Old Shalaian/Sketchbook: Difference between revisions

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:[[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Wordlist|Wordlist]]
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width:900px;text-align:center;"
:[[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Names|Names]]
:[[Shalaian/Old|Old Shalaian]]
:[[Idavic|Proto-Idavic]]
 
{{Infobox language
|image =
|imagesize =
|creator = [[User:IlL]]
|name = {{SUBPAGENAME}}
|nativename = u għámyōnth shaláius
|pronunciation= /u: ˈʕæmjəʊnθ ʃəˈlɛɪu:s/
|familycolor=dodellic
|fam1=[[Idavic]]
|setting = [[Verse:Unbegotten]]
|iso3=
|notice=
}}
 
'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (''shə-LAY-ən'', natively ''u għámyōnth shaláius'' /u: ˈʕæmjəʊnθ ʃəˈlɛɪu:s/) is an in-universe naturalistic conlang in the sci-fi setting [[Verse:Unbegotten]].
 
{{PAGENAME}} is a split-ergative, moderately synthetic, head-marking, verb-initial language where preverbal clitics ("preverbs") play an important grammatical role.
 
==Todo==
Deutschify the grammar (V2, cases, STOV)?
 
Old Irishy allomorphy with prefixes?
 
''*-t'' is an important suffix for the Anglo-Semitic aesthetic
 
Get CVCVCC words
 
''Skóo'chis'': a liturgical title? s-ku'ċ-is 3.H-handle-3PL "She is handy with things" (-is for 3pl abs on verbs is a deliberate archaism)
 
*alienable: dog CLASSIFIER-my? dog of-me?
*inalienable: hand-my
 
Agentive vs patientive verb pairs: we see/hear/learn = (PREVERB) is_seen-it to-us vs (PREVERB) we-see-intentionally-it
 
Shalaian:
1. Rosh ian lagħvée, lōkh fo'nanée. / Għar shím'tal mee, lōkh fo'nanée.
time REL.PFV 1-see-3SG.A, PFV flee-3SG.AN / LOC see.INF-1SG ACC-3SG.AN PFV flee-3SG.AN
2. Warṓdal, rosh naaf whi'ł mi kástłam għarnd.
call-1SG, when COMP.FUT need DAT help LOC-2SG.
3. Yarsh (naaf) shafóngad?
when COMP.FUT hither-come-2SG?
 
Sá'klas as whínjan għar karúns Hárverd = "Park the car in Harvard yard"
 
Shalaian might not have glottal reinforcement anymore. instead: coda voicing alternations t~d and th~dh?
 
tn~n, hr~r, ł~l (icelandic/eevo-esque)?
===Derivation===
*"basic" noun patterns come from: CaCC, CiCC, CuCC, CãCC, CîCC, CûCC, CaCa(a)C, CaCi(i)C, CaCu(u)C + suffix + decl. class
 
==About==
===External history===
In these dark times, I decided now was a good time to combine wanton utopian escapism with conlanging. The goal of Shalaian is not so much uniqueness as it is to represent what a "fancy" language is for me in aesthetics and grammar.
 
I've been kicking around the idea of an Arabo-RP language in my head for a while – Standard Arabic and RP English are two of my favorite aesthetics. So those are the two main aesthetic inspirations; the Icelandic, Irish and Lushootseed influences are also undeniable. The grammar is pretty typical of verb-initial languages; the ergativity is inspired by Mam.
 
(For another take on Semito-Germanic see [[Windermere]], or [[Togarmite]] for an actual Semlang using the idea.)
 
===Internal history===
{{PAGENAME}} was created by Edna Ashe as her personal conlang; she was mainly inspired by Biblical Hebrew, [[Verthanic]] (a Celtic language), and English (especially her native Welvington accent, a Philadelphia-Boston hybrid).
 
===Internal² history===
Shalaian is the language of a large and complex civilization. It is a major source of loans for the related Idavic language [[Netagin]].
 
The liturgical accent of Standard Shalaian, described in this article, is an artificial standard that insists on not pronouncing historical non-prevocalic /r/ but pronouncing all pharyngeals as written, including non-prevocalic /ʕ/ (called ''rijál  jāf, għaṡ aṡkéoħ'' "soft R, hard ʕ" in Shalaian).
 
The basilect of the capital drops /h/, turns /θ/ into /f/, turns /ħ/ into /(ɐ)h/, turns nonprevocalic /ʕ/ into the German vocalized R, and has a Philly/NYC-like BATH vowel [ɛə] (thus merging with SQUARE instead of START). One remote rural dialect remains fully rhotic.
 
Shalaian and Netagin belong to a common sprachbund. They are two different branches of the Idavic family that convergently evolved to share the following features:
*Preglottalization
*A large vowel system but with no front rounded vowels
*Historical non-rhoticity
*Verb-initial syntax
*Split-ergativity
 
==Phonology of Liturgical Shalaian==
{{PAGENAME}} has an average consonant inventory and has a moderately large vowel inventory derived from a smaller vowel system in Proto-{{PAGENAME}} combined with loss of nonprevocalic /r/.
 
Liturgical pronunciation of {{PAGENAME}} involves carefully articulating every sound.<!--*for the RP-ness:
**BATH/START, NURSE, NORTH, FACE, GOAT
*for the Semitic-ness:
**Pharyngeals
**Semitic-sounding clusters (possibly w/ voicing assim.)
**likes /a~ə/, but not as much as Sanskrit
 
Todo:
*vowel reduction
*hamzas galore
**hamza can occur before any consonant except '/h/3/H
*some V:CC syllables
*Vowels /a i u/ before intervocallic r are preserved-->
===Vowels===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 720px; text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Front
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
|-
! style="" |Close
|rowspan=2| '''i''' /ɪ/ "KIT"
| '''ee''' /iː/ "FLEECE"
|
| '''u''' /uː/ "GOOSE"
|
|
|-
! style="" |Mid
| '''eer, iya, eeya''' /ɪə~ɪː/ "NEAR"
| '''a, er''' /ə/ "lettER/commA"
| '''er, ōwa''' /əː/ "NURSE"
|
| '''ur, or, ōr, uwa''' /oː/ "POOR/FORCE"
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
|
| '''air, aiya''' /ɛː/ "SQUARE"
| [ɐ]
|
| '''o''' /ɔ/ "LOT"
|
|-
! style="" |Open
|
|
| '''a''' /a/ "TRAP"
| '''aa, ar''' /aː/ "BATH/START"
|
|
|-
! style="" |Diphthong
|
| '''ai''' /ɛɪ/ "FACE"
|
|
|
| '''ō''' /əʊ/ "GOAT"
|}
;Notes
*/ə/ occurred only in unstressed syllables. Adjacent to pharyngeals it is closer to [ɐ].
*It is considered acceptable, even in liturgical pronunciation, to use both etymological linking R and "intrusive" R [ɹ~ɾ] between /aː eː ɛː oː əː ə/ and a following vowel in a prosodic unit. For example: ''Għídner ał kisál't'' 'Edna and her dogs' is pronounced [ˈʕednə‿ɹəɬ kɪ'sæɫʔt].
*/aː/ is central [äː] or front [aː].
*/uː/ is [üː].
*/iː/ may be [iː] or [ɪj].
*/æ/ is front [a] or [æ]. However it reduced to /ə/ in certain unstressed syllables.
*/ɪ/ may be [e~ɛ~ɛ̈] after /ʕ/.
*/ɜː/ may be [ɐː], especially after /ʕ/.
*/ɛɪ əʊ/ are normally [ɛɪ ə&#799;ʊ]. They are realized as [aɪ aʊ] after pharyngeals.
*{{PAGENAME}} does ''not'' have vowel mergers before intervocalic R such as the Mary-marry merger and the mirror-nearer merger. For example, ''thárad'' /'θæɹəd/ 'moon; month', ''tháirad'' /'θɛːɹəd/ 'you (sg.) fall', and ''thā́rad'' /'θɑːɹəd/ 'your (sg.) foot' are distinct.
 
