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Thezhmic: Difference between revisions
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'''Thezhmic''' (/ˈθɛʒmɪk/, Native: ''Ŧəźmikós'' /θəʒmiˈkos | '''Thezhmic''' (/ˈθɛʒmɪk/, Native: ''Ŧəźmikós'' /θəʒmiˈkos/) is an Indo-European language. | ||
{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
|name = Thezhmic | |name = Thezhmic | ||
| Line 307: | Line 307: | ||
Any non-nasal vowel can form a falling dipthong with ''-i'' and ''-u'' (unless it results in a sequence of two identical vowels). | Any non-nasal vowel can form a falling dipthong with ''-i'' and ''-u'' (unless it results in a sequence of two identical vowels). | ||
===Prosody=== | ===Prosody=== | ||
| Line 425: | Line 399: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| colspan="2"| - | | colspan="2"| -ōt | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
| colspan="2"| - | | colspan="2"| -ōs || rowspan="2"| -oizous || colspan="2"| -oizōm | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| Line 436: | Line 410: | ||
'''Examples:''' | '''Examples:''' | ||
*'''wə́lqos, - | *'''wə́lqos, -ōs (m.):''' wolf | ||
*'''nizdós, - | *'''nizdós, -ōs (m.):''' nest | ||
*'''wérjom, - | *'''wérjom, -ōs (n.):''' work | ||
====Ā-stems==== | ====Ā-stems==== | ||
| Line 463: | Line 437: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| - | | -āt | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
| -ās || rowspan="2"| - | | -ās || rowspan="2"| -āzous || -āzōm | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| Line 480: | Line 454: | ||
*'''þōnā́, -ā́s (f.):''' grain | *'''þōnā́, -ā́s (f.):''' grain | ||
*'''ġnā́, -ā́s (f.):''' woman | *'''ġnā́, -ā́s (f.):''' woman | ||
*'''wəlqī́, wəlqyā́s (f.):''' she-wolf | *'''wəlqī́, wəlqyā́s (f.):''' she-wolf | ||
| Line 491: | Line 464: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Nominative | ! Nominative | ||
| -is || rowspan="3"| -i || rowspan="3"| -ī || rowspan="2"| -ēis || rowspan="3"| -ī | | -is || rowspan="3"| -i || rowspan="3"| -ī; -i¹ || rowspan="2"| -ēis; -yes¹ || rowspan="3"| -ī; -i¹ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Vocative | ! Vocative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Instrumental | ! Instrumental | ||
| colspan="2"| -ī || rowspan="3"| -ivom || colspan="2"| -ivis | | colspan="2"| -ī; -i¹ || rowspan="3"| -ivom || colspan="2"| -ivis | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
| colspan="2"| -ēi || colspan="2" rowspan="2"| -ivos | | colspan="2"| -ēi; -i¹ || colspan="2" rowspan="2"| -ivos | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| colspan="2"| - | | colspan="2"| -eit; -it¹ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
| colspan="2"| -eis || rowspan="2"| -izous || colspan="2"| -izōm | | colspan="2"| -eis; -is¹ || rowspan="2"| -izous || colspan="2"| -izōm | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| colspan="2"| -ēi || colspan="2"| -izu | | colspan="2"| -ēi; -i¹ || colspan="2"| -izu | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
'''Notes:''' | |||
¹ After vowels | |||
'''Examples:''' | '''Examples:''' | ||
*'''méntis, mə̃téis (f.):''' mind, intellect | *'''méntis, mə̃téis (f.):''' mind, intellect | ||
| Line 529: | Line 506: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Nominative | ! Nominative | ||
| -us || rowspan="3"| -u || rowspan="3"| -ū || rowspan="2"| -ewes || rowspan="3"| -ū | | -us || rowspan="3"| -u || rowspan="3"| -ū; -u¹ || rowspan="2"| -ewes; -wes¹ || rowspan="3"| -ū; -u¹ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Vocative | ! Vocative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Accusative | ! Accusative | ||
| - | | -um; -m¹ || -uns | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Instrumental | ! Instrumental | ||
| colspan="2"| -ū || rowspan="3"| -uvom || colspan="2"| -uvis | | colspan="2"| -ū; -u¹ || rowspan="3"| -uvom || colspan="2"| -uvis | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
| colspan="2"| -ewei || colspan="2" rowspan="2"| -uvos | | colspan="2"| -ewei; -wei¹ || colspan="2" rowspan="2"| -uvos | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| colspan="2"| - | | colspan="2"| -eut; -ut¹ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
| colspan="2"| -eus || rowspan="2"| -uzous || colspan="2"| -uzōm | | colspan="2"| -eus; -us¹ || rowspan="2"| -uzous || colspan="2"| -uzōm | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| colspan="2"| -ēu || colspan="2"| -uzu | | colspan="2"| -ēu; -wi¹ || colspan="2"| -uzu | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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'''Notes:''' | '''Notes:''' | ||
