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{{privatelang}}
{{privatelang}}{{construction}}
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name          = Iliaqu
|name          = Iliaqu
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|ethnicity    = Ngolu / Ilaqu
|ethnicity    = Ngolu / Ilaqu
|speakers      = {{formatnum:100,000}}
|speakers      = {{formatnum:100,000}}
|setting      = Qu
|setting      = [[Verse:Qu|Qu]]
|fam1  = Language isolate
|fam1  = Language isolate
|creator      = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]
|creator      = [[User:Imralu|Imralu]]
|created      = 2013-2014
|created      = 2013-2020
|script        = (not created)
|script        = (not created)
|notice = IPA
|notice = IPA
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{{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}
{{infobox|bg=#F2DC77|native=iliaqu|in=Qu|no=100,000 (approx.)|tree=Isolate (as far as known)|wo=VSO|morph=Isolating/futional|ms=Nominative-Accusative|creator=[[User:Imralu|Imralu]]|date=2013-2014}}


'''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.
'''Iliaqu''' (IPA: /ˌɪljəˈʔuː/), also known as '''Ngolu''' or sometimes '''Qu''' (endonym: ''iliaqu'' IPA: [ìʎàʔú]) is a language isolate spoken throughout the known regions of the space habitat [[Verse:Qu|Qu]] by the Ngolu people, whose number is estimated to be around 100,000. As the Ngolu are almost entirely monolingual, and while voluntary travel to and from Qu remains impossible, the language is not in any danger of extinction. At this stage, little is known of dialect differences within Qu. There are estimated to be somewhere between 50 and 100 Iliaqu speakers on Earth who have simply mysteriously appeared in various locations. Small communities of Ngolu speakers been brought or have found their way together, the most well-known and well-studied of which is a group of about 15 living in and around Berlin, Germany.


Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.
Iliaqu is an isolating/fusional, head-initial (right-branching) language with VSO word order and nominative-accusative alignment. Verbs (verbals) make up the only open class of word, with nouns (nominals) constituting a closed class of heavily fusional words that fill the roll of pronouns and articles in other languages, marking grammatical person, number, definiteness and specificity, gender, accessibility, and case.
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Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.
Each vowel may be 'strong' or 'weak'. These are essentially stressed and unstressed. There is only ever one 'strong' vowel per word and it is nearly always the final vowel. Where it is not, it is always the penultimate vowel and the in that case the final vowel is always /i/ or /u/. Non-final strong vowels are indicated in the romanisation using an acute accent, ‹áéíóú›.


The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation (generally regarded as feminine) to a weight-based pronunciation (regarded as masculine). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder.  
The realisation of strong vowels varies across accents. There appears to be a cline ranging from a pitch-based pronunciation to a weight-based pronunciation (used chiefly by men). At the pitch-based end of the spectrum, 'strong' vowels are pronounced with a high tone and 'weak' vowels with a low-tone. At the end of a non-interrogative utterance, a high-tone becomes a falling tone. At the end of a question, a high tone may be lengthened and/or undergo an additional rise. At the weight-based extreme, strong vowels cause gemination of the following consonant but are pronounced as long themselves when the following sound is (1) a vowel, (2) a consonant cluster or (3) an already geminated consonant. Utterance finally, strong vowels are generally neither pronounced with a high tone nor lengthened but are usually pronounced slightly louder.  


The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.
The high vowels, /i/ and /u/, when 'weak' and adjacent to another vowel are pronounced non-syllabically as [i̯~j] and [u̯~w]). Non-syllabic /i/ merges with and palatalises any preceding dental/alveolar consonant.
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In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.
In these two word examples, the pitch-based pronunciation is given before the weight-based pronunciation.


:*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùˈʒà] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]
:*'''ju muja''' [ʒúmùʒâ] ~ [ʒumːuˈʒa]
:*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàˈjò] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]
:*'''ju aio''' [ʒúàjô] ~ [ʒuːaˈjo]
:*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàˈjà] [ʒuːwaˈja]
:*'''ju uaia''' [ʒúwàjâ] [ʒuːwaˈja]
:*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúnˈtù] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]
:*'''ju ntu''' [ʒúntû] ~ [ʒu:nˈtu]
:*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèˈwè] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]
:*'''ju lleue''' [ʒúlːèwê] ~ [ʒuːlːeˈwe]


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
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|}
|}


* The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ tʃ tsʼ dʒ ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears.  
* The nasal consonants /m n ŋ/, unlike other consonants, may occur before another consonant and then assimilate in place of articulation to that consonant. For this reason, many authors posit the archiphoneme /N/. /N/ may be syllabic post pausa, carrying a low tone. Before /l/, /N/ assimilates to [l̪] or [l̪̩]. Before /v/, it is pronounced as [ɱ] or [ɱ̩].
* /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive.
* The normal pronunciation of /n t tʼ ɾ l/ is dental [n̪ t̪ t̪ʼ ɾ̪ l̪]. When these consonants are followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are palatalised to [ɲ t͡s t͡sʼ d͡z ʎ] and the /i/ subsequently disappears. Some speakers palatalise /t/ and /d/ to [t͡ʃ] and [d͡ʒ] respectively. The ejective /tʼ/, however, is rarely or never palatalised as [t͡ʃʼ].
* Geminate /m/ and /n/ (resulting from /Nn/ and /Nm/) may be pronounced as [m̩b] [n̪̩d̪], particularly by men and particularly post pausa.
* /ɾ/ is frequently pronounced as a voiced dental plosive [d̪].
* Geminate /m/, /n/ and /l/ (resulting from /Nm/, /Nn/ and /Nl/) may be pronounced as [m̩b], [n̪̩d̪] and [l̪̩d̪] respectively, particularly by men and particularly post pausa.
* /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/.  
* /s/ and /z/ are normally alveolar. When followed by a non-syllabic /i/, they are not distinguished from /ʃ ʒ/.  
* /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.
* /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ cannot be followed by non-syllabic /i/.
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::'''nxua intaneti'''
::'''nxua intaneti'''
::/Nʃu.á.i.nta.ne.tí/
::/Nʃu.á.i.Nta.ne.tí/
::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]
::[n̩.ʃwájn.ta.ne.tí]
::''is on the internet''
::''is on the internet''


===Epenthetic /s/===
===Epenthetic /s/===
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===Nominals===
===Nominals===
Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of them, the '''pronominals''', are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.
Nominals are a large but closed class of inflecting words. The majority of nominals, the <u>pronominals</u>, are essentially the equivalent of pronouns and articles in other languages, inflecting for number, grammatical person, definiteness, specificity, gender, case and an inflectional dimension unique to Iliaqu, ''accessibility''. Pronominals can appear on their own or can be followed by a verbal or verbal phrase. When followed by a verbal, they can be regarded as the head of an underlying relative clause which nominalises the verbal and allows it to function as an argument in the sentence.




