoe'' "hungry"
|}
|}


Line 94: Line 95:
===Prosody and stress===
===Prosody and stress===


Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, unless at the end of a word, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.
Prefixes are always unstressed. Following the last stressed syllable an iambic pattern of secondary stress on every other underlyingly light syllable follows unless an underlyingly heavy syllable intervenes, resetting the pattern. In addition, stressed syllables are forced to be heavy either by lengthening of the vowel or reduplication of the next syllable's onset consonant if they are not already underlyingly so.


====Orthographical ambiguity====
===Clusters===


While the stress could sometimes be ambiguous in the romanisation based on spelling alone, basic knowledge of the grammar and what constitutes an unstressed prefix is enough for the reading to be predictable most of the time, and the remaining possible cases are few enough to be memorised on a lexical basis, and so stress is left unmarked.
Depending on the underlying nature of a cluster, various processes take place either on a phonemic (phoneme alternation) or on a phonetic (surface allophony) level. For example, {{IPA|/t/}} merges with {{IPA|/t͡s/}} on the ''phonemic'' level before {{IPA|/i~j/}} or a plosive or an affricate as well as word-finally, but alternates with {{IPA|[ð]}} on the ''phonetic'' level between vowels.


An example is the endonym of the language itself, ''ahgaa'', where ''ah-'' looks like a common unstressed prefix but is in fact stressed; however a corresponding word with the syllable unstressed does not exist and so there is no ambiguity once the word has been learned.
* A nasal or fricative geminates before a glide, assimilating to and eliding it in the process.
* All plosives alternate phonemically with fricatives or affricates before another plosive or an affricate.
* {{IPA|/h~ʔ/}} is a fricative before vowels/glides and plosives but a glottal stop before nasals (as is the case for plosives) and affricates.
* Affricates are deäffricated intervocalically, before other plosives or affricates, word-finally and before nasals (which are prestopped).
* Sibilant palatalisation cascades bidirectionally through clusters; sibilants are also palatalised after {{IPA|/i/}} word-finally and cluster-initially.
 
<div style="float: left">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|/-j/}}
! {{IPA|/-w/}}
|-
! {{IPA|//N-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| {{IPA|[m.m]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ç.ç]}}
| {{IPA|[ʍ.ʍ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡s-//}}
| {{IPA|[ɕ.ɕ]}}
| {{IPA|[s̠.s̠]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t͡ɬ-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʎ.ʎ]}}
| {{IPA|[ɫ.ɫ]}}
|}
</div>
<div style="float: left">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
|rowspan="2"| {{IPA|/h.P/ [ħ.P]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|/t͡s.P/ [s̠.P~ɕ.P]}}
|}
</div>
<div style="float: left">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-P//}}
! {{IPA|//-P͡F//}}
! {{IPA|//-N//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//h-//}}
| {{IPA|[ħ.P]}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.P͡F]}}
| {{IPA|/ʔ.ᴮN/}}
|}
</div>
<div style="float: left">
{| class="wikitable"
!
! {{IPA|//-N//}}
|-
! {{IPA|//p-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵇm]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//t-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᵈn̠~ʔ.ᶡɲ]}}
|-
! {{IPA|//k-//}}
| {{IPA|[ʔ.ᶢŋ]}}
|}
</div>
<div style="clear: both"></div>


==Morphology==
==Morphology==


Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and adverbials. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.
Ash does not mark words for number, person or case. With regards to syntactic patterning, only three significant word classes can be posited: verbs, nominals and converbs. Nonetheless there is a degree of mobility between them.


=== Verbs ===
=== Verbs ===


The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template looks as follows:
The bulk of all inflection goes on verbs, making them morphemic anchors fundamental to almost any utterance in the language. The general verb template is as follows:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="4" |
| colspan="3" |
! colspan="5" | Stem
! colspan="4" | Stem
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|-
|-
| Deixis
| Deixis
| Trans./Poss.
| Agency
| Preverb
| Incorp.
| Incorp.
| Class.
| '''Root'''
| '''Root'''
| Der.
| Deriv.
| State
| State
| Mood/Nom.
| Mood
| Attr.
| Involv.
| Adv.
| Converb.
| Enclitics
|}
|}
The nominalisation slot creates a deverbal nominal and the adverbialisation slot creates an adverbial and so these two serve to change the class of the word; the possession slot is only used on deverbal nominals and not on regular verbs.