¹ | ¹ After a vowel. In the singular m./f. accusative, the preceding vowel to be lengthened if short. | ||
'''Examples:''' | '''Examples:''' | ||
| Line 567: | Line 544: | ||
These nouns have stems ending in a liquid (''r'' or ''l'') or a nasal (''n'' or ''m''). | These nouns have stems ending in a liquid (''r'' or ''l'') or a nasal (''n'' or ''m''). | ||
In some cases, the stem-final consonant may vary betwen | In some cases, the stem-final consonant may vary betwen strong and weak stems - the most common example is an alternation between ''r'' and ''n'' in neuter nouns. | ||
The following shorthand symbols are used: | The following shorthand symbols are used: | ||
| Line 592: | Line 569: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Nominative | ! Nominative | ||
| -LC | | -LC || rowspan="3"| -S; -VC¹ || rowspan="3"| -VCe || rowspan="2"| -VCes || rowspan="3"| -LC | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Vocative | ! Vocative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Accusative | ! Accusative | ||
| -VCũ | | -VCũ || -VCə̃s | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Instrumental | ! Instrumental | ||
| colspan="2"| - | | colspan="2"| -Cē² || rowspan="3"| -Svom; -Cvom³ || colspan="2"| -Svis; -Cvis³ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
| colspan="2"| - | | colspan="2"| -Cei² || colspan="2" rowspan="2"| -Svos; -Cvos³ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| colspan="2"| - | | colspan="2"| -Cet² | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
| colspan="2"| - | | colspan="2"| -Ces² || rowspan="2"| -Cous² || colspan="2"| -Cōm² | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| colspan="2"| - | | colspan="2"| -Ci² || colspan="2"| -Szu; -Czu³ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
'''Notes:''' | '''Notes:''' | ||
<!-- | |||
¹ When V = ''o'' and C = ''n'' (i.e. expected ''-ōn'' becomes ''-ō''). | ¹ When V = ''o'' and C = ''n'' (i.e. expected ''-ōn'' becomes ''-ō''). | ||
² When C = ''m'' (i.e. expected ''-Vmũ'' becomes ''-Lm''). | ² When C = ''m'' (i.e. expected ''-Vmũ'' becomes ''-Lm''). | ||
--> | |||
¹ Depending on the noun, the neuter nominative/vocative/accusative singular may end in ''-S'' or ''-VC''. <!--Adjectives always take the latter ending.--> | |||
² When a forbidden consonant would result, ''-ə-'' is inserted. | |||
³ ''-S-'' becomes ''-C-'' after a vowel. | |||
'''Examples:'' | '''Examples:''' | ||
*''' | *'''pátēr, patrés (m.):''' father | ||
*'''ŧéźōm, ŧəźmés (f.):''' homeland | *'''ŧéźōm, ŧəźmés (f.):''' homeland | ||
*'''ənómə̃, ənémnes (n.):''' name | *'''ənómə̃, ənémnes (n.):''' name | ||
*''' | *'''ścũmṓn, ścũnés (m.):''' human | ||
*'''wódər, wédōr, udnés (n.):''' water | *'''wódər, wédōr, udnés (n.):''' water | ||
*'''sṓwəl, saunés (n.):''' sun | *'''sṓwəl, saunés (n.):''' sun | ||
| Line 701: | Line 678: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| colspan="2"| - | | colspan="2"| -et | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
| Line 717: | Line 694: | ||
'''Examples:''' | '''Examples:''' | ||
*''' | *'''pṓts, pódes, pedés (m.):''' foot | ||
*''' | *'''nóqs, nóqtes, néqtes (f.):''' night | ||
*'''névos, névōs, névezes (n.):''' cloud | *'''névos, névōs, névezes (n.):''' cloud | ||
*'''mḗns, mḗnzes (m.):''' moon | *'''mḗns, mḗnzes (m.):''' moon | ||
====Vowel-stems==== | |||
These comprise nouns whose stems end in a vowel that are not o-, ā-, or i-stems. They most often end in long vowels, but not always. | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Vowel-stem declension | |||
! rowspan="2"| Case !! colspan="2"|Singular !! Dual !! colspan="2"|Plural | |||
|- | |||
! m./f. !! n. !! m./f./n. !! m./f. !! n. | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
| -s || rowspan="3"| - || rowspan="3"| - || rowspan="2"| -s || rowspan="3"| - | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
| - | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
| -m || -ns | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
| colspan="2"| -¹ || rowspan="3"| -vom || colspan="2"| -vis | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
| colspan="2"| -i || colspan="2" rowspan="2"| -vos | |||
|- | |||
! Ablative | |||
| colspan="2"| -t | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