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In addition, there are two ''complementisers'' which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.
In addition to the pronominals, there are two <u>complementisers</u> which are essentially subordinating conjunctions which inflect for case. '''Zuo''' can be thought of as roughly equivalent to the English subordinating conjunction 'that' and '''kuo''' can be thought of as 'the time when'.




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Mass nouns indicating powders and granular substances are indicated in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.
Many words denoting powders and granular substances are used in the plural with the singular referring to an individual grain.




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Unusually, water is indicated in the plural as well, possibly reflecting the Ngolu's atomistic theory of matter.  
Water referred to as '''hunia''', potable water, is indicated in the plural as well when it is a quantity larger than what one person can drink in one sitting.  




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| "the things that" || "are potable"
| "the things that" || "are potable"
|-
|-
| colspan="2" |''the (drinkable) water''
| colspan="2" |''the (large quantity of drinkable) water''
|}
 
:Plural:
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| '''xu''' || '''hunia'''
|-
| NOM.3p.DEF.INAN.REL || be.potable
|-
| "the things that" || "are potable"
|-
| colspan="2" |''the (serving of drinkable) water''
|}
|}


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| "was heard" || "to me" || "the thing that" || "is a bird"
| "was heard" || "to me" || "the thing that" || "is a bird"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''I heard {{color|MediumBlue|the}} bird.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


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=====Clusivity=====
=====Clusivity=====
The plural forms of all pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness.  
The plural forms of all the basic pronominals are exclusive of other grammatical persons except for the first person plural forms '''inu''' and '''ina''', which can include third person referents as well, especially when expressing closeness.  


In order to group referents from more than one grammatical person together, the required pronominals are juxtaposed. For example, '''inu''' (gloss: NOM.1s.ICS) is the exclusive 'we'. The inclusive 'we' may take a form such as '''vu nu''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ICS NOM.1s.ICS) or '''nu ivu''' (gloss: NOM.1s.ICS NOM.2p.ICS), more or less equivalent to 'you and I'. Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons, these are made note of separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS). The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is only used to address two or more people when all are present.  
The first person inclusive (second plus first persons) may be indicated by compound pronominals, the dual forms ("you, one person, and I") being '''uana''', '''uanu''', '''vuna''', '''vunu''' and the plural forms being '''iuana''', '''iuanu''', '''ivuna''', '''ivunu'''. Which of the four options is used depends on [[#accessibility|accessibility]]. These compound forms are not used universally and many speakers use juxtaposition of pronouns, such as '''vu nu''' instead of '''vunu''' or '''iua na''' or '''iua ina''' instead of '''iuana'''.


The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person.
Even addressing people in the second person, should the group include third persons who are not being addressed, many speakers will make note of these separately, for example '''ju vu''' (gloss: NOM.3s.ICS.DEF NOM.2s.ICS) and this is somewhat prescriptively enforced. The nominal '''ivu''' (gloss: NOM.2p.ICS), for example, is recommended only for use to address two or more people when all are present or when the message is at the very least expected to be passed onto those who are not present. 
 
The order of the elements in these juxtapositions depends first on [[Ngolu#Social_Stratification_and_Language_Use|rank]], with pronominals referring to higher ranking referents appearing before those of lower ranking referents. When the referents are equally ranked, 2nd person precedes third person, which, in turn, preceds first person. The compound 2nd+1st person pronouns are not subject to this ordering rule.


Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.
Nominal juxtapositions are characterised by all pronominals being inflected in the same [[Ngolu#Case|case]]. For example, the nominative '''ua na''' (gloss: NOM.2s.ACS NOM.1s.ACS) becomes '''eues ene''' in the dative and '''uua una''' in the possessive.
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::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vei''' || '''ua'''
| '''bio''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|jo}}''' || '''vai''' || '''ua'''
|-
|-
| want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS
| want || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.C || stay || NOM.2s.ACS
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::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''ua''' || '''na'''
| '''kua''' || '''g-{{color|MediumBlue|ieji}}''' || '''uana'''
|-
|-
| JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.2s.ACS || NOM.1s.ACS
| JUSS || COP-DAT.3p.DEF.ICS || NOM.1+2DU.ACS
|-
|-
| "should" || "go - to them" || "you" || "I"
| "should" || "go - to them" || "you and I"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]
| colspan="4" | ''Let us go {{color|MediumBlue|to them}}.'' — [ACS]
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::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''ti''' || '''veis''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''
| '''ti''' || '''vais''' || '''inu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekio}}''' || '''loe''' || '''iju'''
|-
|-
| PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS
| PRF || stay || NOM.1p.ICS || DAT.TEMP.C || sleep || NOM.3p.DEF.ICS
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| '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''
| '''E''' || '''n-{{color|MediumBlue|nui}}'''
|-
|-
| IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ACS
| IMP || COP-ABL.1s.ICS
|-
|-
| "!" || "go - from me"
| "!" || "go - from me"
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::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')
| '''Mahu''' || '''eji''' || '''xuua''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kuio}}''' || '''iti''' || ('''ju''')
|-
|-
| be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)
| be.known || DAT.3s.DEF.ICS || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED || ABL.TEMP.C || be.small || (NOM.3s.DEF.ICS)
|-
|-
| "be known" || "to her/him" || "it" || "since" || "be small" || ("s/he")
| "be known" || "to her/him" || "that" || "since" || "be small" || ("s/he")
|-
|-
| colspan="6" | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''
| colspan="6" | ''She's known that {{color|MediumBlue|since}} she was little.''
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::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xu''' || '''tia'''
| '''li''' || '''molu''' || '''ju''' || '''nini''' || '''g-uues'''|| '''{{color|MediumBlue|akuo}}''' || '''xeva'''('''s''' || '''eji''') || '''xuua'''
|-
|-
| begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.that.2
| begin || be.dead || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.mother || COP-GEN.2s.ACS || LOC.TEMP.C || be.seen || (DAT.3s.DEF.ICS) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN.MED
|-
|-
| "begin" || "be dead" || "the inaccessible one who" || "be mother" || "be yours" || "when" || "be seen" || ("to the inaccessible one") || "the thing which" || "be that"
| "begin" || "be dead" || "the inaccessible one who" || "be mother" || "be yours" || "when" || "be seen" || ("to the inaccessible one") || "that thing"
|-
|-
| colspan="10" |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''
| colspan="10" |''Your mother's going to die {{color|MediumBlue|when}} she sees that.''
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=====Genitive=====
=====Genitive=====
The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(g)-''' ('''iu(g)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.
The genitive case indicates a possessor. It covers all types of possession and association other than legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English. It is formed by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) before an accusative nominal.




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=====Possessive=====
=====Possessive=====
The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(g)-''' ('''iu(g)-''' in plural) but before a nominative nominal.
The possessive case indicates strictly legal ownership. It is more or less equivalent to the preposition 'of' in English and may be used to indicate 'have' or 'own'. It is formed similarly to the genitive case: by prefixing '''u(r)-''' ('''iu(r)-''' in plural) but to a nominative nominal rather than an accusative one.