====Stems====
====Stems====


Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine":
Each verb has a set of primary stems formed more or less predictably from a combination of affixes. The first stem, the stative (or active, if there is no stative) indicative, is used as the lemma when citing words, such as ''oada'' "to shine", also a good example of the versatile morphophonology:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!  
!
! Stative
! Stative
! Active
! Active
! Translative
! Inchoative
! Causative
! Terminative
! Passive
|-
|-
! Indicative
! Indicative
| '''''oada'''''
| '''''oa'''''
| ''oahda''
| ''oahda''
| ''oadna''
| ''oadna''
| ''oasya''
| ''oasda''
| ''oasda''
|-
|-
! Optative
! Optative
| ''oase''
| ''oae''
| ''oadse''
| ''oadse''
| ''oadne''
| ''oadne''
| ''oasse''
| ''oasde''
| ''oasdse''
|}
|}


All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. For instance the passive stem is only used to form deverbal nominals; there is no true passive construction syntactically. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The active or stative stems are the ones that are generally prone to being somewhat unpredictable, whereas the other three are formed productively.
All of these terms are to an extent ad hoc. Some verbs are inherently stative or active and do not have two distinct stems. The inchoative and terminative are often used in a perfective sense as opposed to the imperfective or habitual active or stative.
 
====Derived verbs====
 
Derivational suffixes can be used to extend the root and create a new set of stems, such as the causative ''-y-'' or the frequentative ''-(d)s-'', which can themselves, depending on the word, be stative or active (all derived verbs are inherently one or the other or both and do not display the allomorphy of basic verbs). These are some of the words derived from ''oo'' "consume":
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Basic
! Causative
! Frequentative
|-
| '''''oo'''''
| ''oyya''
| ''odsa''
|}


===Nominals===
===Nominals===


Nominals are mostly unmarked; the main kind of affixation, while resembling case marking, results in adverbialisation, thus changing the class of the word. Nominals can however be marked for possession or be incorporated into a verb.
Nominals are mostly unmarked. A handful of inherited inalienably possessed nominals are however obligatorily marked with a prefix or that disappears during incorporation into a verb. This possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''mõõ'' "head; hair", an inalienably possessed nominal:
 
The possessive prefix ''n-'' can be preceded by a deictic prefix. Here are the possessed forms of ''moo'' "head; hair; top":


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 171: Line 247:
! Distal
! Distal
|-
|-
| ''ammoo''
| ''ımmõõ''
| ''emmoo''
| ''emmõõ''
| ''ommoo''
| ''ommõõ''
|}
|}


===Adverbials===
Any phrase can be nominalised using a classificatory topic marker (see below). When marked for the locative (see also below), these can be used to connect possessum to possessor.


Adverbials are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions more than traditional adverbs, but serves that role as well.
===Converbs===


Some prominent adverbialising suffixes:
Converbs are used to denote a place, time or manner. Their formation sometimes resembles case marking or conjunctions or adverbs.
 
Some prominent converbialising suffixes:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
! Suffix
! Long
! Short
! Example
! Example
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| ''-da''
| ''-la'', ''-da''
| ''mehda'' "by the fire"
| ''-l''
| ''ınsonda'' "where they live; by the house; at home"
|-
|-
! Temporal
! Durative
| ''-go''
| ''-go''
| ''oadnago'' "in the morning"
| ''-h''
| ''oadnah'' "when it gets bright; in the morning"
|-
|-
! Benefactive
! Benefactive
| ''-ba''
| ''-ba''
| ''eaba'' "in order to see"
| ''-o''
| ''eahba'' "in order to see"
|-
! Semblative
| ''-ya''
| ''-e''
| ''ảyya'' "sea-like; blue; green"
|}
|}


===Deixis===
===Deixis===


The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. What does get commonly marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); adverbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the adverbial in question.
The language lacks true pronouns and due to its pro-drop tendencies commonly avoids alternatives as well. One thing that does get marked is deixis: whether something is close to or far away from the speaker or a previous referent; unspecified deixis is also possible. On nominals deixis is generally spatial while on verbs it is temporal (proximal working roughly as a present tense and distal as a non-present one); converbial deixis can be either depending on the characteristics of the converb in question.