===Consonants===
Shalaian consonants are fairly conservative; they preserve the basic structure of Proto-Shalaian consonant system.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width:800px;text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |Labial
! rowspan="2" |Labial
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! |<small>labialized</small>
! |<small>labialized</small>
|-
|-
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal
! rowspan="2" style="" |Nasal
!|<small>plain</small>
| '''m''' /m/
| '''m''' /m/
|  
|  
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|  
|  
|  
|  
| [ŋ]
|  
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|
|
|
|-
!|<small>glottalized</small>
| '''m̓''' /ʔm/
|
| '''n̓''' /ʔn/
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
| '''t''' /t/
| '''t''' /t/
| '''tł''' /tɬ/
| '''ξ''' /tɬ/
| '''ch''' /tʃ/
| '''tj''' /tʃ/
|  
|  
| '''k''' /k/
| '''c''' /k/
| '''kw''' /kʷ/
| '''cw''' /kʷ/
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
| '''d''' /d/
| '''d''' /d/
| '''dł''' /dɮ~l/
|  
| '''j''' /dʒ/
| '''dj''' /dʒ/
|  
|  
| '''g''' /g/
| '''g''' /g/
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| '''th''' /θ/  
| '''th''' /θ/  
| '''s''' /s/
| '''s''' /s/
| '''ł''' /ɬ/
| '''σ''' /ɬ/
| '''sh''' /ʃ/
| '''sj''' /ʃ/
|
|
| '''kh''' /x/
| '''ch''' /x/
| '''wh''' /xʷ/
| '''chw''' /xʷ/
| '''lh''' /χ/
| '''lh''' /χ/
| '''ħ''' /ħ/
| '''ħ''' /ħ/
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| '''z''' /z/
| '''z''' /z/
|  
|  
| '''zh''' /ʒ/  
| '''zj''' /ʒ/  
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''λ''' /l/
| '''r''' /r/
| '''r''' /r/
| '''y''' /j/
| '''y''' /j/
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|
|
|}
|}
;Notes
*The voiceless allophones of stops are aspirated except after fricatives, as in English. The voiced allophones [b d dɮ dʒ g gʷ] (transliterated as '''b d đ ġ g gw''') are used after voiced sounds (i.e. vowels and resonants), UNLESS another voiceless obstruent (stop or voiceless fricative) follows it. The voiced allophones are actually slightly devoiced. The [g gʷ] allophones of /k kʷ/ were originally more widespread, but in Modern Standard Shalaian they have been deleted or weakened in many positions.
*/ʔ/ is a phoneme unlike in RP: more syllable types can have glottal reinforcement (see [[#Glottal_reinforcement]] for details).
*/r/ may be [ɹʷ] or [ɾ]. It tends to be voiceless after voiceless consonants.
*/l/ is velarized [ɫ] when not before a vowel and clear [l] otherwise. The rule applies whether or not the following vowel comes in the next word.
*/n/ assimilates to [ŋ] before /k/ or /ʔk/ but ''not'' before /x xʷ/.
*/tʃ dʒ ʃ/ are labialized [tʃʷ dʒʷ ʃʷ], as in English.
*/kʷ xʷ/ can occur in coda, unlike /Cw/ combinations.
*/ʕ/ is a relatively weak approximant like the Sephardi Hebrew /ʕ/; it's not as strong as the Arabic /ʕ/. Postvocalic /ʕ/ may be nasalized [ʕ̃], the nasalization affecting adjacent vowels.
*The cluster /ʕʔ/ is realized as [ʡ].
===Intonation===
{{PAGENAME}} has a characteristic intonation. Three different intonations can be used after the stressed part of a sentence.
*Declarative: high-steady falling pitch on stressed syllable, steeper fall after stressed syllable. If the stressed unit is a single stressed syllable, the the whole syllable takes the steady-then-steep-fall intonation.
*Interrogative: dip and steady rise
*Dependent: high-falling with a dip-rise at the end.
===Stress===
Stress is phonemic. Primary stress is transcribed with an acute accent.
===Vowel reduction===
*/a/ and /ɜː/ reduce to [ə] in unstressed syllables.
===Phonotactics===
TODO: Allow initial clusters fully, like Modern Hebrew?
Shalian clusters are similar to Arabic but slightly more restrictive in the direction of Proto-Germanic and Latin.
Clusters in Shalian must obey a sonority hierarchy depending on their position. <!--Obstruent-obstruent clusters are subject to regressive voicing assimilation except that /sb sd ʃb ʃd/ > [zb zd ʒb ʒd].--> Few initial clusters (only /Cj/, /Cw/ and /sC/) are allowed, and many non-English clusters are found within words such as /tm/ in ''għádmer'' [ˈʕadmə] 'happiness'. However, the most common clusters are ones found in English such as Cr and Cl clusters. Geminates and /rC/ clusters are not allowed within stems, which will be assumed below.
Within stems, the following 2-consonant clusters are allowed, ignoring glottal reinforcement and assuming no syncope. Clusters requiring glottal reinforcement are marked with an asterisk.
*mC: mn ml mr mj mgħ md mđ mġ mg mþ ms mṡ mł mx mħ mh
*nC: nm nr nj ngħ nw nd nđ nġ ng ngw nf nþ ns nł nṡ nx nxw nħ nh
*lC: lm ln lj lgħ lv lw ld lġ l'k* l'kw* lf lþ ls lṡ lx lxw lħ lh
*għC: għm għn għl għr għj (never initial) għw għv għd għđ għġ għk għkw għf għþ għs għł għṡ għx għxw
*Cm: nm lm għm dm đm jm 'km* 'kwm* thm sm łm ṡm xm ħm hm
*Cn: mn ln għn vn dn đn jn 'kn* 'kwn* fn þn sn łn ṡn xn xwn ħn hn
*Cl: ml għl vl dl 'kl* 'kwl* fl þl sl shl xl xwl ħl hl
*Cr: mr nr għr vr dr đr ġr 'kr* 'kwr* þr sr łr ṡr xr xwr ħr hr
*Cj: mj nj għj (never initial) vj dj đj 'kj* fj þj sj łj xj ħj hj
*Cw: nw għw dw jw þw sw łw w ħw
*Cgħ: mgħ ngħ lgħ vgħ dgħ jgħ 'kgħ* 'kwgħ* fgħ þgħ sgħ ṡgħ xgħ xwgħ
*XX: dv ġv tf tk tkw tħ ċt ċk ċf kt kċ kf ks kṡ kħ kwt kwċ kws kwṡ ft fċ fk fs fṡ fħ þk þf þħ sv st sk skw sf sħ łv łt łk łkw łf łħ ṡt ṡk ṡkw ṡf ṡħ xf xt xs xṡ xwt xwċ xwþ xws xwṡ ħt ħċ ħf ħs
===Glottal reinforcement===