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Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for them to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.
It should be noted that, although in many languages, the genitive or possessive case is usually adnominal, referring to an immediately adjacent noun phrase, in Iliaqu, all nominals, regardless of case, refer to the predicate in their clause unless verbalised with the [[#Nominal_to_Verbal|copular prefix]]. Compare the following sentences.
 
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|g-una}}'''
|-
| be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || COP-POS.1S.ACS
|-
| "be a snake" || "at the thing which" || "be inside" || "be a boot" || "be mine"
|-
| colspan="5" | ''There's a snake in {{color|MediumBlue|my}} boot.'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]
|}
 
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| '''masa''' || '''xua''' || '''xa''' || '''buja''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|una}}'''
|-
| be.snake || LOC.3S.DEF.INAN || be.inside || be.boot || POS.1S.ACS
|-
| "be a snake" || "at the thing which" || "be inside" || "be a boot" || "my"
|-
| colspan="5" | ''There's a snake in the boot {{color|MediumBlue| and it's mine}}.'' / ''{{color|MediumBlue|I own}} a snake which is in the boot. — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]
|}
 
 
In the second sentence, the lack of the copula on '''une''' indicates that it represents an argument of the predicate ('''masa''' 'there is a snake'), meaning that it is the snake which belongs to the speaker, not the boot. The word order, placing the unadorned possessive argument ('''une''') after the much heavier locative argument ('''xua xa buja''') is heavily marked, placing focus on the fact that the snake is the speaker's legal possession.
 
Because of the law in Qu, according to which only ''muja'' (initiated men) are recognised as the legal ''owners'' of things (including slaves). In the underground humanist community, ''ataiva'', the possessive case may sometimes be applied to non-''muja'' as well, but it is also very common for ''ataiva'' to avoid the possessive case entirely in favour of the genitive case.


=====Vocative=====
=====Vocative=====
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| "oh you"
| "oh you"
|-
|-
| colspan="1" |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]
| colspan="1" |''{{color|MediumBlue|Hi}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]
|}
|}


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| '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|eiju}}'''
|-
|-
| VOC.3s.DEF.ACS
| VOC.3s.DEF.ICS
|-
|-
| "oh they"
| "oh they"
|-
|-
| colspan="1" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ACS/DOM]
| colspan="1" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Hello!}}.'' — [ICS/SUB]
|}
|}


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::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ate''' || '''nu'''
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekuos}}''' || '''ata''' || '''nu'''
|-
|-
| VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS
| VOC.TEMP.C || be.adult || NOM.1s.ICS
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::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-ara''' || '''hunia'''
| '''vuja''' || '''imu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ajo}}''' || '''hanas''' || '''ara''' || '''tiamiga''' || '''g-iara''' || '''hunia'''
|-
|-
| hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.potable
| hunt || NOM.3p.SPEC.ICS || INS.C || wait || LOC.3s.NSPC.INAN || be.undergrowth || be-LOC.3p.NSPC.INAN || be.potable
|-
|-
| "hunt" || "certain people" || "by" || "wait" || "at anything which" || "is bushes" || "be-at anything which" || "be drinking water"
| "hunt" || "certain people" || "by" || "wait" || "at anything which" || "is bushes" || "be-at any things which" || "be drinking water"
|-
|-
| colspan="8" |  ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="8" |  ''Some men hunt {{color|MediumBlue|by}} waiting in the undergrowth near water.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 1,223: Line 1,266:
====Nominal Tables====
====Nominal Tables====


=====First Person=====
Here is the entire set of nominals in the nominative case. The demonstrative forms given here can be analysed as contractions of nominals with the demonstrative verbals ''tie'', ''tia'' and ''tio'' and in some varieties of Iliaqu, other nominals can also be combined with demonstratives. For more information and tables of the demonstrative forms, see the section on [[#demonstratives|demonstratives]].
First person nominals are all definite.


::{| cellpadding="2"
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Simple  pronominals
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | singular
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | plural
|-
|-
| || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
|-
|-
| Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 1st person
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate definite
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | na
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | nu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ina
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | inu
|-
|-
| Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 2nd person
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate definite
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ua
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | vu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iua
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ivu
|-
|-
| Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 3rd  person
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate definite
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju
|-
|-
| Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate specific
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ma
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | mu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ima
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | imu
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | animate generic
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | u
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iu
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inanimate definite
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inanimate specific
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | zu
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | izu
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inanimate generic
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | a
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ia
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Demonstrative pronominals
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | singular
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | plural
|-
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
|-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: right;" | 3rd person
animate
definite
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | proximate
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja<u>ie</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju<u>ue</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija<u>ie</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju<u>ue</u>
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | medial
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja<u>ia</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju<u>ua</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija<u>ia</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju<u>ua</u>
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | distal
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ja<u>io</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ju<u>uo</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ija<u>io</u>
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iju<u>uo</u>
|-
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 3rd person
inanimate
definite
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | proximate
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu<u>ue</u>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu<u>ue</u>
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | medial
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu<u>ua</u>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu<u>ua</u>
|-
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | distal
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | xu<u>uo</u>
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ixu<u>uo</u>
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Compound pronominals
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | accessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | inaccessible
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | dominant
! style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | subordinate
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | 2nd + 1st person
| style="text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | dual
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | uana
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | vunu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | uanu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | vuna
|-
| style="text-align: right; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | plural
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iuana
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ivunu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | iuanu
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | ivuna
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left; font-weight:bold; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | Complimentisers
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | temporal
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | non-temporal
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" |
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | kuo
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; background-color:#ffffff; color:#00009b;" | zuo
|}
 
=====First Person=====
First person nominals are all definite and animate.
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.
|-
| Nominative || '''nu''' || '''inu''' || '''na''' || '''ina'''
|-
| Accusative || '''ni''' || '''ini''' || '''ne''' || '''ine'''
|-
| Dative || '''eni''' || '''ieni''' || '''ene''' || '''iene'''
|-
| Ablative || '''nui''' || '''inui''' || '''nai''' || '''inai'''
|-
|-
| Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana'''   
| Locative || '''nua''' || '''inua''' || '''ana''' || '''iana'''   
Line 1,260: Line 1,431:


=====Second Person=====
=====Second Person=====
Second person nominals are all definite.
Second person nominals are all definite and animate.


::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl.
| || ICS.SG || ICS:PL || ACS.SG || ACS.PL
|-
|-
| Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''
| Nominative || '''vu''' || '''ivu''' || '''ua''' || '''iua'''
Line 1,295: Line 1,466:
|}
|}


=====Second Person + First Person (First Person Inclusive)=====
First person inclusive nominals are all definite and animate. Because of the combination of first and second persons into a single word, the four stances, ''accessible'', ''inaccessible'', ''dominant'', ''submissive'' are represented within single words.