The deictic stems are as follows:
The deictic stems are as follows:
Line 217: Line 304:
|}
|}


Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ee'' and ''oo'' as well as verbal and possessive prefixes ''e-'' and ''o-''. Neutral deixis sometimes surfaces epenthetically as ''a-'' due to phonotactic constraints, but is not underlyingly explicitly marked.
Deixis occurs in the form of isolated nominals ''ea'' and ''oa''. In verbs with some form of agency marker, the prefixes irregularly assimilate to it, retaining the initial glottal stop but displacing the vowel, e.g. ''*e-ả-'' becomes ''ẻ-''.
 
===Conjunct and disjunct verbs===
 
While Ash lacks a set of first, second and third person pronouns, a system of so called conjunct versus disjunct verb forms can be used in combination with transitivity markers and deixis in order to more or less unambiguously cover the same ground. This concept is also known in the literature as assertor's involvement marking, which might give the reader a clearer idea of the concept: verbs are marked for whether the one making an assertion is involved in the action (conjunct) or not (disjunct).
 
In simple statements the assertor defaults to the speaker (i.e. first person) but in questions to the addressee (second person). In reported speech the assertor defaults to the source of the quote and may therefore also take on a third person role. First and second person roles are associated with proximal deixis while third person is associated with distal deixis or an explicit nominal.
 
Conjunct is marked by the suffix ''-s'' and disjunct is unmarked.
 
====Simple intransitives====
 
In simple statements proximal deixis combined with a conjunct verb denotes a first person, while combined with a disjunct verb it denotes a second person, whereas in questions this is flipped. Distal deixis or an explicit nominal denotes a third person in both cases. Note that there is no number distinction and so for example first person can imply both "I" and "we" but for the sake of space only one translation is given for each example.
 
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Declarative
! colspan="2" | Interrogative
|-
! Proximal
! Distal
! Proximal
! Distal
|-
! Conjunct
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u>''<br />"I am warm"
| -
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> no''<br />"are you warm?"
| -
|-
! Disjunct
| ''(ea go) emea''<br />"you are warm"
| ''(oa go) emea''<br />"they are warm"
| ''(ea go) emea no''<br />"am I warm?"
| ''(oa go) emea no''<br />"are they warm?"
|}
 
====Simple transitives====
 
Simple transitive clauses work much the same way but the choice between a direct transitive or inverse transitive marker affects the meaning as well and is the only way to differentiate between agent and patient roles when the referents are first and second person.
 
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Declarative
|-
! colspan="2" |  Proximal
! colspan="2" |  Distal
|-
! Direct
! Inverse
! Direct
! Inverse
|-
! Conjunct
| ''(ea go) ẻhwea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I look at you"
| ''(ea go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"you look at me"
| ''(oa go) ẻhwea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I look at them"
| ''(oa go) ẻssea<u>s</u> yo''<br />"they look at me"
|-
! Disjunct
| ''(ea go) ẻhwea yo''<br />"you look at them"
| ''(ea go) ẻssea yo''<br />"they look at you"
| ''(oa go) ẻhwea yo''<br />"they<sub>1</sub> look at them<sub>2</sub>"
| ''(oa go) ẻssea yo''<br />"they<sub>2</sub> look at them<sub>1</sub>"
|}
 
The interrogative patterns the same way except for the first and second person again being flipped. As the last two examples show, the choice of transitivity marker can also serve as a proximate-obviative distinction.
 
====Reported speech====
 
In quotations the conjunct versus disjunct distinction instead focuses on the source of the quote, but only in the subclause. Again this may serve as a proximate-obviative distinction. This means that it is possible to mark distal referents as conjunct in such subclauses.
 