| colspan="2"| -s || rowspan="2"| -zous || colspan="2"| -zōm | |||
|- | |||
! Locative | |||
| colspan="2"| -i || colspan="2"| -zu | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
'''Notes:''' | |||
¹ A final short vowel is lengthened. | |||
'''Examples:''' | |||
*'''də̃źū́s, də̃źwā́s (f.):''' tongue | |||
*'''méjas, ũjás (m.):''' big one | |||
====Mixed consonant-vowel stems==== | |||
These are nouns where strong stem and weak stems forms differ in declension such that one of them is declined as a consonant stem and the other is declined as a vowel stem. | |||
'''Examples:''' | |||
*'''póntōs, póntōs, pə̃tés (m.):''' road, path | |||
====Weak stem patterns==== | ====Weak stem patterns==== | ||
| Line 745: | Line 768: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! u-stem | ! u-stem | ||
| u-stem || masc./neut. weak stem + ''- | | u-stem || masc./neut. weak stem + ''-(e)wī, -uyās'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! i-stem | ! i-stem | ||
| i-stem || masc./neut. weak stem + ''-ī, - | | i-stem || masc./neut. weak stem + ''-ī, -yās'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! liquid/nasal-stem | ! liquid/nasal-stem | ||
| Line 754: | Line 777: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! consonant-stem | ! consonant-stem | ||
| consonant-stem || masc./neut. weak stem + ''-ī, -( | | consonant-stem || masc./neut. weak stem + ''-ī, -yās'' | ||
|- | |||
! vowel-stem | |||
| vowel-stem || masc./neut. weak stem + ''-i, -yās'' | |||
|- | |||
! mixed-stem | |||
| mixed-stem || masc./neut. weak stem + ''-ī/i, -yās'' (when weak stem is a consonant-stem/vowel-stem respectively) | |||
|} | |} | ||
<!-- | |||
'''Notes:''' | '''Notes:''' | ||
¹ The feminine weak stem may end in a palatalized consonant instead of ''-y-''. However, cases where this would occur have mostly been reversed by anology. | ¹ The feminine weak stem may end in a palatalized consonant instead of ''-y-''. However, cases where this would occur have mostly been reversed by anology. | ||
--> | |||
The citation form of adjectives is: ''masculine singular nominative, neuter singular nominative, (masculine/neuter singular genitive), (feminine singular nominative), (feminine singular genitive)''. | The citation form of adjectives is: ''masculine singular nominative, neuter singular nominative, (masculine/neuter singular genitive), (feminine singular nominative), (feminine singular genitive)''. | ||
*The genitive(s) can be dropped when the adjective is declined regularly. This most often happens with ō/ā-stem adjectives. | *The genitive(s) can be dropped when the adjective is declined regularly. This most often happens with ō/ā-stem adjectives. | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!6 | !6 | ||
| | | swékś, -ōm, -fis || sweśtós, -óm, -ā́ | ||
|- | |- | ||
!7 | !7 | ||
| septṹ, -zōm, - | | septṹ, -zōm, -vis || septũmós, -óm, -ā́ | ||
|- | |- | ||
!8 | !8 | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!100 | !100 | ||
|cũtóm, - | |cũtóm, -ōs<!--; semcũtóm, -óśśo--> || cũtomós, -óm, -ā́ | ||
|- | |- | ||
!200 | !200 | ||
|(dwṓ) cũtṓ, ( | |(dwṓ) cũtṓ, (dwóizous) cũtóizous; dwōcũtṓ, -óizous|| dwōcũtomós, -óm, -ā́ | ||
|- | |- | ||
!300 | !300 | ||
| trī́ cũtā́, | | trī́ cũtā́, trizṓm cũtóizōm; trīcũtā́, -óizōm || trīcũtomós, -óm, -ā́ | ||
|- | |- | ||
!1000 | !1000 | ||
|śézlom, | |śézlom, śézlōs || śezlomós, -óm, -ā́ | ||
|- | |- | ||
!2000 | !2000 | ||
|(dwṓ) śézlō, ( | |(dwṓ) śézlō, (dwóizous) śézloizous; dwōśézlō, -oizous || dwōśezlomós, -óm, -ā́ | ||
|- | |- | ||
!3000 | !3000 | ||
|trī́ śézlā, trizṓm | |trī́ śézlā, trizṓm śézloizōm; trīśézlā, -oizōm || trīśezlomós, -óm, -ā́ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2"|Nominative | ! colspan="2"|Nominative | ||
| rowspan="2"| | | rowspan="2"| éj | ||
| rowspan="2"| wḗ | | rowspan="2"| wḗ | ||
| rowspan="2"| wḗis | | rowspan="2"| wḗis | ||
| Line 916: | Line 945: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2"| Ablative | ! colspan="2"| Ablative | ||
| | |əmét | ||
| | |anwét | ||
| | |ə̃zmét | ||
| | |twét | ||
| | |ūwét | ||
| | |uzmét | ||
| | | swét | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="2"| Genitive !! tonic | ! rowspan="2"| Genitive !! tonic | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Nominative | ! Nominative | ||
| ís || rowspan="3"| | | ís || rowspan="3"| ít || ī́ || rowspan="3" colspan="2"| ī́ || rowspan="2"| ḗis || rowspan="3"| ī́ || rowspan="2"| ī́s | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Vocative | ! Vocative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| colspan="2"| | | colspan="2"|ézmet || éśśāt | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