=====Third Person=====
{| cellpadding="2"
::'''Definite'''
||
::{| cellpadding="2"
|| ICS.DU
|| ACS.DU
|| DOM.DU
|| SUB.DU
|| ICS.PL
|| ACS.PL
|| DOM.PL
|| SUB.PL
|-
|-
| || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.
|| Nominative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuna
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuna
|-
|-
| Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''
|| Accusative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuine
|-
|-
| Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''
|| Dative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ieuine
|-
|| Ablative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuinui
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uainai
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uainui
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuinai
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuinui
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuainai
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuainui
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuinai
|-
|| Locative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuanua
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auanua
| style="font-weight:bold;" | vuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuanua
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iauana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iauanua
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ivuana
|-
|| Genitive
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuine
|-
|| Possessive
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uvunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uuanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | uvuna
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuvunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuuanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | iuvuna
|-
|| Vocative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | evunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | euanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | evuna
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eivunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eiuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eiuanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | eivuna
|-
|| Causal
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teuine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | teiuine
|-
|| Benefactive
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuauini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuauene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuauine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | kuaiuine
|-
|| Instrumental
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | auine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | aiuine
|-
|| Comitative
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leuine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | leiuine
|-
|| Topical
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veuine
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiuini
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiuene
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiueni
| style="font-weight:bold;" | veiuine
|-
|| Essive
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ovunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ouana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ouanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | ovuna
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oivunu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oiuana
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oiuanu
| style="font-weight:bold;" | oivuna
|}
 
=====Third Person=====
::'''Definite'''
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS. Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.
|-
| Nominative || '''ju''' || '''iju''' || '''ja''' || '''ija''' || '''xu''' || '''ixu'''
|-
| Accusative || '''ji''' || '''iji''' || '''je''' || '''ije''' || '''xi''' || '''ixi'''
|-
|-
| Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''
| Dative || '''eji''' || '''ieji''' || '''eje''' || '''ieje''' || '''exi''' || '''iexi'''
Line 1,374: Line 1,699:
| Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''
| Nominative || '''u''' || '''iu''' || '''a''' || '''ia'''
|-
|-
| Accusative || '''i''' || '''ji''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''
| Accusative || '''i''' || '''iri''' || '''e''' || '''ie'''
|-
|-
| Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''
| Dative || '''eri''' || '''ieri''' || '''ere''' || '''iere'''
Line 1,382: Line 1,707:
| Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''
| Locative || '''aru''' || '''iaru''' || '''ara''' || '''iara'''
|-
|-
| Genitive || '''ugi''' || '''iugi''' || '''uge''' || '''iuge'''
| Genitive || '''uri''' || '''iuri''' || '''ure''' || '''iure'''
|-
|-
| Possessive || '''ugu''' || '''iugu''' || '''uga'''* || '''iuga'''*
| Possessive || '''uru''' || '''iuru''' || '''ura'''* || '''iura'''*
|-
|-
| Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia'''  
| Vocative || '''eru''' || '''eiu''' || '''era''' || '''eia'''  
Line 1,471: Line 1,796:
|• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person
|• '''golu''' || 'to be a person' || [NOM] is a person
|-
|-
|• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of the opposite gender)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]
|• '''alu''' || 'to be a friend/lover/concubine (of a different rank)' || [NOM] is a friend of [DAT], lover of [GEN] and concubine of [POS]
|-
|-
|• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]
|• '''mala''' || 'to be a building/house/home' || [NOM] is a building/house which is owned by [POS] and home to [GEN]
Line 1,529: Line 1,854:




::{| class="wikitable"
::{|
|-
|-
| Predicate || colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Argument (Subject)  
| style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || scope="col" width="10" | || colspan="2" style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject)  
|-
|-
| '''gahu''' || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''
| '''gahu''' || || '''ju''' || '''zagua'''
|-
|-
| howl || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon
| howl || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || be.gibbon
|-
|-
| "howls" || "the being who" || "is a gibbon"  
| "howls" || || "the being who" || "is a gibbon"  
|-
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:left" | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left" | ''The gibbon howls.'' — '''kali'''
|-
|- style="height: 2em;"
|
|  
|-
|-
| Predicate || colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Argument (Subject)  
| style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Predicate || || colspan="2" style="text-align:center" style='border-style: none none solid none' | Argument (Subject)  
|-
|-
| '''zagua''' || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''
| '''zagua''' || || '''ju''' || '''gahu'''
|-
|-
| be.gibbon || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl
| be.gibbon || || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS.REL || howl
|-
|-
| "is a gibbon" || "the being who" || "howls"  
| "is a gibbon" || || "the being who" || "howls"  
|-
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:left" | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''
| colspan="4" style="text-align:left" | ''What howls is a gibbon.'' — '''kali'''
|}
|}


Line 1,680: Line 2,005:
| "is the pair of eyes" || "my" || "the thing which" || "is a snake"
| "is the pair of eyes" || "my" || "the thing which" || "is a snake"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''Muja''' [ACS/SUB]
| colspan="4" | ''I'm looking at the snake'' — '''muja''' [ACS/SUB]
|}
|}


Line 1,692: Line 2,017:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''lama''' || '''ana''' || '''teui'''
| '''lamas''' || '''aja''' || '''teui'''
|-
|-
| be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS
| be.tear || LOC.3s.DEF.ACS || CAU.2s.ICS
Line 1,698: Line 2,023:
| "is (a) tear(s)" || "at him/her" || "because of you"
| "is (a) tear(s)" || "at him/her" || "because of you"
|-
|-
| colspan="3" | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/DOM]
| colspan="3" | ''S/He's crying because of you.'' — [ICS/SUB]
|}
|}


Line 1,838: Line 2,163:
======Gerundive======
======Gerundive======


The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something.
The gerundive infix '''-i-''' indicates the use or purpose of something. The accusative role is promoted to the nominative role, as with the passive construction with '''he''', but in addition the assertion is made that this is a good or customary use for the referent in question.