In Shalaian, glottal reinforcement (GR) is used both lexically and grammatically. Glottal reinforcement operates at a syllable level and affects the coda consonant(s) of that syllable as follows: When a syllable has GR, a glottal stop is used after the last vowel or resonant of the syllable. Almost any possible syllable can undergo glottal reinforcement.
Minimal pairs of glottal + stop final:
*''łaij'' = 'to play'
*''łai'ch'' = 'game'
Minimal pairs of glottal + fricative final:
*''whais'' = 'flesh'
*''whai's'' = 'to avoid him (honorific)'
Suffixes are added to a glottally reinforced word without changing the stem: for example, ''**xwín'a'' /ˈxʷɪnʔə/ could be a form of ''**xwin' '' /xʷɪnʔ/ but ''**xwí'na '' /ˈxʷɪʔnə/ would be a different word.
===Sound rules===
*Prefixes sometimes cause syncope: C₁V-C₂ə- (second is open) > C₁VC₂-
**Example: ''li-ħajái-s'' > ''laħcháis'' 'I shall praise him/her (honorific)'
*Grassmann's law on pretonic syllables before spirants, turning spirants ''th kh wh'' to stops ''t k kw''
===Phoneme frequencies===
*''r'' (orthographic) > ''l'' ~ ''għ''
*Gutturals: ''għ'' > ''ħ''
*Sibilants: ''s'' ~ ''sh'' > ''ł'', ''ch'' > ''tł''
==Dialects==
:''Main article: [[Shalaian/Dialects]]''
Shalaian has many accents and dialects besides the standard liturgical one in the fictional universe of Shalaian.
==Orthography==
The {{PAGENAME}} script is an abugida. The writing direction is top to down and lines go from right to left.
==Morphology==
Morphological stress shifts as in English (used for some plurals and infinitives)
===Nouns===
{{PAGENAME}} has a 3-gender system: animate ({{sc|a}}), inanimate ({{sc|i}}), and abstract-honorific ({{sc|h}}). Animate and inanimate are usually straightforward. The abstract-honorific gender includes many abstract nouns, persons whom one regards highly, and certain objects, especially big objects such as planets and objects viewed as feminine such as flowers and certain articles of clothing.
Nouns have singular and plural numbers; there is no gender distinction in the plural.
====Possession====
TODO: plural possessive markers: suffixed to ''-n-' or ''-t-''?
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
|+ Possessive pronouns
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|
!1sg
!2sg
!2sg.h
!3sg.a
!3sg.h
!3sg.i
!1pl.ex
!1pl.in
!2pl
!3pl, 4
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Alienable
|''u rush '''mil''''' 'my dog'
|''u rush '''mid'''''
|''u rush '''midi'''''
|''u rush '''mee'''''
|''u rush '''mis'''''
|''u rush '''mis'''''
|''u rush '''miwh'''''
|''u rush '''míwhav'''''
|''u rush '''miníd'''''
|''u rush '''mees'''''
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Inalienable
|''għásh'''al''''' 'my hand'
|''għásh'''ad'''''
|''għásh'''adi'''''
|''għash'''ée'''''
|''għásh'''as'''''
|''għásh'''as'''''
|''għásh'''awh'''''
|''għásh'''whav'''''
|''għash'''níd'''''
|''għásh'''is'''''
|}
The inalienable possessive markers are suffixes and are used for body parts, family members, and parts or properties of an object.
====Plurals====
Plurals are approximately as unpredictable as in German. Depending on the noun, the plural may be marked with a suffix, known as ''suffix plurals'', or entirely with a stress shift, known as ''stress plurals''.
*Suffix plural: ''u taħáanf'' 'the chalice', ''wa taħáanfa'' 'the chalices'
*Stress plural: ''u lágħ'oth'' 'the garden', ''wa lagħ'óth'' 'the gardens'
Suffix plurals are usually one of ''-i, -ri, -a, -ach''. Syncope occurs regularly when /ə/ is in the last syllable of the root (+ some other conditions). A stress shift to the suffix sometimes occurs. There is also a pseudo-dual ''-and'', used for plurals of body parts: the plural of ''għash'' 'hand' is ''għáshand''.
Basic vocabulary has the most irregular plurals. Most new animate nouns use ''-i'' for the plural, and most new inanimates use ''-ach'': the plural of ''Móslim'' would be ''Móslimi'', and the plural of ''twy't'' would be ''twý'tach''.
====Article====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=
! rowspan=2 | || colspan=3 | singular || rowspan=2 | plural
|-
! a. || i. || h.
|-
! definite
| ''u'' || ''as'' || ''ur'' || ''wa''
|-
! indefinite specific
| ''ni'' || ''nis'' || ''ner'' || ''na''
|}
===Pronouns===
Shalaian has 3 sets of personal pronouns:
*Independent pronouns
*Inalienable/absolutive pronouns (suffixes)
*Alienable/ergative pronouns (prefixes)
The affixes are mostly the same for both nouns and verbs but some differ slightly.
Nouns denoting groups of people or organizations are treated as 3rd person plural, as in British English.
The original Proto-Idavic 1st person dual has become the inclusive we (because it was commonly used for "you and I").
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=500px
! rowspan=2 | || rowspan=2 | 1sg || colspan=2 | 2sg || colspan=2 | 3sg animate || rowspan=2 | 3sg inanimate  || colspan=2 | 1pl || rowspan="2" | 2pl || rowspan="2" | 3pl, 4 || rowspan="2" |impersonal
|-
! neutral || honorific || neutral || honorific || exclusive || inclusive
|-
! Independent
| ''swil'' || ''swid'' || ''swídi'' || ''fin'' || ''fer'' || ''fi'' || ''sowh'' || ''swav'' || ''swiníd'' || ''fikh'' || ''-''
|-
! Absolutive/Inalienable
| ''-al'' || ''-ad'' || ''-adi'' || ''-ée'' || ''-as'' || ''-0'' (not on verbs) || ''-awh'' || ''-awhav'' || ''-níd'' || ''-is'' (''-ax'' on verbs) || ''-va''
|-
! Ergative/Alienable
| ''l(i)-'' || ''t(i)-'' || ''st(i)-'' || ''in-/im-'' || ''s-'' || ''a-'' || ''wh(i)-'' || ''whan(i)-'' || ''ch(i)-'' || ''thi-'' ||''ri-''
|}
===Correlatives===
Demonstratives come after nouns but may come before in poetry. They are inflected as strong nouns when they substitute nouns.