| colspan="2"| | | colspan="2"| ézmes || éśśās || rowspan="2"| éizous ||rowspan="2"| éśśāzous || colspan="2"| éizōm || éśśāzōm | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| Line 996: | Line 1,025: | ||
====Demonstrative pronouns==== | ====Demonstrative pronouns==== | ||
There are three demonstratives: | There are three demonstratives: | ||
*The neutral demonstrative '' | *The neutral demonstrative ''tós, -ót, -ā́'' "this, that" (declension in the table below). | ||
*The near demonstrative '' | *The near demonstrative ''cís, -ít, -ī́'' "this" (declined as the third person pronoun ''is''). | ||
*The far demonstrative ''énos, - | *The far demonstrative ''énos, -ot, -ā'' "that" (declined as the neutral demonstrative ''tos''). | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
|+ Declension of the neutral demonstrative ''tos'' "this, that" | |+ Declension of the neutral demonstrative ''tos'' "this, that" | ||
| Line 1,006: | Line 1,035: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Nominative | ! Nominative | ||
| tós || rowspan="3"| | | tós || rowspan="3"| tót ||tā́|| rowspan="3"| tṓ || rowspan="3"|tā́i || rowspan="2"| tói || rowspan="3"| tā́ || rowspan="2"| tā́i | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Vocative | ! Vocative | ||
| Line 1,021: | Line 1,050: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| colspan="2"| | | colspan="2"|tózmet || tóśśāt | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
| colspan="2"| | | colspan="2"| tózmes || tóśśās || rowspan="2"| tóizous ||rowspan="2"| tóśśāzous || colspan="2"| tóizōm || tóśśāzōm | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| Line 1,032: | Line 1,061: | ||
====Relative pronoun==== | ====Relative pronoun==== | ||
The relative pronoun is ''yós, - | The relative pronoun is ''yós, -ót, -ā́'' "that which". It is declined as ''tos''. | ||
====Interrogative pronoun==== | ====Interrogative pronoun==== | ||
The interrogative pronoun is ''qís, - | The interrogative pronoun is ''qís, -ít, -ī́'' "who, what". It is declined as ''is''. | ||
====Indefinite pronoun==== | ====Indefinite pronoun==== | ||
The indefinite pronoun is ''qós, - | The indefinite pronoun is ''qós, -ót, -ā́'' "someone, something". It is declined as ''tos''. | ||
====Other pronouns==== | ====Other pronouns==== | ||
*''ħályos, - | *''ħályos, -ot, -ā'' "other, another" (declined as ''tos'') | ||
*''pélus, pélu, pléus, pléwī, pluyā́s'' "all" (declined as a u-stem adjective) | |||
===Derivation=== | |||
==Verbs== | ==Verbs== | ||
===Stems=== | |||
Verbs have four stems: | |||
*Present stem | |||
*Future stem | |||
*Perfect stem | |||
*Neutral stem | |||
Each of these stems may have strong and weak variants. | |||
These stems are given by the principal parts. For most verbs, the neutral stem is not directly given in a principal part but instead can be regularly derived from the present or future stem by the following rules: | |||
#If one of the two stems is derived from the other by adding something (a suffix, infix, prefix, etc.), the simpler stem (i.e. the one that does not have the addition) is used. | |||
#If the stems are suppletive, the perfect stem is used. | |||
In cases where the above rules do not apply, the neutral stem is directly provided in the principal parts. | |||
Regardless of which stem is used, the neutral stem inherits both the strong and weak variants from its parent stem. | |||
====Principal parts==== | |||
The principal parts are: | |||
*The 1S present indicative | |||
*The 1P present indicative (if the present weak stem is different than the strong stem) | |||
*The 1S future indicative | |||
*The 1P future indicative (if the future weak stem is different than the strong stem) | |||
*The 1S perfect indicative | |||
*The 1P perfect indicative (if the perfect weak stem is different than the strong stem) | |||
*The singular nominative action noun (if the neutral stem is irregular) | |||
*The singular genitive action noun (if the weak neutral stem is irregular and different than the strong netral stem) | |||
For example, the citation form of the verb "to be" is ''ézmi, əzmés, fū́mi, fevū́ħa''. Note that the 1P future and perfect forms are excluded since the weak stems are identical to the corresponding strong stems. | |||
===Tenses=== | |||