Line 1,846: Line 2,171:
::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)
::→ '''t{{color|MediumBlue|i}}au''' 'to be food' (to be something to be eaten, irregular)
::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)
::→ '''ka{{color|MediumBlue|i}}u''' 'to be edible' (regular)
:* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes', 'to look at'
:* '''jalo''' 'to welcome', 'to receive', 'to accept (into a place)'
::→ '''jal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a guest' (one who is to be welcomed)
:* '''asu''' 'to be seated', 'to be sitting'
::→ '''a{{color|MediumBlue|x}}u''' 'to be a chair', 'to be a seat' (to be something to be sat on) [''*asiu'' → ''axu'']
:* '''ila''' 'to speak', 'to talk'
::→ '''il{{color|MediumBlue|i}}a'''' 'to be language' (to be something to be spoken)
:* '''zoi''' 'to say', 'to tell'
::→ '''zo{{color|MediumBlue|j}}i''' 'to be worth saying', 'to be fitting/appropriate' (to be something to be said) [''*zoii'' → ''zoji'']
:* '''go''' 'to do something', 'to act'
::→ '''g{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be a duty', 'to be an obligation', 'to be a good idea' (to be something to be done)
:* '''mue''' 'to be able', 'to be capable'
::→ '''m{{color|MediumBlue|i}}ue''' 'to be a required skill' (to be something that someone should be able to do)
:* '''omo''' 'to be a pair of eyes'; (with genitive subject) 'to look at'
::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)
::→ '''om{{color|MediumBlue|i}}o''' 'to be beautiful', 'to be handsome' (to be something to be looked at)
:* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', 'to crush under a boot'
:* '''bale''' 'to be a fist'; (with genitive subject) 'to punch'
::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot)
::→ '''bal{{color|MediumBlue|i}}e''' 'to be punchable', 'to have a punchable face' (to be one who ought to be punched, a common pejorative word)
:* '''buja''' 'to be a boot', (with genitive subject) 'to crush under a boot'
::→ '''buj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be a bug', 'to be vermin' (to be something to be crushed under a boot) [''*bujia'' → ''buji'']
:* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'
:* '''vuja''' 'to hunt', 'to be a hunter'
::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted)
::→ '''vuj{{color|MediumBlue|i}}''' 'to be prey', 'to be a game animal' (to be something to be hunted) [''*vujia'' → ''vuji'']
 


======Locative======
======Locative======
Line 1,872: Line 2,210:
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}bani''' 'to be rich' (≈ 'to be with money')
:* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'
:* '''oba''' 'to be a room, chamber'
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with money')
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|os}}oba''' 'to be chambered' (≈ 'to be with room(s)')
:* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'
:* '''talu''' 'to be fur, body hair'
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')
::→ '''{{color|MediumBlue|o}}talu''' 'to be furry, hairy' (≈ 'to be with fur, body hair')
Line 1,903: Line 2,241:
In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.
In other instances, certain actions may be proscribed for a certain rank. For example, methods of cooking that involve mixing ingredients together is seen as befitting only a ''kali'' and the word for this type of cooking, '''kela''' is restricted to ''kali''. ''Muja'' are allowed to cook, but only in order to make food edible (ie. heating it but not mixing different ingredients together or adding spices) and this type of cooking is referred to as '''bisa''', which is not restricted to a particular rank.


Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha'''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').
Similarly, for religious reasons, violence and killing of any kind are acceptable only for ''muja'' and therefore words such as the following are restricted to occurring with ''muja'' subjects: '''vuja''' ('to hunt'), '''ttio''' ('to hit'), '''tioru''' ('to kick') '''uo''' ('to kill deliberately', 'to murder'), '''xagu''' ('to execute'), '''zaha''' ('to fight physically'), '''aiuo''' ('to shoot').


Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.
Some other words appear only with ''kali'' subjects, such as '''haua''' which means 'to sob', 'to howl', 'to cry audibly'. It is perfectly acceptable for ''muja'' to cry, but they are expected to be silent. The ''kali-''verbal '''iavu''' means 'to weave' or 'to make clothing', which again is work for a ''kali'' to perform. However, to make clothing which is suitable for combat is work for ''muja'' and the word for this is '''iavuja''', which is a ''muja'' word.
Line 2,007: Line 2,345:
| "break gender roles" || "hit" || "the inaccessible being" || "the accessible being"
| "break gender roles" || "hit" || "the inaccessible being" || "the accessible being"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him.''
| colspan="4" |''She {{color|MediumBlue|(shamefully) hit}} him/her.''
|}
|}


Line 2,016: Line 2,354:
====''Au''====
====''Au''====


====''Au'' and ''teuo''====
====''Au'' and ''teu''====


'''Au''' and '''teuo''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teuo''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.
'''Au''' and '''teu''' are used to order the events multiple clause sentence. '''Au''' introduces the clause in which the first action took place and is thus roughly equivalent to 'first' or 'after' whereas '''teu''' introduces a later action and is thus equivalent to 'then' or 'before'. They are usually used as correlative conjunctions, with both present in the sentence.




::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || ('''nu''')
|-
|-
| first || eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)
| first;after|| eat || NOM.1s.ICS || second;before || sleep || (NOM.1s.ICS)
|-
|-
| "first" || "eat" || "I" || "then" || "sleep" || ("I")
| "first" || "eat" || "I" || "then" || "sleep" || ("I")
Line 2,039: Line 2,377:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''')  
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|teu}}''' || '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''')  
|-
|-
| second || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)
| second/before || sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)
|-
|-
| "then" || "sleep" || "I" || "first" || "eat" || ("I")  
| "then" || "sleep" || "I" || "first" || "eat" || ("I")  
Line 2,057: Line 2,395:
| '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''')  
| '''loe''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|au}}''' || '''kau''' || ('''nu''')  
|-
|-
| sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)
| sleep || NOM.1s.ICS || first/after || eat || (NOM.1s.ICS)
|-
|-
| "sleep" || "I" || "first" || "eat" || ("I")  
| "sleep" || "I" || "first" || "eat" || ("I")  
Line 2,064: Line 2,402:
''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''
''I slept, {{color|MediumBlue|but first}}, I ate.''
|}
|}
'''Au''' is also a verbal occasionally used to mean "to be first", however in this usage it has mostly been replaced by the regular '''tahu'''.


====''Ha''====
====''Ha''====
Line 2,163: Line 2,503:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''
| '''xu''' || '''omo''' || '''g-unis''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|i-}}iaha'''
|-
|-
| be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful
| NOM.3S.DEF.INAN || be.pair.of.eyes || COP-GEN.1s.ICS || PRED-be.painful
|-
|-
| "be a pair of eyes" || "be mine" || "hurt"  
| "the thing which" || "be a pair of eyes" || "be mine" || "hurt"  
|-
|-
| colspan="3" | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]
| colspan="4" | ''As for my eyes, they're sore.'' — [ICS/DOM]
|}
|}


Line 2,193: Line 2,533:
| "be very" || "rain" || "so" || "be going to" || "become large" || "the things which" || "be stream"
| "be very" || "rain" || "so" || "be going to" || "become large" || "the things which" || "be stream"
|-
|-
| colspan="7" | ''It's raining hard, so the streams are going to swell.''
| colspan="7" | ''It's raining hard, {{color|MediumBlue|so}} the streams are going to swell.''
|}
|}


Line 2,673: Line 3,013:
|}
|}


===Interrogation===


====Polar Questions====
Both '''kka''' and '''ahe''' have equivalent adverbial forms, '''kku''' and '''lahe''' respectively, which do not require the use of '''lo''' when negating or affirming an argument. The previous sentence may be expressed as follows.
 
Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.