*''(u) X ain'' = this X; ''áinan, áiner, ain, áini'' = this (pronominal)
*''(u) X aif'' = that X; ''áifan, áifer, aif, áifi''
*''(u) X ais?'' = which X?
*''yakh'' = who?
*''yan'' = what?
*''għaim'' = where?
*''għan'' = here
*''għaf'' = there
*''hiláv'' = when?
*''éri'' = now
*''ħo'sh'' = then
*''idyám'' = how many?
===Adjectives===
Adjectives are a separate class from both nouns and verbs. Adjectives do not inflect when they are predicative. Nominalized adjectives inflect like nouns, taking the appropriate gender and number markers.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" width=
|+ ''ískwid'' 'long'
! rowspan=2 | || colspan=3 | singular || rowspan=2 | plural
|-
! a. || i. || h.
|-
! predicative
|colspan=4| ''ískwid''
|-
! adverbial
|colspan=4| ''ískwid'', (archaic) ''ískwidō''
|-
! attributive
| ''ískwid'''an''''' || ''ískwid'' || ''ískwid'''er''''' || ''ískwid'''a'''''
|}
====Degree====
Shalaian has no forms for the comparative or superlative degrees. The definite article can be used before the adjective to express a comparative or superlative meaning (when the noun being compared to is not explicit). The words ''thul''' and ''ħerkh'' can optionally be used before the adjective to indicate the comparative and superlative explicitly.
The word ''vair'' (< ''*għar vaifad għar'' 'when you look at') is used before the noun being compared to.
===Adverbs===
===Prepositions===
There is a generic locative preposition ''għar'' and a dative ''mi''. Most other prepositions in English are expressed with relational nouns.
''għar'' + articles ''u, as, ur, wa'': ''għárri, għas, għárrer, għárra''
''għar'' + specific article ''n-'' in the singular: ''għarn''
Inflected forms of ''għar'': ''għárnal, għarnd, għarndi, għarnée, għarns, għarns, għárnwhav, għárnav, għárnawh, għarníd, għárnis''
''mi'' + articles ''u, as, ur, wa'': ''míya, mis, maar, míya''
''mi'' + specific article ''n-'' in the singular: ''min''
Inflected forms of ''mi'': ''mil, mid, midi, mee, mis, mis, míwhav, míyav, míyawh, miníd, míyax''
===Relational nouns===
Relational nouns are used where English would use prepositions. They must get absolutive possessive affixes that agree with the following noun.
*''ish'' = with (instrumental)
*''tuj'' = inside (lit. belly)
*''cherth'' = like (lit. spirit)
*''tłwith'' = because of
*''yerl'' = before, in front of (lit. face)
*''sor'' = as
===Verbs===
In the present tense, verbs inflect for bipersonal agreement (with the absolutive argument and the ergative argument). In other tenses, agreement is marked on the auxiliary instead of the verb.
Verbs have three principal parts: the singular imperative, the past participle and the infinitive.
====Imperative====
The singular imperative has an accusative syntax: it does not take a marker for the subject. It is used as the citation form of a verb. In imperatives, person marking bahaves in an accusative way, so transitive verbs take an absolutive suffix for a direct object:
*''khair'' 'go (sg)!'
*''shun-0'' 'eat!' or 'eat it!'
*''ħajái-s'' 'praise her (hon)!'
The plural imperative is identical in form to the plural indicative, except the subject is marked following accusative syntax:
*''chikháir'' 'go, you folks!'
*''chishún'' 'eat it, you folks!'
*''chaħcháis'' <- ''ċi-ħajái-s'' 'praise her (honorific), you folks!'
Similarly, ''skhair, sshun, and sħajái'' are singular honorific imperatives.
====Nonfinite forms====
There are several nonfinite forms:
*the infinitive
*the ''mi''-infinitive
*the past participle (regularly in ''-éen'')
*the gerundive or the ''mi''-participle
====Voice and transitivity====
Transitivity and voice are intimately linked in Shalian. They're also linked to some semantic features of the verb.
*Verbs that have a semantic agent and a semantic patient, such as ''hit'', ''eat'', ''kill'' are usually transitive.
*On the other hand, many verbs of experience such as ''love'', ''know'', ''think'', ... are intransitive in Shalian, unlike in English.
Verb to verb derivation is voice, aspect, and transitivity-based, but there's multiple affixes for each function.
*The active voice is unmarked.
*The causative affixes ''or-'' or ''-éer'' turns intransitive verbs into transitives and transitive verbs into ditransitives.
**''orkháimer'' 'to cause to drink; to water plants' < ''kháimer'' 'to drink'
*The applicative ''tal-'' promotes an oblique object of a transitive verb into a direct object, allowing it to be indexed with an absolutive affix.
*The antipassive ''kash-'' makes a transitive verb intransitive, and promotes the ergative argument to the absolutive argument.
====Tables====
=====Conjugation classes=====
:''Main article: [[Shalaian/Verb classes]]''
The conjugation classes are partly phonologically conditioned like ''gzarot'' in Hebrew and other Semitic languages:
*If the verb stem begins with one of ''ħ għ'', then a prefix ''i'' before the pharyngral becomes ''a''.
*If the verb begins with ''CaC-'', it's common but not necessary for the ''a'' to syncope when a prefix is added: say, ''CaCV-'' > ''li-CCV-''. In this case the prefixes take slightly different allomorphs. The stress shifts to the prefix if the ''a'' that syncopes is stressed.
*If the verb ends in ''r'' then suffixes are added orthographically as usual. Unstressed ''-er'' "syncopes" to ''-r-'' when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added. [Verbs that end in ''-a'' thus would sound the same (from *-ā, *-ag or *-u) have merged in the finite forms, hence this ''-a'' now survives as an emphatic imperative.]