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Proximal
|-
! Conjunct source
! Disjunct source
|-
! Conjunct target
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I said I am warm"
| ''(ea go) emea<u>s</u> (ea go) ogaa yo''<br />"you said you are warm"
|-
! Disjunct target
| ''(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa<u>s</u> yo''<br />"I said you are warm"
| ''(ea go) emea (ea go) ogaa yo''<br />"you said I am warm"
|}
 
====Indirect involvement====
 
As the conjunct form denotes merely whether the assertor is somehow involved in the action, the assertor need not necessarily be the agent. A conjunct form would still be used to denote first person involvement as a patient in some statements.
 
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas yo
|gloss=PROX-POSS-head=TOP:CRESC Ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}
 
Despite a third person being the agent of the action, the focus is on the first person (the assertor) and the verb is therefore conjunct.


==Syntax==
==Syntax==


The word order is strictly SOV, with adverbials generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb.
The word order is fairly strictly SOV, with converbs generally preceding the nominals followed by the verb.


===Valency===
===Valency===


====Transitivity and inversion====
====Agency====


Transitivity is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position.
Transitivity and volition are tied up in a single grammatical category termed agency. Direct agency is explicitly marked and through an inversion marker on the verb the roles of agent and patient can be swapped without a change in word order, the purpose of which is topicalisation, leaving the topic in the subject position. The subject requires a topical marker, the details of which will be explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao bahbo e<u>hh</u>ea
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>hw</u>ea ga
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿je̞çˈçɛ̯ɑː]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog PROX-<u>DIR</u>-see.ACT.IND=REP
|gloss=ao dog PROX-<u>TR</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
|translation=Ao is looking at the dog
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao bahbo e<u>ss</u>ea
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ẻ<u>ss</u>ea ga
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND=REP
|gloss=ao dog PROX-<u>INV</u>-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
|translation=Ao is being watched by the dog
}}
}}
Line 252: Line 435:


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ehhea
|phrase=ẻhweas yo
|IPA=[je̞çˈçɛ̯ɑː]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-see.ACT.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|gloss=PROX-TR-see.ACT.IND
|translation=I am looking at them
|translation=I am looking at it
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=ẻsseas e
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND-CONJ=OBS
|translation=they are looking at me
}}
 
|}
 
====Reflexivity====
 
A verb can also be made reflexive by using a deictic marker in the transitivity slot, meaning a distinction is made between proximal and distal reflexivity, corresponding to the spatial deixis of nominals rather than the normally temporal deixis of verbs.
 
{|
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=oadnah ảyısããs yo
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR REFL.PROX-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|translation=I wash in the morning
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=essea
|phrase=oadnah ảo ga ảyısãã ma
|IPA=[jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː]
|gloss=shine.INCH.IND-CVB:DUR ao=TOP:ACT REFL.DIST-LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND=NEG
|gloss=PROX-INV-see.ACT.IND
|translation=Ao doesn't wash in the morning
|translation=it is looking at me
}}
 
|}
 
Reflexivity can be used to disambiguate between cases when the first and second person implications of the proximal deixis would otherwise collapse or as a proximate-obviative distinction.
 
{|
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảhbadsas yo
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|translation=you are braiding my hair
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ẻwıbadsas yo
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC PROX PROX-REFL.PROX-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ=EMPH
|translation=I am braiding my hair
}}
}}


Line 272: Line 491:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao bahbo od<u>sãmm</u>oyya
|phrase=ảo ga bahba ỏd<u>s</u>oyya ga
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃mˌmʊʝ.ʝɐ]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog DIST-DIR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND=REP
|gloss=ao dog DIST-TR-<u>water</u>-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink
|translation=Ao gave the dog water to drink
}}
}}


====Adverbialisation====
====Converbialisation====


The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into an adverbial, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.
The other method is to completely remove the valency of the nominal by turning it into a converb, which is why this process sometimes resembles case marking.