::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''
| '''uo''' || '''xi''' || '''oko''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kku}}''' || '''ja''' || '''tehi''' || {{color|MediumBlue|'''lahe'''}} || '''ja''' || '''mbuja'''
|-
|-
| Q || rain
| kill. deliberately || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN.REL || be.dog || ADV.be.not || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Tehi || ADV.be.indeed || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS.REL || be.Mbuja
|-
|-
| "?" || "rain"
| "kill deliberately" || "the thing which" || "be.dog" || "while be not" || "the accessible being who" || "be Tehi" || "while be indeed" || "the accessible being who" || "be Mbuja"
|-
|-
| colspan="2" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''
| colspan="11" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Not}} Tehi {{color|MediumBlue|but}} Mbuja killed the dog.''
|}
 
===Interrogation===
 
====Polar Questions====
 
Polar questions are indicated with '''ha'''.
 
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''lalu'''
|-
| Q || rain
|-
| "?" || "rain"
|-
| colspan="2" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Is it}} raining{{color|MediumBlue|?}}''
|}
|}


Line 2,807: Line 3,162:
===Time===
===Time===


Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context.
Marking of time (tense and aspect) is not obligatory in Ngolu and may always be left up to context. For our purposes here, we shall not distinguish between actions (e.g. ''kill'') and states (e.g. ''want'', ''be a house'') as temporal marking is identical for both. The word ''action'' will be used henceforth and should be understood to mean "action or state".




Line 2,818: Line 3,173:
| "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="3" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="3" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|kills / killed / will kill / is killing / has killed [...]}} it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


 
====Relative tenses====
When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a "relative tense" (aspect). The three basic "relative tense" markers are ...  
When time needs to be indicated, it is most often done by means of a verbal indicating a "relative tense" (aspect). These are relative to a contextually understood time in question, the "reference time". The three basic "relative tense" markers are ...  




*'''ti''' "perfect" (PRF), indicating an action or state entirely before the time in question
*'''ti''' "perfect" (PRF), indicating an action that occurred before the reference time
*'''zo''' "progressive" (PROG), indicating an action or state concurrent with the time in question
*'''zo''' "progressive" (PROG), indicating an action underway at the reference time
*'''ka''' "prospective (PROS), indicating an action or state entirely after the time in question.
*'''ka''' "prospective (PROS), indicating an action occurring after the reference time




By default, the "time in question" is the present time. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.
By default, the reference is the present, the time in which the utterance is made. However, if another time is contextually understood, any of these may refer to events in the past, present or future.




Line 2,839: Line 3,194:
| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN
| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN
|-
|-
| "be finished" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has / had / will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 2,853: Line 3,208:
| "be underway" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "be underway" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 2,865: Line 3,220:
| "be going to" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "be going to" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is / was / will be going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


 
====Absolute tenses====
The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' ensures that time is marked with reference to the current time of speaking rather than to a contextually understood time frame. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.
The prefix '''e-''' attached to the beginning of any of these aspect markers creates an absolute tense marker. The '''e-''' sets the reference time to the current moment in which the utterance is made. This is usually only used to disambiguate or to emphasise a time frame.




*'''eti''' "past" (PST), indicating an action or state entirely in the past.
*'''eti''' "past" (PST), indicating an action that occurred in the past
*'''ezo''' "present" (PRES), indicating an action or state occurring in the present.
*'''ezo''' "present" (PRES), indicating an action underway in the present
*'''eka''' "future (FUT), indicating an action or state that will occur in the future.
*'''eka''' "future (FUT), indicating an action that will occur in the future




Line 2,885: Line 3,240:
| "be earlier" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "be earlier" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} / {{color|MediumBlue|has}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it (earlier / before / already).'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


Line 2,897: Line 3,252:
| "be now" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "be now" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|is}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} it {{color|MediumBlue|(now)}}.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}
====Continuation====
There are also compounds formed from two time words that indicate continuation from one time frame to another using a linking ''-e-''. This linking ''-e-'' is probably not related to the ''e-'' of absolute temporal reference, but to the ''e-'' prefix of dative case nominals and the derivation prefix ''e-'' that can be added to verbals indicating motion towards something.




More than one time word can be used together.
*'''tiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that starting before the reference time and continuing up to it
*'''zueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action continuing from the reference time and extending to a later time
*'''etiezo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action that started in the past and continues to the present
*'''ezueka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action that starts in the present and will continue into the future.




::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezos}}''' || '''oila''' || '''na''' || '''xiies''' || '''oge'''
|-
|-
| be.PRES || be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN
| PRF.PROG|| read || NOM.1S.ACS || ACC.3S.DEF.INAN.PROX || be.book
|-
|-
| "will" || "be finished" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
| "have been doing" || "read" || "I" || "this thing which" || "is a book"
|-
|-
| colspan="5" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — ['''muja''']
| colspan="5" | ''I {{color|MediumBlue|have been}} read{{color|MediumBlue|ing}} this book.'' — [ACS/SUB]
|}
|}


====Perfective and imperfective====
In addition, the word '''bie''' contrasts with '''zo'''. Whereas '''zo''' specifies that an action is underway at the reference time, essentially taking a "snapshot" of the interior of an action, after its beginning and before its completion, '''bie''' specifies perfectivity, metaphorically painting a picture of the whole completed action without permitting a look inside. On its own, it does not specify whether the completed action occurs before or after the reference time, but it does explicitly specify that the action is ''not'' underway at the reference time.


There are also compounds formed from two time words.
Both ''bie'' and ''zo'' may be suffixed to other verbals indicating time in order to explicitly distinguish the imperfective (progressive) aspect from the perfective aspect, while also specifying time.




*'''tizo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action or state occurring before and continuing up to the contextually understood time
{| class="wikitable"
*'''zoka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action or state occurring at the contextually understood time and extending into the future
| colspan="2" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | perfectivity:
*'''etizo''' (PRF.PROG), indicating an action or state that started in the past and continues to the present
| style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | undefined
*'''ezoka''' (PROG-PROS), indicating an action or state that starts in the present and will continue into the future.
| style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | imperfective (progressive)
 
| style="color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | perfective
 
|-
The distance from the time in question can be indicated by adding time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''. The forms with '''e-''' indicate distance from the present ('''eti''' "ago", '''etizo''' "for", '''eka''' "in") while the forms without '''e-''' may indicate distance from a contextually understood time ('''ti''' "before", '''ka''' "later").
| colspan="2" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | undefined time
 
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | -
::{| cellpadding="2"
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | zo
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | bie
|-
| rowspan="5" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | relative time
| style="text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | past
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ti
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | tizo
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | tibie
|-
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | past→present
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | tiezo
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | -
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | -
|-
|-
| be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill
| style="text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | present
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | zo
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | -
|-
|-
| "was" || "be two" || "be year" || "then" || "become" || "be ill"
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | present→future
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | zueka
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | -
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | -
|-
|-
| colspan="5" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''
| style="text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | future
|}
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ka
 