The following simple tenses/moods exist: | |||
*Based on the present stem: | |||
**'''Present indicative:''' Expresses an action/state that is ongoing or that is done habitually. | |||
**'''Present subjunctive:''' Expresses an ongoing hypothetical or counterfactual action/state. It is also used as the negative counterpart to the durative imperative. | |||
**'''Imperfect:''' Expresses an ongoing or habitual action/state in the past. | |||
**'''Presumptive:''' Expresses an action/state that is presumed to be ongoing. | |||
**'''Durative imperative:''' Expresses a command or request to do something continuously or to continue to do it. | |||
*Based on the future stem: | |||
**'''Future indicative:''' Expresses an action/state in the future. It is also used as a present tense in narratives. | |||
**'''Future subjunctive:''' Expresses a hypothetical or counterfactual action/state that has not yet occurred. | |||
**'''Gnomic:''' Expresses general truths. It is also used as a past tense in narratives. | |||
**'''Jussive:''' Expresses a request or encouragement for an action to be performed (less emphatic than the imperative). It is also used as the negative counterpart of the simple imperative. | |||
**'''Simple imperative:''' Expresses a request or command for an action to be performed. | |||
*Based on the perfect stem: | |||
**'''Perfect indicative:''' Expresses a simple action in the past. | |||
**'''Perfect subjunctive:''' Expresses a hypothetical action in the past. | |||
**'''Conditional:''' Expresses a counterfactual action/state in the past, or an action/state whose validity is dependent on such a condition. | |||
====Stem patterns==== | |||
When it comes to stems, there are three patterns depending on the tense: | |||
*'''Pattern 1 (mixed stem):''' Strong stem in the singular, secondary stem in the plural and impersonal. | |||
**Indicative tenses follow this pattern. | |||
*'''Pattern 2 (strong stem):''' Strong stem throughout the tense. | |||
**Subjunctive tenses follow this pattern. | |||
*'''Pattern 3 (weak stem):''' Weak stem throughout the tense. | |||
**Non-indicative tenses that are not subjunctive follow this pattern. | |||
===Voice=== | |||
There are three voices that are indicated by conjugation: | |||
#'''Active''': | |||
#*This is the default form of a verb. | |||
#*The verb agrees with the subject who does the action. | |||
#'''Middle''': | |||
#*It can have anticausative or autocausative meanings. | |||
#*With intransitive verbs, it often has an autobenefactive meaning. There may be special connotations for specific verbs. | |||
#'''Passive''': | |||
#*The verb agrees with the patient on which the action is done. | |||
#*With intransitive verbs, it often implies that an action occurred without volition/intent. There may be special connotations for specific verbs. | |||
===Stress=== | |||
In verbs, stress is usually on the stem. | |||
However, some athematic verbs take stress on the ending whenever the weak stem is used. This stress in always on the final syllable of the verb except in 3P forms ending in ''-enti'', in which case the stress is on the penultimate syllable (i.e. ''-énti''). | |||
In partiples, infinitives, and other derived nouns/adjectives, such verbs take stress on the case endings except in the primary stems of active participles, which take stress on the first syllable of the derivational ending. | |||
In all cases, the stress patterns can easily be identified from the principal parts. | |||
<!-- | |||
Note that perfect stems that are derived from present or future stems by a suffix (such as ''-đ-'') are stressed on the final syllable before the suffix.--> | |||
<!-- | |||
Forms using strong stems are stressed on the final syllable of the stem, while forms using weak stems are stressed on the ending. | |||
However, there are a few verbs with lexical stress on the stem. In these verbs, the weak stem is identical to the strong stem and it is stressed instead of the ending.--> | |||
===Verb conjugation=== | |||
====Verb classes==== | |||
There are two main classes of verbs. | |||
#'''Athematic verbs''' - These are classified into three sub-classes: | |||
##'''Long vowel stems:''' Strong and weak stems are identical and end in a long vowel. | |||
##'''Short vowel stems:''' The weak stem (and maybe also the strong stem) ends in a short vowel. | |||
##'''Consonant stems:''' These have a stem that ends in a consonant - most perfect stems and a few other stems fall in this class. | |||