*If the verb ends in ''i'' then suffixes are added directly to the ''i'' or the ''i'' changes to a semivowel ''y''.
=====Intransitives=====
Intransitive verbs use the intransitive verb inflection.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Intransitive verb inflection: ''khair'' 'to go'
!| subj
! 1sg || 2sg || 2sg.h || 3sg.a || 3sg.h || 3sg.i || 1pl.in || 1pl.ex || 2pl || 3pl
|-
! finite forms
| ''kháiral'' || ''kháirad'' || ''kháirdi'' || ''khairée'' || ''kháirs'' || ''kháir'' || ''kháirwhav'' || ''kháirawh'' || ''khairníd'' || ''kháirakh''
|-
! infinitive
|colspan=11| ''khair't''
|}
Imperatives:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Intransitive verb inflection: ''khair'' 'to go'
!| subj
! 2sg || 2sg.h || 2pl
|-
!
| ''khair!'' || ''skhair!''  || ''chikháir!''
|}
(Should verbs of knowing, experiencing and opinion be intransitive?)
=====Transitives=====
It is possible to use 1st and 2nd person markers reflexively or reciprocally (cf. German).
<!--
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Transitive verb inflection: ''għat'' 'to see'
!| obj\subj
! 1sg || 2sg || 2sg.h || 3sg.a || 3sg.h || 3sg.i || 1du || 3du || 1pl || 2pl || 3pl
|-
! 1sg
| ''lágħtal'' || ''tágħtal'' || ''stágħtal'' || ''nágħtal'' || ''ságħtal'' || ''ágħtal'' || ''whadágħtal'' || ''dágħtal'' || ''whágħtal'' || ''zhágħtal'' || ''khágħtal''
|-
! 2sg
| ''lágħtad'' || ''tágħtad'' || ''-'' || ''nágħtad'' || ''ságħtad'' || ''ágħtad'' || ''whadágħtad'' || ''dágħtad'' || ''whágħtad'' || ''-'' || ''khágħtad''
|-
! 2sg.h
| ''lágħtati'' || ''-'' || ''stágħtati'' || ''nágħtati'' || ''ságħtati'' || ''ágħtati'' || ''whadágħtati'' || ''dágħtati'' || ''whágħtati'' || ''-'' || ''khágħtati''
|-
! 3sg.a
| ''lágħta't'' || ''tágħta't'' || ''stágħta't'' || ''nágħta't'' || ''ságħta't'' || ''ágħta't'' || ''whavágħta't'' || ''vágħta't'' || ''whágħta't'' || ''zhágħta't'' || ''khágħta't''
|-
! 3sg.h
| ''lágħts'' || ''tágħts'' || ''stágħts'' || ''nágħts'' || ''ságħts'' || ''ágħts'' || ''whavágħts'' || ''vágħts'' || ''whágħts'' || ''zhágħts'' || ''khágħts''
|-
! 3sg.i
| ''lágħt'' || ''tágħt'' || ''stágħt'' || ''nágħt'' || ''ságħt'' || ''ágħt'' || ''whavágħt'' || ''vágħt'' || ''whágħt'' || ''chágħt'' || ''khágħt''
|-
! 1du
| ''lágħtwhav'' || ''tágħtwhav'' || ''stágħtwhav'' || ''nágħtwhav'' || ''ságħtwhav'' || ''ágħtwhav'' || ''whavágħtwhav'' || ''vágħtwhav'' || ''whágħtwhav'' || ''chágħtwhav'' || ''khágħtwhav''
|-
! 3du
| ''lágħtav'' || ''tágħtav'' || ''stágħtav'' || ''nágħtav'' || ''ságħtav'' || ''ágħtav'' || ''whavágħtav'' || ''vágħtav'' || ''whágħtav'' || ''chágħtav'' || ''khágħtav''
|-
! 1pl
| ''lágħtawh'' || ''tágħtawh'' || ''stágħtawh'' || ''nágħtawh'' || ''ságħtawh'' || ''ágħtawh'' || ''whadágħtawh'' || ''dágħtawh'' || ''whágħtawh'' || ''zhágħtawh'' || ''khágħtawh''
|-
! 2pl
| ''lágħtinizh'' || ''tágħtinizh'' || ''stágħtinizh'' || ''nágħtinizh'' || ''ságħtinizh'' || ''ágħtinizh'' || ''whadágħtinizh'' || ''dágħtinizh'' || ''whágħtinizh'' || ''zhágħtinizh'' || ''khágħtinizh''
|-
! 3pl
| ''lágħtath'' || ''tágħtath'' || ''stágħtath'' || ''nágħtath'' || ''ságħtath'' || ''ágħtath'' || ''whadágħtath'' || ''dágħtath'' || ''whágħtath'' || ''zhágħtath'' || ''khágħtath''
|-
! 3 refl/recip.
| ''-'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''nágħtō'' || ''ságħtō'' || ''ágħtō'' || ''-'' || ''dágħtō'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''khágħtō''
|-
! infinitive
|colspan=11| ''għatái''
|}
Imperatives
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Transitive verb inflection: ''għat'' 'to see'
!| subj\obj
! 1sg || 2sg || 2sg.h || 3sg.a || 3sg.h || 3sg.i || 1du || 3du || 1pl || 2pl || 3pl
|-
! 2sg
| ''għatal'' || ''għatad'' || ''-'' || ''għats'' || ''għatser'' || ''għat'' || ''għatwhav'' || ''għatav'' || ''għatawh'' || ''-'' || ''għatath''
|-
! 2sg.h
| ''sgħatal'' || ''-'' || ''sgħatads'' || ''sgħata't'' || ''sgħats'' || ''sgħat'' || ''sgħatwhav'' || ''sgħatav'' || ''sgħatawh'' || ''-'' || ''sgħatath''
|-
! 2pl
| ''zhagħtal'' || ''-'' || ''-'' || ''zhagħta't'' || ''zhagħts'' || ''zhagħt'' || ''zhagħtwhav'' || ''zhagħtav'' || ''zhagħtawh'' || ''-'' || ''zhagħtath''
|}
-->
=====Ditransitives=====
Ditransitives are verbs with three arguments (the ''giver'', the ''recipient'' and the ''theme'') and include verbs like 'give' and causatives of transitives. The arguments are indexed on the verb as follows:
giver-STEM-recipient-theme.
If the recipient is inanimate singular, the nonzero allomorph ''-ab'' is used.
===Conjunctions===
*''ał'' = and
*''wof'' = or (inclusive)
*''kal'' = xor
*''raish'' = but
===Preverbs===
Preverbs are clitic complexes that encode basic subordinators, question/evidentiality, negatives, and tense information. Individual components may fuse together in unpredictable ways (as in Irish). Preverbs are not verb affixes since the constructions
"PREVERB VERB1 and VERB2"
and
"PREVERB CLAUSE1 and CLAUSE2"
are valid.
The preverb (when not negative) can be omitted in subjunctive and imperative clauses and in poetry.
TODO: turn preverbs into conjugated auxiliaries
====Modal====
"Modal" markers include some basic subordinators, evidentiality and mirativity.
Possible values for this slot:
*''am'' = yes/no question
*''sher'' = if (real)
*''rugħ'' = if (irreal)
*''vi'' = relativizer (used when head is absolutive)
*''cha'' = relativizer (used when head is not absolutive)
*''ith'' = complementizer; often "because"
*direct: directly witnessed or generally known fact
*hearsay (German ''sollen'' can be used this way)
*inferential
*mirative
====Truth value====
This slot may be filled by one of several truth value words.