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | kazo
 
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | kabie
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
|| ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''
| rowspan="5" style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | absolute time
| style="text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | past
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | eti
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | etizo
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | etibie
|-
|-
| || be.going to || be.one || be.month || thus || die
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | past→present
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | etiezo
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | -
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | -
|-
|-
| || "be going to" || "be one" || "be month" || "then" || "die"
| style="text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | present
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ezo
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | -
|-
|-
| ||colspan="5" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''
| style="text-align: right; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | present→future
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ezueka
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | -
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | -
|-
| style="text-align: right; text-decoration:underline; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | future
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | eka
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ekazo
| style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold; font-style:italic; color:rgb(0, 0, 0);" | ekabie
|}
|}
Note that '''zo''' appears twice in the table although it really only has one function; it specifies an action underway at the reference time (i.e. concurrent with it), which itself may be unspecified.
The reduplicated forms '''zozo''' ('these days', 'in those days') and '''ezozo''' ('these days') do not appear in the above table as they indicate a loosening of the bounds of the reference time or current time. The reference or current time can be tightened or emphasised with '''bazo''' ('right now', 'right then', 'at that/this very moment') or '''ebazo''' ('right now', 'at this very moment').
====Resultative perfect====
The word '''bue''' indicates a ''resultative perfect'', functioning similarly to '''ti''' in that it describes an action occurring prior to the reference time, however the focus of '''bue''' is not on the action itself, but on the resulting post-action state at the reference time.




::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|etizo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|bue}}''' || '''kaxa''' || '''xu''' || '''giloxuo'''
|-
|-
| be.PST-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS
| RES.PRF|| break(INTR) || NOM.3s.DEF.INAN || window.pane
|-
|-
| "be from the past till now" || "be five" || "be year" || "then" || "be known" || "the person" || "to me"
| "is in the resulting state" || "break" || "the thing which" || "is a window pane"
|-
|-
| colspan="5" | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]
| colspan="4" | ''The window {{color|MediumBlue|is}} br{{color|MediumBlue|o}}k{{color|MediumBlue|en}}.''
|}
|}




There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.
'''Bue''' is frequently prefixed to the following word (for example ''buekaxa'' instead of ''bue kaxa''). Its passive equivalent '''hi-''' is always prefixed.


''Days''
====Time word stacking====
* '''ariu''' "yesterday"
More than one time word can be used together.
* '''aku''' "today"
* '''anu''' "tomorrow"
 
''Lighting''
* '''auo''' "by day"
* '''eio''' "by night"
 
''Distance in time''
* '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' "just" (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)
* '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' "about to" (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)
* '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' "a long time ago" (reduplication for distance into the past)
* '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' "eventually" (reduplication for distance into the future)


''Other aspectual differences''
* '''hua''' "always", "permanently" [gnomic]
* '''niu''' "habitually" [habitual]
* '''guegue''' "repeatedly", "again and again"
* '''egue''' "again"
* '''tara''' "suddenly"
* '''li''' "starts"
* '''bi''' "stops"
* '''ligue''' "resumes"
===Demonstratives===
Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.
* '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]
* '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]
* '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]
When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.


::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|eka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''
|-
|-
| NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house
| be.FUT|| be.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN
|-
|-
| "the thing that" || "is by you" || "is a house"
| "will" || "be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="3" |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]
| colspan="5" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''
|-
|-
| NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house
| be.PST|| be.PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN
|-
|-
| "the thing that" || "is by you" || "is a house"
| "was" || "will" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| colspan="3" |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]
| colspan="5" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
|}


The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for "therefore" is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').


====Contractions====
These are usually compounded together.


The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:
* '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) 
* '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)
* '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said'
* '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said'
Here is a table of forms:


::'''Definite'''
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|ekati}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''
|-
|-
| Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''  || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''
| be.FUT.PRF || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN
|-
|-
| Nominative Medial  || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''  || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''
| "will be prior" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''  || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|will have}} kill{{color|MediumBlue|ed}} it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
|
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|etika}}''' || '''uo''' || '''ju''' || '''xi'''
|-
|-
| Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
| be.PST-PROS || MUJA.kill.deliberately || NOM.3s.DEF.ICS || ACC.3s.DEF.INAN
|-
|-
| Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
| "was going to" || "kill" || "the person" || "it"
|-
|-
| Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''
| colspan="4" | ''He {{color|MediumBlue|was going to}} kill it.'' — '''muja'''
|}
 
====Distance from reference time====
The precise distance from the reference time can be indicated using adverbial clauses with '''lo''' followed by the unit of time, '''(e)ti''' or '''(e)ka''' and an ordinal number, which begins with ''t-''.
 
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
|
| '''li''' || '''zaxa''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|teuo}}'''
|-
|-
| Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
| begin || be.ill || ADV || be.year || be.PRF || be.second
|-
|-
| Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
| "becomes" || "is ill" || "while" || "is year" || "is earlier" || "is second"
|-
|-
| Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''
| colspan="6" | ''S/he fell ill {{color|MediumBlue|two years before/ago}}.''
|-
|}
|
 
|-
This sentence could be translated somewhat more literally as "S/he fell ill while there was the second previous year." Note that replacing '''ti''' with '''eti''' would force the interpretation with "ago" as it would set the reference time to the present moment.
| Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
 
|-
 
| Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' ||  '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''
|| Bie || bilo || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ka}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tahu}}'''
|-
|-
|
| be.PFV || die || ADV || be.month || be.PROS || be.first
|-
|-
| Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
| "is completed" || "dies" || "while" || "is month" || "is about to" || "is first"
|-
|-
| Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
| colspan="6" |  ''S/he died {{color|MediumBlue|one month later}}. / S/he will die {{color|MediumBlue|in one month}}.''
|-
|}
| Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''
 
|-
A more literally translation could be "S/he died while there was the second coming year." Note again that replacing '''ka''' with '''eka''' would force the interpretation with "in one month" as it would set the reference time to the present moment.
|
 
|-
In the following example, in which a duration is specified rather than a specific time, the adverbial clause contains only the length of time.
| Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
 
|-
 
| Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|lo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}'''
|-
|-
|
| be.PRF-PRES || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS || ADV || be.five || be.year
|-
|-
| Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''
| "has been till now" || "is known" || "the person" || "to me" || "while" || "are five" || "is year"
|-
|-
| Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''
| colspan="5" | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]
|-
|}
| Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''
 
|-
 
|
Another means of conveying the same information is to place the time specifiers after the tense or aspect marker and then introducing the rest of the sentence with '''to'''.
|-
 
| Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|eti}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|euo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''li''' || '''zaxa'''
|-
| be.PST || be.two || be.year || thus || begin || be.ill
|-
| "was" || "be two" || "be year" || "then" || "become" || "be ill"
|-
| colspan="5" | ''{{color|MediumBlue|Two years ago,}} s/he fell ill.''
|}
 
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|| ... || '''{{color|MediumBlue|kas}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ahu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|noila}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''bilo'''
|-
| || be.going.to || be.one || be.month || thus || die
|-
| || "is going to" || "is one" || "is month" || "then" || "die"
|-
| ||colspan="5" |  ''{{color|MediumBlue|One month later,}} s/he died.''
|}
 
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|tiezo}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|vane}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|laqu}}''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''' || '''tuhu''' || '''jas''' || '''eni'''
|-
| be.PRF-PRES || be.five || be.year || thus || be.known || NOM.3s.DEF.ACS || DAT.1s.ICS
|-
| "has been till now" || "are five" || "is year" || "then" || "is known" || "the person" || "to me"
|-
| colspan="5" | ''I have known him/her {{color|MediumBlue|for five years}}.'' — [ICS/DOM]
|}
 
====Miscellaneous time words====
There are a range of other verbals which indicate time in a similar way. Here are some examples.
 