#'''Thematic verbs''' - The majority of verbs fall under this class (except in the perfect). There are subclasses of thematic verbs depending on the formation of the various stems. | |||
Note that it is possible for the different stems of a single verb to be in different classes or sub-classes. <!--In fact, this is true of the majority of verbs, which have thematic present and future stems and an athematic perfect stem.--> | |||
====Forms based on the present stem==== | |||
The following tenses are based on the present stem: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Forms based on the present stem | |||
! Form !! Stem type | |||
|- | |||
| Present indicative || Mixed | |||
|- | |||
| Present subjunctive || Strong | |||
|- | |||
| Imperfect || Mixed | |||
|- | |||
| Presumptive || Weak | |||
|- | |||
| Durative imperative || Weak | |||
|- | |||
| Present participles || Weak | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
The endings are as follows: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Conjugation of active present-stem forms | |||
<!-- | |||
! colspan="5"| Present active infinitive | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|- | |||
--> | |||
! colspan="5"| Present active participle | |||
|colspan="3"| -nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ə̃tes, -ntī/ə̃tī, -ntyās/ə̃tyās | |||
|colspan="3"| -nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ontes, -ntī/ontī, -ntyās/ontyās | |||
|- | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! colspan="2"|Present indicative !!colspan="2"| Present subjunctive !! colspan="2"|Imperfect !! colspan="2"|Presumptive !! colspan="2"|Durative imperative | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -(ũ)mi || -ō || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmi || -ũ/m || -om || -yem/īm || -oyem || -(ũ)mu || -omu | |||
|- | |||
!2S | |||
| -zi/si/əzi || -ezi || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ēzi || -(ə)s || -es || -is/īs || -ois || -đi/ŧi/əđi || -eđi | |||
|- | |||
!3S | |||
| -(ə)ti || -eti ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ēti ||-(ə)t || -et || -it/īt || -oit || -(ə)tu || -etu | |||
|- | |||
!1D | |||
| -(u)wes || -owes ||colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōwes || -(u)we || -owe || -iwe/īwe || -oiwe || -(u)weu || -oweu | |||
|- | |||
!2D | |||
| -(ə)tons || -etons ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētons || -(ə)tom || -etom || -itom/ītom || -oitom || -(ə)tonđi || -etonđi | |||
|- | |||
!3D | |||
| -(ə)tāns || -etāns ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētāns|| -(ə)tām || -etām || -itām/ītām || -oitām || -(ə)tāmu || -etāmu | |||
|- | |||
!1P | |||
| -(ũ)mes || -omes || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmes || -(ũ)me ||-ome || -ime/īme || -oime || -(ũ)meu || -omeu | |||
|- | |||
!2P | |||
| -(ə)tes || -etes || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētes || -(ə)te || -ete || -ite/īte || -oite || -(ə)teđi || -eteđi | |||
|- | |||
!3P | |||
| -nti/enti || -onti || colspan="2"|-(ʕ)ōnti || -nt/ent || -ont || -yent/īnt || -oyent || -ntu/entu || -ontu | |||
|- | |||
! IMP | |||
| -(ə)ri || -ori || colspan="2"|-(ʕ)ōri || -(ə)r || -or || -yer/īr || -oyer || -(ə)ru || -oru | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Conjugation of middle present-stem forms | |||
<!-- | |||
! colspan="5"| Present active infinitive | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|- | |||
--> | |||
! colspan="5"| Present middle participle | |||
|colspan="3"| -mnos/umnos, -mnom/umnom, -mnā/umnā | |||
|colspan="3"| -omnos, -omnom, -omnā | |||
|- | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! colspan="2"|Present indicative !!colspan="2"| Present subjunctive !! colspan="2"|Imperfect !! colspan="2"|Presumptive !! colspan="2"|Durative imperative | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -(ũ)mazi || -omazi || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmazi || -(ũ)mas || -omas || -yemas/īmas || -oyemas || -(ũ)mazu || -omazu | |||
|- | |||
!2S | |||
| -(ə)stazi || -estazi || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ēstazi || -(ə)stas || -estas || -istas/īstas || -oistas || -zos/sos/əzos || -ezos | |||
|- | |||
!3S | |||
| -(ə)tozi || -etozi ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētozi ||-(ə)tos || -etos || -itos/ītos || -oitos || -(ə)tozu || -etozu | |||
|- | |||
!1D | |||