Negatives take different forms:
*''thur'' negates nominal sentences
*''yand'' is the negative form of ''whid''
*''mar'' negates verbal sentences
*''bai''' negates imperatives
*''sōn'' means "can't"
====Tense====
3 possible values:
*imperfect (present or past imperfective)
*perfect (past perfective); completed action
*future/subjunctive - future or certain subjunctive clauses (similar to Modern Hebrew future)
====Tables====
The preverbs that are conjugated and require non-finite verb forms are marked: (i) if the lexical verb is required to be in the infinitive and (p) if the lexical verb is required to be in the past participle.
Perfect preverbs and future/subjunctive preverbs are conjugated ergatively for subject and object. Perfect preverbs require the past participle form for the lexical verb; future preverbs require the infinitive.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|+ '''Inflection of the preverb'''
!rowspan="2"|
!colspan="3"| imperfect
!colspan="3"| perfect
!colspan="3"| future/subjunctive
|-
! <small>pos.</small></small> || <small>neg.</small> || <small>foc.</small> || <small>pos.</small> || <small>neg.</small> || <small>foc.</small> || <small>pos.</small> || <small>neg.</small> || <small>foc.</small>
|-
! direct (verbal)
| ''vor''
| ''mar''
| ''thom' ''
| ''khan''
| ''vij''
| ''lōm'''
| ''łar't''
| ''fai'''
| ''łarm'''
|-
! mirative
| ''thwal''
| ''thwal mar''
| ''thwal'om'''
| ''thwakh''
| ''thwaij''
| ''thwakh lōm'''
| ''thwal łar't''
| ''thwal fai'''
| ''thwal łarm'''
|-
! hearsay
| ''shan''
| ''shan mar''
| ''shanom' ''
| ''shanakh''
| ''shanj''
| ''shan lōm'''
| ''shan łar't''
| ''shan bai'''
| ''shan łarm' ''
|-
! inferential
| ''tiv''
| ''tiv mar''
| ''tiv thom' ''
| ''tílakh''
| ''tivaj''
| ''tiv lōm'''
| ''tiv łar't''
| ''tiv fai'''
| ''tiv łarm' ''
|-
! question
| ''am''
| ''maand''
| ''am thom' ''
| ''okh''
| ''morra''
| ''okh thom'''
| ''ner't''
| ''ner'bai'''
| ''nerm'''
|-
! relativizer (direct)
| ''vi''
| ''dov''
| ''vi thom'''
| ''vikh''
| ''dover''
| ''vikh thom'''
| ''ver't''
| ''do'ft''
| ''verm'''
|-
! relativizer (indirect)
| ''cha ''
| ''ro'ch''
| ''cha thom'''
| ''chakh''
| ''do'char''
| ''chakh thom'''
| ''char't''
| ''do'cht''
| ''charm'''
|-
! complementizer
| ''ith''
| ''dor''
| ''ith thom' ''
| ''ian''
| ''dorn''
| ''ian thom' ''
| ''naaf''
| ''dor't''
| ''naaf thom' ''
|-
! if (real)
| ''sher''
| ''rikh''
| ''sher thom' ''
| ''shern''
| ''reen''
| ''shern thom' ''
| ''wher't''
| ''reer't''
| ''wher't thom' ''
|-
! if (irreal or less vivid)
| ''rugħ''
| ''rikh''
| ''rugħ thom' ''
| ''rugħan''
| ''reen''
| ''rugħan thom' ''
| ''rur't''
| ''reer't''
| ''rugħ łar't thom' ''
|}
===Statives===
Like Mayan languages, Shalaian has a part of speech called statives, that are not inflected like verbs. (Somewhat like English words like ''aflame'' which can't be attributive)
===Numerals===
{{PAGENAME}} uses a mixed vigesimal system:
1. laath
2. wees(and)
3. syul
4. á'min
5. bathéem'
6. albón
7. whaisí'th
8. kṓgħas
9. yái'takh
10. sórth
11. soláath
12. sowées
13. sosyúl
14. solá'min
15. sobathéem'
16. soralbón
17. sowhaisí'th
18. sokṓgħas
19. soyái'takh
20. adrúgħ
400. hashón'
8000. akh'
160000. ví'wha
3200000. no'áv
Numerals come before nouns and are used with singular nouns.
''weesand'' is ''wees'' when attributive.
The ordinals are formed by affixing ''ner-''. 'First' is irregular: ''chakṓl''.
Distributives are formed with reduplication: ''latháath, wasées, sasyúl, aman'mín, ...''
==Syntax==
:''Main article: [[Shalaian/Syntax]]''
==Vocabulary==
Normative Shalaian tends to be purist, in that most words are derived from inherited roots and morphology. There are some [[Netagin]] loans as well. Spoken Shalaian spoken by Unbegotten learners may use English loans.
===Derivation===
Shalian has many derivational affixes. As usual in verb-initial languages, verbs tend to derive nouns rather the other way around. (TODO: need more deverbal noun affixes)
Get derivational affixes from rhymes in famous piyyutim?
*''-us'' = origin, language names
*''-id'' (after C), ''-wid'' (after V) = (h)  abstract noun from "adjective", -ness, -hood; noun-forming suffix
*''-agħ'' = (a) agentive
**''-agħid'' = deverbal noun suffix; -manship, X-ing
*''-ad'', ''-t'': noun-forming suffix
*''-isi'', ''-si'' (after fricatives); pl. ''-sée''? = agentive from verb
*''-whai'' = verb from noun (not very productive)
**''áanwhai'' 'to cherish' < ''aans'' 'dear'
*''-éen'' = -able (but ergative), to be VERB-ed
**''khairéen'' 'able to walk'
**''tankhairéen'' 'walkable' (Note that we had to make ''khair'' into a transitive verb using an applicative.)
*''-éer'' = causative, change of state from verb of state
*''-nan'' = verb denoting change of state
*''-fis'' = causative
*The intransitive prefix ''ri-'' forms intransitive verbs from transitive ones. This is not productive, as it has shifted to an impersonal verb affix. (Some intransitive verbs like ''riwháin'' 'to sleep' also have this prefix but the original meaning of the root has been lost.)
*''ya-'' 'negative'
*''-jan/-chan'' = (i) instrument suffix from verb
**''wairjan'' 'violin'
*''-fa'' (i) 'resultative noun from verb'
*''-va'tł, -wha/kha, -da, -iha, -ái'' (all h) 'action noun', '-ness', '-tion'
**''tóħsiha'' 'virtue, good' < ''toħáas'' 'good'
**''avréeniha'' 'courage' < ''avréen'' 'courageous'
**''whanéemva'tł'' 'dedication' < ''whanéem'' 'to dedicate'
**''valánwha'' 'vitality' < ''valán'' 'lively'
**''thalkháirva'tł'' 'resignation' < ''thalkháir'' 'to be resigned'
*''-ka'' = patientive suffix
==Literature==