''Days''
* '''ariu''' "yesterday"
* '''aku''' "today"
* '''anu''' "tomorrow"
 
''Lighting''
* '''auo''' "by day"
* '''eio''' "by night"
 
''Distance in time''
* '''ttie''' / '''ettie''' "just" (similar to '''ti''' but specifies a very short distance of time)
* '''tieka''' / '''etieka''' "about to" (similar to '''ka''' but specifies a very short distance of time)
* '''ti ti''' / '''eti ti''' "a long time ago" (reduplication for distance into the past)
* '''ka ka''' / '''eka ka''' "eventually" (reduplication for distance into the future)
 
''Other aspectual differences''
* '''hua''' "always", "permanently" [gnomic]
* '''niu''' "habitually" [habitual]
* '''guegue''' "repeatedly", "again and again" [iterative]
* '''egue''' "again"
* '''tara''' "suddenly"
* '''li''' "starts", "begins", "commences"
* '''bi''' "stops", "ceases"
* '''ligue''' "resumes"
 
===Demonstratives===
 
Demonstratives distinguish three degrees of distance associated with the three grammatical persons.
 
* '''''tie''''' 'this' or 'these' near the speaker [1st person - proximal]
* '''''tia''''' 'that' or 'those' near the listener [2nd person - medial]
* '''''tio''''' 'that' or 'those' away from both speaker and listener [3rd person - distal]
 
When speaking to someone of the same or higher rank and referring to the something that is close to both speaker and listener (such as a house that both are inside), the 2nd person '''''tia''''' 'that' is used. Only persons of higher rank may use the first person form '''''tie''''' in such situations.
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''' || '''mala'''
|-
| NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.MED || be.house
|-
| "the thing that" || "is by you" || "is a house"
|-
| colspan="3" |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [SUB]
|}
 
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| '''xu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''' || '''mala'''
|-
| NOM.3s.INAN.DEF || be.DEM.PROX || be.house
|-
| "the thing that" || "is by you" || "is a house"
|-
| colspan="3" |''{{color|MediumBlue|this}} house'' — [DOM]
|}
 
The association between the grammatical persons and the demonstratives is strong, with words, statements and actions made by a person frequently being referred to using the appropriate demonstrative. For example, a commonly used phrase for "therefore" is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}'' (literally 'because of this (by me)') when the reasoning is based on what the speaker just said, but when the reasoning is based on what their interlocutor just said, this phrase is ''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}'' (literally 'because of that (by you)').
 
====Contractions====
 
The demonstrative verbals '''''tie''''', '''''tia''''' and '''''tio''''' form very common contractions with third person definite nominals, transforming the above examples as follows:
 
* '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tia}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}} mala''''' 'this house' / 'that house' (by you) 
* '''''xu {{color|MediumBlue|tie}} mala''''' → '''''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}} mala''''' 'this house' (by me)
* '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tie}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what I said'
* '''''texi {{color|MediumBlue|tia}}''''' → '''''texi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''''' 'so / therefore / because of what you said'
 
Here is a table of forms:
 
::'''Definite'''
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
| || ICS Sg. || ICS. Pl. || ACS Sg. || ACS Pl. || Inan. Sg. || Inan. Pl.
|-
| Nominative Proximal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''  || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''
|-
| Nominative Medial  || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''  || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''
|-
| Nominative Distal || '''ju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''ja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ija{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''  || '''ixu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''
|-
|
|-
| Accusative Proximal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''|| '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
|-
| Accusative Medial || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
|-
| Accusative Distal || '''ji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''je{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ije{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''
|-
|
|-
| Dative Proximal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
|-
| Dative Medial || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
|-
| Dative Distal || '''eji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''eje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ieje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''exi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iexi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''
|-
|
|-
| Ablative Proximal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
|-
| Ablative Medial || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
|-
| Ablative Distal || '''jui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''jai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijai{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' ||  '''xui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixui{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''
|-
|
|-
| Locative Proximal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
|-
| Locative Medial || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
|-
| Locative Distal || '''jua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ijua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''aja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iaja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''xua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''ixua{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''
|-
|
|-
| Genitive Proximal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
|-
| Genitive Medial || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
|-
| Genitive Distal || '''uji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuji{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuje{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''uxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuxi{{color|MediumBlue|io}}'''
|-
|
|-
| Possessive Proximal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''
|-
| Possessive Medial || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''
|-
| Possessive Distal || '''uju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''iuju{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''uja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''iuja{{color|MediumBlue|io}}''' || '''*uxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}''' || '''*iuxu{{color|MediumBlue|uo}}'''
|-
|
|-
| Vocative Proximal || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ue}}'''
|-
|-
| Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''
| Vocative Medial || '''eju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eiju{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eja{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''eija{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''exu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}''' || '''eixu{{color|MediumBlue|ua}}'''
Line 3,136: Line 3,677:
|
|
|-
|-
| Topical Prodimate || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
| Topical Proximal || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ie}}'''
|-
|-
| Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
| Topical Medial || '''veji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veiji{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veje{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veije{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''vexi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}''' || '''veixi{{color|MediumBlue|ia}}'''
Line 3,331: Line 3,872:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vei''' || '''tiaia'''
| ('''{{color|MediumBlue|to}}''') || '''ttio''' || '''nu''' || '''ue''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|ha}}''' || '''vai''' || '''tiaia'''
|-
|-
| (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2
| (then) || hit || NOM.1s.ICS || ACC.2s.ACS || if || stay || do.that.2
Line 3,358: Line 3,899:
::{| cellpadding="2"
::{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|-
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''abani'''
| '''{{color|MediumBlue|toi}}''' || '''bi''' || '''xo''' || '''nu''' || '''{{color|MediumBlue|hai(zuo)}}''' || '''hues''' || '''obani'''
|-
|-
| then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich
| then.would || stop || work || NOM.1s.ICS || if.IRR || be.more || be.rich
Line 3,402: Line 3,943:


===Speech Crime===
===Speech Crime===
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
Imralu
577

edits

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/189720...295775"