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=meh<u>da</u> ao bahbo odsãmmoyya
|phrase=ảo ga bahba med<u>la</u> odsoyya ga
|IPA=[ˈmᵇe̞ħ.t̠ɐ‿ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿wo̞ʔˈt̠͡s̠ɑ̞̃mˌmʊʝ.ʝɐ]
|gloss=ao=TOP:ACT dog burn-<u>CVB:LOC</u> DIST-DIR-water-consume.CAUS.IND=REP
|gloss=fire-<u>LOC</u> ao dog DIST-TR-water-consume.CAUS.IND
|translation=Ao was giving the dog water to drink by the fire
|translation=Ao gave the dog water to drink by the fire
}}
}}


Line 299: Line 516:
|-
|-
! Animate
! Animate
| ''bahbo ahhoo'' "dogs eat it"
| ''bahba go ảhwea yo''<br />"dogs watch it"
| ''bahbo assoo'' "dogs are eaten"
| ''bahba go ảssea yo''<br />"dogs are watched"
|-
|-
! Inanimate
! Inanimate
| ''sãã ahhoo'' "water is drunk"
| ''sãã da ảhwea yo''<br />"water is watched"
| ''*sãã assoo'' (ungrammatical)
| ''*sãã da ảssea yo''<br />(ungrammatical)
|}
 
===Topicalisation===
 
New non-verbal information is focused by fronting, i.e. introducing the word or phrase earlier in the sentence. This means that the order of subject and object might shift in order to focus on the object. When the object is inanimate inversion is not possible nor necessary, while for an animate object it is. The nominal in focus also receives a topic marker, explained in detail in the section on locative verbs.
 
{| class="wikitable"
!
! Normal
! Fronted
|-
! Animate
| ''ảo ga <u>bahba</u> ỏhwea e''<br />"Ao was looking at the dog"
| ''<u>bahba go</u> ảo ỏssea e''<br />"it was the dog Ao was looking at"
|-
! Inanimate
| ''ảo ga <u>sãã</u> ỏhwoo e''<br />"Ao was drinking water"
| ''<u>sãã da</u> ảo ỏhwoo e''<br />"it was water Ao was drinking"
|}
|}


Line 312: Line 547:


{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=oo oahdago bahbo ossoyya ee oahdago esseana
|phrase=[owahdah bahba go ỏssoyya]<sub>1</sub> [ewahdah ẻsseaŋas]<sub>2</sub>
|IPA=[ˈwu̯oː‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ‿wʊs̠ˈs̠ʊʝ.ʝɐ‿ˈji̯eː‿ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐˌɣʊ‿jɪɕˈɕɛ̯ɑː.n̠ɐ]
|gloss=[DIST shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.IND]<sub>1</sub> [PROX shine.ACT.IND-CVB:DUR PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ]<sub>2</sub>
|gloss=DIST shine.ACT.IND-TEMP dog DIST-INV-consume.CAUS.IND PROX shine.ACT.IND-TEMP PROX-INV-see.TRANS.IND
|translation=[today I saw]<sub>2</sub> [the dog that (you) fed yesterday]<sub>1</sub>
|translation=today I saw the dog that you fed yesterday
}}
}}


===Attributes===
This is also how stative verbs are used to assign qualities to nominals.


Attributive verbs are formed using the connector suffix ''-s'' and go before the noun phrase.
{{gloss
 
|phrase=osya bahba go ẻsseaŋas no
{|
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT shine.STAT.IND PROX-INV-see.INCH.IND-CONJ Q
 
|translation=have you seen the white dog?
|{{gloss
|phrase=boos bahbo
|IPA=[ˈbu̯oː‿ˈs̠pɑ̞ħ.pʊ]
|gloss=grow.STAT.IND-ATTR dog
|translation=a large dog
}}
}}


|{{gloss
===Unstressed words===
|phrase=oadas ao ammoo
|IPA=[ˈwɔ̯ɑ̞ː.ðɐ‿ˈz̠ɑːʊ̯‿ʔm̩ˈmu̯oː]
|gloss=shine.STAT.IND-ATTR ao POSS-head
|translation=Ao's fair hair
}}


|}
In addition to unstressed locative verbs used as topicalising classifiers (see below) there are a few other words that can be unstressed to serve various purposes, mostly after verbs.