===Poetry===
====Meter====
{{PAGENAME}} poems use stress-based meters common in English, such as iambic pentameter, alexandrine, iambic tetrameter, and anapaestic tetrameter. In iambic meters the last stressed syllable can be replaced with a trochee.
More constrained are quantitative-qualitative meters inspired by Hebrew [[w:piyyut|piyyutim]], with prescribed syllable weights for unstressed syllables. One example is the following version of the lục bát (note: h = heavy unstressed, ℓ = light unstressed; subscripts denote rhymes):
<poem>
hSℓSuS<sub>1</sub>
uSℓSuS<sub>1</sub>ℓS<sub>2</sub>
hSℓSuS<sub>2</sub>
uSℓSuS<sub>2</sub>ℓS<sub>3</sub>
hSℓSuS<sub>3</sub>
uSℓSuS<sub>3</sub>ℓS<sub>4</sub>
...
uSℓSuS<sub>n</sub>ℓS<sub>1</sub>
</poem>
Common units in quantitative-qualitative meters include hS, ℓS
Gibberish in Yigdal meter:
<poem>
''Stimsái't whidá'ch staħtáas mi kṓvidakh''
''Stilchéem kwajṓli mial għar rí'fħadakh''
''Whijósma' stágħran shwó'ch kwafáa'th sravdákh''
''Swha'ál għanín faslá'k al érkwandakh''
</poem>
Gibberish in Shaħar Avakeshkha meter:
<poem>
''Savnú'k stiwhárk tashnéel lanzháidi kwasnal'féen''
''Chamlúd aħinmórawh inchṓl' għar sowhnuféen''
''Cháanfer tanórran vái wha'krúh taħái' orái'k''
''Hṓnam stichúla'akh vikh yafs mi nee'ch sarái'k''
</poem>
====Rhyme====
Rhymes work much like in English.
In poetry, ''a'' in a syllable that is stressed according to the meter is not reduced, and is pronounced as /æ/.
====Form====
Alphabetical acrostics are sometimes written, as in Hebrew poetry. Since Shalaian has 23 consonant letters, alphabetical acrostics may be arranged in rhyming units of 3, 4, 3, 3, 3, 4, and 3 lines long, or cyclic permutations of this sequence (these are step sizes of the mavila[7] anti-diatonic scale in 23edo).
====Example====
===Prose===
A handful of {{PAGENAME}}-language fiction and scientific works have been written by those who learned the language. Fiction often takes place in hypothetical {{PAGENAME}}-speaking cultures or in hard sci-fi or high fantasy settings.
==Sample texts==
===Some math proofs===
====Snake Lemma====
===A biology abstract===
(todo)
We measure the nucleating eukaryotic folding of the TSP3 gene in ''Bruchorium sponercii''. TSP3 encodes a protezine-binding receptor kinase located at the cytotubular microsporellata of the quanticular ribosome, and malfunction of TSP3 is commonly believed to be the source of cybothrotic cancer. In this paper we prove using a Rɪᴇᴛᴢᴇʀ-Yᴀʟɪɴꜱᴋʏ double-blind test that TSP3 binding to the phyllochrypsinase inhibitor occurs (p = 0.856) in the hypotrellome of a healthy ''Bruchorium'' cell when adenotoxin concentrations are low. This research will have significant implications for the study of symbrychous descloroma.
==="Warming Up to You"===
<poem>
''Ó'thki għar vṓthal naaf chórragħad só'cham ríbi,''
even LOC die.INF-1SG that.FUT die.INF-2SG fall.INF-3SG.I time
Even with the knowledge that you will eventually die,
I will still feel your warmth up close,
The same warmth that nurtures curiosity,
The leaves of knowledge -
A garden that you have planted in this plot of land
and will keep forever.
</poem>
===The Round Table===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
[[Shalaian]]
''Laathkw, lṓkh vórl'i alvón łur għar tálgħer'ch. Lṓkh inłaifakh u Łiwhér Vrawíyad: "Idyám swiníd?"''
''Málash kóvlakh wa fadée thōl lyur, lōkh safainée łur laath: "Syul adrúgħ ał syul! Alvón tóvli, sobathéem' for'tán, adrúgħ syula'k, sobathéem' á'mina'k, laath bathéem'a'k."''
''Lōkh inłaifée u Łiwhér Vrawíyad: "Ħo'sh idyám ver't whid, wher't chṓ'khva taiv thōl min kwalyú?"''
''Lōkh noshłaifée u łur: "Maand għōdéen, Łiwhér? Whid ħerkh tłur'chta maráin khin yerlas, ał mosh ħerkh tłur'chta magħa ish taiv magħa."''
''Nargolamée u Łiwhér Vrawíyad miya łur mi thaaħ: "Vor għarri łur ain łiwhérid ał rogħn'va'tł mi ħídver."''
{{col-break}}
Original ([[Windermere/Classical|Classical Wdm.]])
''Ngiθ dur se taχ χaaθ mogor. Tăbiits φin Pĭda Brăwiid: "Măra łĭnam?"''
''Mi-ăngnung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: Șrüχ te-stiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müüts θraaφ, liiw stăliw, θaφ te-müüts mălsaaχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ."''
''Tăbiits φin Pĭda Brăwiid: "Ǎna mee ra, srüü hĭdeen croθ năθa?"''
''Eφθooc φin χaaθ, "Op cănga, φin Pida: tsor pădiiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!"''
''Esngiim φin Pĭda Brăwiid șa φin χaaθ șa-ngil, "Ăruuy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüüng te sen θăpal φănaw φănaw."''
{{col-break}}
English
Once, six children were in a round table. Master Brăwied asked them a question: "How many people are you?"
While five children were still counting, one child called out: "Sixty-three! Specifically: 6 individuals, 15 teams of two, 20 teams of 3, 15 teams of 4, 6 teams of 5, and one team of 6."
Then Master Brăwied asked: "Well then, how many people will be there if another person joins the group?"
The child replied: "Isn't it obvious, Master? We'll have all of the old teams, as well as another set of teams with the new person!"
The Master praised the child, saying, "This child has wisdom and understanding indeed."
{{col-end}}
==="Dirge Without Music"===
todo: Update to new phonology
{{col-begin}}
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<poem>
''Mar thalkháiral għar risítfonath avrée vi áanwhai għárri nójav áshkōħ.''
''Vor fyu't, lōkh fyu't, íyan fyu't, wheeds lo'chav raħchíshi;''
''Vor khairath wa diħál ał ħaikh áanwhaieen tarsht vijórid. Nasháif bachúl'''
''Shwéemath dérs ał shwéemath yáni cha kháirath. Raish mar thalkháiral.''