| -(u)westas || -owestas ||colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōwestas || -(u)weđas || -oweđas || -iweđas/īweđas || -oiweđas || -(u)weđazu || -oweđazu | |||
|- | |||
!2D | |||
| -(ə)tonstas || -etonstas ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētonstas || -(ə)tonđas || -etonđas || -itonđas/ītonđas || -oitonđas || -(ə)tonđazu || -etonđazu | |||
|- | |||
!3D | |||
| -(ə)tānstas || -etānstas ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētānstas|| -(ə)tānđas || -etānđas || -itānđas/ītānđas || -oitānđas || -(ə)tānđazu || -etānđazu | |||
|- | |||
!1P | |||
| -(ũ)mestas || -omestas || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmestas || -(ũ)međas ||-omeđas || -īmeđas/īmeđas || -oimeđas || -(ũ)međazu || -omeđazu | |||
|- | |||
!2P | |||
| -(ə)testas || -etestas || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētestas || -(ə)teđas || -eteđas || -iteđas/īteđas || -oiteđas || -đwes/ŧwes/əđwes || -eđwes | |||
|- | |||
!3P | |||
| -ntozi/entozi || -ontozi || colspan="2"|-(ʕ)ōntozi || -ntos/entos || -ontos || -yentos/īntos || -oyentos || -ntozu/entozu || -ontozu | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Conjugation of passive present-stem forms | |||
<!-- | |||
! colspan="5"| Present active infinitive | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|- | |||
--> | |||
! colspan="5"| Present passive participle | |||
|colspan="3"| -(ə)tos, -(ə)tom, -(ə)tā | |||
|colspan="3"| -etos, -etom, -etā | |||
|- | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! colspan="2"|Present indicative !!colspan="2"| Present subjunctive !! colspan="2"|Imperfect !! colspan="2"|Presumptive !! colspan="2"|Durative imperative | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -(ũ)mar || -omar || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmar || -(ũ)ma || -oma || -yema/īma || -oyema || -(ũ)mau || -omau | |||
|- | |||
!2S | |||
| -(ə)star || -estar || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ēstar || -(ə)sta || -esta || -ista/īsta || -oista || -zo/so/əzo || -ezo | |||
|- | |||
!3S | |||
| -(ə)tor || -etor ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētor ||-(ə)to || -eto || -ito/īto || -oito || -(ə)tou || -etou | |||
|- | |||
!1D | |||
| -(u)westa || -owesta ||colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōwesta || -(u)weđa || -oweđa || -iweđa/īweđa || -oiweđa || -(u)weđau || -oweđau | |||
|- | |||
!2D | |||
| -(ə)tonsta || -etonsta ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētonsta || -(ə)tonđa || -etonđa || -itonđa/ītonđa || -oitonđa || -(ə)tonđau || -etonđau | |||
|- | |||
!3D | |||
| -(ə)tānsta || -etānsta ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētānsta|| -(ə)tānđa || -etānđa || -itānđa/ītānđa || -oitānđa || -(ə)tānđau || -etānđau | |||
|- | |||
!1P | |||
| -(ũ)mesta || -omesta || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmesta || -(ũ)međa ||-omeđa || -īmeđa/īmeđa || -oimeđa || -(ũ)međau || -omeđau | |||
|- | |||
!2P | |||
| -(ə)testa || -etesta || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētesta || -(ə)teđa || -eteđa || -iteđa/īteđa || -oiteđa || -đwe/ŧwe/əđwe || -eđwe | |||
|- | |||
!3P | |||
| -ntor/entor || -ontor || colspan="2"|-(ʕ)ōntor || -nto/ento || -onto || -yento/īnto || -oyento || -ntou/entou || -ontou | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
'''Notes:''' | |||
#Phonemes in brackets are inserted after consonant clusters when phonotactically necessary (if a vowel) or after vowels (if a consonant). | |||
#When two endings are given separated by a slash, they are used after vowels and after consonants respectively. If a third is also given, it is used after consonant clusters. | |||
<!-- | |||
#When stress is not indicated, the final syllable of the stem is stressed. When it is indicated, the ending is stressed. However, when the weak stem has lexical stress, the ending loses its stress.--> | |||
====Forms based on the future stem==== | |||
The following tenses are based on the future stem: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Forms based on the future stem | |||
! Form !! Stem type | |||
|- | |||
| Future indicative || Mixed | |||
|- | |||
| Future subjunctive || Strong | |||
|- | |||
| Gnomic || Mixed | |||
|- | |||
| Jussive || Weak | |||
|- | |||
| Simple imperative || Weak | |||
|- | |||
| Future participles || Weak | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
The endings are as follows: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Conjugation of active future-stem forms | |||
<!-- | |||