===Negation===
====Modality====


The adverbial ''maa'' can be used to negate another word of any class, which it directly precedes.
Perhaps the most grammatically significant are ''ma'' for negation and ''no'' for interrogation. There is also ''yo'' for emphasis.


{{gloss
{| class="wikitable"
|phrase=ao bahbo <u>maa</u> ehhea
! Declarative
|IPA=[ʔɑːʊ̯ ˈβɑ̞ħ.pʊ ˈmɑ̞ː‿je̞çˈçɛ̯ɑː]
! Negative
|gloss=ao dog <u>NEG</u> PROX-see.ACT.IND
! Interrogative
|translation=Ao can't see the dog
! Emphatic
}}
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa ma''<br />"not weaving"
| ''ebadsa no''<br />"weaving?"
| ''ebadsa yo''<br />"(really) weaving!"
|}


A related unstressed prefix ''ma-'' can be used in the preverb slot as a privative, generally for derivation, sometimes with irregularities in established formations.
====Evidentiality====


{{gloss
Reduced forms of some verbs can function as evidential markers, such as ''e'' for observation and ''ga'' for hearsay.
|phrase=*<u>ma</u>yeadõõ → <u>m</u>eadõõ
|IPA=[ˈmᵇɛ̯ɑːˌðũ̯õ̞ː]
|gloss=<u>PRIV</u>-see-POT.ACT.IND
|translation=blind
}}


Suffixes can be added to form related adverbials such as ''maada'' "nowhere" and ''maago'' "never".
{| class="wikitable"
! Declarative
! Observational
! Quotative
|-
| ''ebadsa''<br />"weaving"
| ''ebadsa e''<br />"(evidently) weaving"
| ''ebadsa ga''<br />"(allegedly) weaving"
|}


==Locative verbs==
==Locative verbs==


An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved.
An important part of Ash grammar is an extensive set of so called locative verbs which are used almost like a noun classification system and cover location, motion and related concepts while providing specific information about the referent at hand, such as specifying whether liquid is involved. These also have reduced clitic forms used as topic markers.


These are some of those verbs:
These are some of those verbs:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Lemma
! Locative
! Topic
! Gloss
! Gloss
! Semantic range
! Semantic range
|-
|-
| ''laa''
| ''laa''
| LOC:STAT
| ''la'', ''da''
| :STAT
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
| General stative (indefinite or permanent)
|-
|-
| ''goo''
| ''goo''
| LOC:ACT
| ''go'', ''ŋo''
| :ACT
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
| General active (temporary or dynamic)
|-
|-
| ''sãã''
| ''sãã''
| LOC:LIQ
| ''sa''
| :LIQ
| Water and other liquids
| Water and other liquids
|-
|-
| ''see''
| ''see''
| LOC:AER
| ''se''
| :AER
| Air and weather
| Air and weather
|-
|-
| ''boo''
| ''boa''
| LOC:CRESC
| ''bo''
| :CRESC
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
| Growth (hair, plants et c.)
|-
|-
| ''mee''
| ''doo''
| LOC:PYR
| ''do''
| Fire
| :PART
| Particles (powder, sand, dust, smoke, spores et c.)
|-
| ''mea''
| ''me''
| :PYR
| Fire (by extension core or centre)
|-
| ''baa''
| ''ba''
| :MAN
| Hand and instrumental (things held; implements and tools)
|}
|}


===Disambiguation===
===Classificatory topicalisation===


One function of locative verbs is to resolve potential ambiguities.
An unstressed locative verb is required as a topical marker following a fronted nominal, resembling a particle. The choice of verb functions much like a noun class classifier and can be used to differentiate between various meanings of a single nominal lexeme.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao sãã
|phrase=ımmõõ bo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ˈz̠ɑ̞̃ː]
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:CRESC
|gloss=ocean LOC:LIQ.STAT.IND
|translation=hair (on the head)
|translation=it is the ocean
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao goo
|phrase=ımmõõ da
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=POSS-head=TOP:STAT
|gloss=ocean LOC:ACT.STAT.IND
|translation=head (on the body)
|translation=it is (the person named) Ao
}}
}}


|}
|}


===Specification===
Used this way they nonetheless remain verbs with the accompanying syntactic implications. Since they create subclauses, a nominal specified for category with a locative verb cannot be used in object position and so will always precede any agent. However, since this is in line with the normal rule of topicalisation by fronting, it has no actual implications for the syntax.