''Wa vi okhlée', wa vi kwō's, chavorníd tarzh imáin.''
''Laathnaníd għar ur mó'ter, u nyuv tawáidsha.''
''Wodṓn shúraħ fi'chrath chakh dár'inid miyath, chakh vól'inid miyath,''
''Wodṓns bṓ'kfer ał mawéeljan, raish lōkh għawór u ħerkh toħáas.''
''Wa logħjánakh dṓwas ał łiwér, u whayín' fol'chéen, u aswakher, u ħawín,''
''Wár'id fikh. Wár'id mi shúnid mikh folári. Ihaiséen ał niłgħéen''
''U wí'tha. Taloméen u wi'tha. Vól'al. Raish mar lifkhagħéer.''
''Thul' áans lōkh káihiv wakh ivá'nid vair ħérkhu wakh folári għarn rółan.''
''Ríshti, ríshti, ríshti tarzht vijóridan u shífi,''
''Mi vagħá'na vi kháirath, wa tíyav, wa yúmal, wa dókhti.''
''Mi tarṓm vi kháirath, wa raaskéen, wa ħiván', wa għáiłath.''
''Vól'al. Raish mar lifkhagħéer. Ał mar thalkháiral.''
''--Għídner Sain't-Vínsan't Mílai''
</poem>
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<poem>
NEG_VERB.PRES resign_oneself-1SG LOC COMP.SUBJ PASS-away-lock-3PL heart-PL PART-love OBL-DEF.SG.I ground hard.
PRES thus, and FUT thus, COMP-PST thus, since time peel-3SG.H imagine-NOMZ;
belly-3H dark-NOMZ REL.PRES go-3PL DEF.PL wise-ATTR and DEF.PL lovable-ATTR. 3PL-with crown-PL
made_of-3PL lily-PL and made_of-3PL laurel REL.PRES go-3PL; but NEG_VERB.PRES resign_oneself-1SG.
DEF.PL VI.PRES love and DEF.PL VI.PRES think, descend-2PL DAT-2PL belly-3SG.I DEF.SG.I earth.
become_one-2PL COM DEF.SG.H dull, DEF.SG.I dust uniform.
remain-3SG.I fragment peel-3PL REL.PST feel-2PL MI-3PL, REL.PST 2PL-know-2PL MI-3PL,
remain-3SG.H formula-3SG.H and phrase-3SG.I, but PST be_lost-3SG.I DEF.SG.I SUP good.
</poem>
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<poem>
I am not resigned to the shutting away of loving hearts in the hard ground.
So it is, and so it will be, for so it has been, time out of mind:
Into the darkness they go, the wise and the lovely.  Crowned
With lilies and with laurel they go; but I am not resigned.
Lovers and thinkers, into the earth with you.
Be one with the dull, the indiscriminate dust.
A fragment of what you felt, of what you knew,
A formula, a phrase remains,—but the best is lost.
The answers quick and keen, the honest look, the laughter, the love,—
They are gone.  They are gone to feed the roses.  Elegant and curled
Is the blossom.  Fragrant is the blossom.  I know.  But I do not approve.
More precious was the light in your eyes than all the roses in the world.
Down, down, down into the darkness of the grave
Gently they go, the beautiful, the tender, the kind;
Quietly they go, the intelligent, the witty, the brave.
I know.  But I do not approve.  And I am not resigned.
--Edna St. Vincent Millay
</poem>
<!--
===A tongue-twister===
<poem>
:'''''Farláafalfar lár fal, faláafal fal árfal.'''''
:farl-áafal-f-ar lár fal, fa-láafal fal árf-al.
:flying-monster-PL-GEN meeting on, this-porch on spin-1SG
:[fəˈlɑːfəɫfə ˈlɑː fəɫ fəˈlɑːfəɫ fəl ˈɑːfəɫ]
:For the flying monsters' meeting, I'm spinning on this porch.
:'''''Faláar fal, faláafal fal láafal faláafal.'''''
:Fa-láar fal, fa-láafal fal láafal faláaf-al
:this-ship on, this-post-1SG on space lack-1SG
:[fəˈlɑː fəɫ fəˈlɑːfəɫ fəl ˈɑːfəɫ fəˈlɑːfəɫ]
:It can't be helped, I don't have enough space on this wooden post of mine.
</poem>
===Xurnese dzusuis===
:'''''Thaaxái' dub da'rarí'a kanáish whíneel, wa'khi'arí yú'al.'''''
:thaax-ái' dub da'ra-í'a kanáish whín-eel, wa'kh-í'a-í yú'al
:say-IMP COMP man-DAT food exist-CONJ neighbor-DAT-3SG not_exist
:''Suppose that a man has food and his neighbor has none.''
:'''''... bá'chilkha, jowfanjérth cóoraks?'''''
:order-CONJ just-ADV do-INTERR
:''If, in order for him to give his neighbor food, he requires [his neighbor] to ceaselessly beg and abase himself, does he act justly?''
===UDHR===
''Xérkhu dá'araf hín'cheel foorákham; dow'ameedá'tha wakerafá'tharaith nabláiam. Finafí'a cṓjuram raxóo'bineel macháidıikh, idóor' owjáib whinam ahóowhaika wa'khi'arí wa'khi'arí érbu-tıushínjerth.''
'''''Xérkhu dá'araf hín'cheel foorákham; dow'ameedá'tha wakerafá'tharaith nabláiam.'''''
[ˈħɜːxʊ ˈdæʔəɹəf ˈhɪnʔtʃiːɫ foːˈɹæxəm, ˈθɛː nəbˈlɛɪəm dəʊʔəˈmiːdɪsʲ wəˈkɜːɹəfɪsʲɛɪθ]
xérkhu dá'r-af-0 jahín'ch-eel foorákham, dow'améed-á'tha wakéraf-á'tharaith nablaiam
all human-PL-ABS be_born-after free-DECL; dignity-3PL right-PL-3PL-and same-DECL.
'''''Finafí'a cṓjuram raxóo'bineel macháidıikh, idóor' owjáib whinam ahóowhaika wa'khi'arí wa'khi'arí érbu-tıushínjerth.'''''
[fɪnʲəˈfɪʔə ˈʕaʊdʒoːɹəm ɹəˈħuːʔbɪniːɫ məˈtʃɛɪdʲɪx, ɪˈdoːʔ əʊˈdʒɛɪb ˈxʷɪnəm əˈʕuːxʷɛɪ məʊɪʔɪ jəɫˈmɪ jəɫˈmɪ ˈɜːbʊ-tʲʊˈʃɪnʔdʒɜːθ]
Finı-af-í'a cṓj-khur-am raxóo'b-in-eel macháidıikh, idóor' owjáib whín-am acóo'whai-0 yalm-0-í yalm-0-í érbu-tıushín'-jerth
DEM-PL-LAT give-PAST-DECL think-NOMZ-CONJ direct-NOMZ, thus duty exist-DECL treat-SBJV fellow-ABS-3SG fellow-ABS-3SG older_brother-younger_brother-ADV.
===Lord's Prayer===
'''''Átt-aar-aia dub múhan-ad ajreeb-áac, wa'óor-unk-ad haatheer-kái'lish.'''''
father-VOC-1PL REL live-2SG sky-LOC, name-HON-2SG to_become_honored-OPT.
-->
[[Category:Unbegotten]][[Category:Languages]]

Latest revision as of 00:22, 11 November 2021

Labial Dental Alveolar Lateral Postalveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
plain labialized
Nasal plain m /m/ n /n/ ng /ŋ/
glottalized m̓ /ʔm/ n̓ /ʔn/
Fricative voiceless p /p/ t /t/ ξ /tɬ/ tj /tʃ/ c /k/ cw /kʷ/ ' /ʔ/
voiced b /b/ d /d/ dj /dʒ/ g /g/ gw /gʷ/
Fricative voiceless f /f/ th /θ/ s /s/ σ /ɬ/ sj /ʃ/ ch /x/ chw /xʷ/ lh /χ/ ħ /ħ/ h /h/
voiced v /v/ dh /ð/ z /z/ zj /ʒ/
Resonant λ /l/ r /r/ y /j/ w /w/ l /ʟ/ [ʁ̃~ɴ̆]
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