To denote motion, an andative ("going") or venitive ("coming") prefix is placed into the verbal classifier slot.
{{gloss
|phrase=emmõõ bo ảo ẻhbadsas
|gloss=PROX-INAL-head=TOP:CRESC ao PROX-DIR-hand.FREQ.IND-CONJ
|translation=Ao is braiding my hair
}}


{|
===Conjunction===


|{{gloss
In addition to serving as a topical marker, an unstressed locative verb can also be used as a nominal conjunction. As subject and object are never both topically marked, a series of topicalised nominals serves as a single noun phrase in the fronted subject position.
|phrase=ao algoo
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ʔɬ̠̩ˈku̯oː]
|gloss=ao AND-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND
|translation=Ao moves (away)
}}


|{{gloss
{{gloss
|phrase=ao aŋgoo
|phrase=ảo ga bahba go onda egoa e
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯‿ʔŋ̩ˈɡu̯oː]
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS dog=TOP:ACT DIST-CVB:LOC PROX-CVB:LOC:ACT.IND=OBS
|gloss=ao VEN-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND
|translation=Ao and the dog are over there
|translation=Ao moves (hither)
}}
}}


|}
===Use with converbs===


The preverb slot can be used to specify manner, location or direction.
Converbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao negoo
|phrase=ảo sal sãã
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɲɪˈɣu̯oː]
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=ao SUB-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND
|translation=(be) in the ocean; at sea
|translation=Ao is below
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ao nelgoo
|phrase=ảo sal laa
|IPA=[ˈʔɑːʊ̯ ɲɪɬˈku̯oː]
|gloss=sea=TOP:LIQ-CVB:LOC LOC:STAT.STAT/ACT.IND
|gloss=ao SUB-MOT-LOC:ACT.STAT.IND
|translation=(be) by the sea
|translation=Ao moves down
}}
}}


|}
|}


===Use with adverbials===
===Possession===


Adverbial location is generic and locative verbs can be used to specify the meaning.
Unstressed locative verbs marked with the locative converbialiser ''-l'' serve to mark the possessor of a possessum.
 
{{gloss
|phrase=ảo gal osee go
|gloss=ao=TOP:PERS-CVB:LOC breath=TOP:ORAL
|translation=Ao's breath (lit. "breath at Ao")
}}
 
==Pragmatics and conventions==
 
===Modality===
 
Wants, needs, desires and possibilities are often just expressed through morphological means in Ash, such as optatives, potentials and interrogatives.


{|
{|


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda sãã
|phrase=ẻhhodses
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐ ˈz̠ɑ̞̃ː]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT-CONJ
|gloss=ocean-LOC LOC:LIQ.STAT.IND
|translation=I want/need to eat; I am hungry
|translation=in the ocean; at sea
}}
}}


|{{gloss
|{{gloss
|phrase=ahda laa
|phrase=ẻhhodses no
|IPA=[ˈʔɑ̞ħ.t̠ɐ ˈɮɑ̞ː]
|gloss=PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT-CONJ=Q
|gloss=ocean-LOC LOC:STAT.STAT.IND
|translation=perhaps I should eat something
|translation=by the ocean
}}
 
|{{gloss
|phrase=bahba go ẻhhodse no
|gloss=dog=TOP:ACT PROX-DIR-consume.FREQ.ACT.OPT=Q
|translation=maybe the dog is hungry
}}
}}


|}
|}
===Colour terms===
Colours are mainly expressed through semblative converbs, likening the appearance of the referent to something else, such as ''mea'' "fire" → ''nayya'' "red; yellow; orange; brown" or ''ảo'' "sea" → ''ảyya'' "blue; green".
{{gloss
|phrase=nayya bahba go
|gloss=fire-CVB:SEMB dog=TOP:ACT
|translation=a brown dog
}}


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