! colspan="5"| Present active infinitive | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|- | |||
--> | |||
! colspan="5"| Future active participle | |||
|colspan="3"| -nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ə̃tes, -ntī/ə̃tī, -ntyās/ə̃tyās | |||
|colspan="3"| -nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ontes, -ntī/ontī, -ntyās/ontyās | |||
|- | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! colspan="2"|Future indicative !!colspan="2"| Future subjunctive !! colspan="2"|Gnomic !! colspan="2"|Jussive !! colspan="2"|Simple imperative | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -(ũ)mi || -ō || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmi || -ũ/m || -om || -yem/īm || -oyem || -(ũ)mu || -omu | |||
|- | |||
!2S | |||
| -zi/si/əzi || -ezi || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ēzi || -(ə)s || -es || -is/īs || -ois || -đi/ŧi/əđi || -eđi | |||
|- | |||
!3S | |||
| -(ə)ti || -eti ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ēti ||-(ə)t || -et || -it/īt || -oit || -(ə)tu || -etu | |||
|- | |||
!1D | |||
| -(u)wes || -owes ||colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōwes || -(u)we || -owe || -iwe/īwe || -oiwe || -(u)weu || -oweu | |||
|- | |||
!2D | |||
| -(ə)tons || -etons ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētons || -(ə)tom || -etom || -itom/ītom || -oitom || -(ə)tonđi || -etonđi | |||
|- | |||
!3D | |||
| -(ə)tāns || -etāns ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētāns|| -(ə)tām || -etām || -itām/ītām || -oitām || -(ə)tāmu || -etāmu | |||
|- | |||
!1P | |||
| -(ũ)mes || -omes || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmes || -(ũ)me ||-ome || -ime/īme || -oime || -(ũ)meu || -omeu | |||
|- | |||
!2P | |||
| -(ə)tes || -etes || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētes || -(ə)te || -ete || -ite/īte || -oite || -(ə)teđi || -eteđi | |||
|- | |||
!3P | |||
| -nti/enti || -onti || colspan="2"|-(ʕ)ōnti || -nt/ent || -ont || -yent/īnt || -oyent || -ntu/entu || -ontu | |||
|- | |||
! IMP | |||
| -(ə)ri || -ori || colspan="2"|-(ʕ)ōri || -(ə)r || -or || -yer/īr || -oyer || -(ə)ru || -oru | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Conjugation of middle future-stem forms | |||
<!-- | |||
! colspan="5"| Present active infinitive | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|- | |||
--> | |||
! colspan="5"| Future middle participle | |||
|colspan="3"| -mnos/umnos, -mnom/umnom, -mnā/umnā | |||
|colspan="3"| -omnos, -omnom, -omnā | |||
|- | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! colspan="2"|Present indicative !!colspan="2"| Present subjunctive !! colspan="2"|Imperfect !! colspan="2"|Presumptive !! colspan="2"|Durative imperative | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -(ũ)mazi || -omazi || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmazi || -(ũ)mas || -omas || -yemas/īmas || -oyemas || -(ũ)mazu || -omazu | |||
|- | |||
!2S | |||
| -(ə)stazi || -estazi || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ēstazi || -(ə)stas || -estas || -istas/īstas || -oistas || -zos/sos/əzos || -ezos | |||
|- | |||
!3S | |||
| -(ə)tozi || -etozi ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētozi ||-(ə)tos || -etos || -itos/ītos || -oitos || -(ə)tozu || -etozu | |||
|- | |||
!1D | |||
| -(u)westas || -owestas ||colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōwestas || -(u)weđas || -oweđas || -iweđas/īweđas || -oiweđas || -(u)weđazu || -oweđazu | |||
|- | |||
!2D | |||
| -(ə)tonstas || -etonstas ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētonstas || -(ə)tonđas || -etonđas || -itonđas/ītonđas || -oitonđas || -(ə)tonđazu || -etonđazu | |||
|- | |||
!3D | |||
| -(ə)tānstas || -etānstas ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētānstas|| -(ə)tānđas || -etānđas || -itānđas/ītānđas || -oitānđas || -(ə)tānđazu || -etānđazu | |||
|- | |||
!1P | |||
| -(ũ)mestas || -omestas || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmestas || -(ũ)međas ||-omeđas || -īmeđas/īmeđas || -oimeđas || -(ũ)međazu || -omeđazu | |||
|- | |||
!2P | |||
| -(ə)testas || -etestas || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētestas || -(ə)teđas || -eteđas || -iteđas/īteđas || -oiteđas || -đwes/ŧwes/əđwes || -eđwes | |||
|- | |||
!3P | |||
| -ntozi/entozi || -ontozi || colspan="2"|-(ʕ)ōntozi || -ntos/entos || -ontos || -yentos/īntos || -oyentos || -ntozu/entozu || -ontozu | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Conjugation of passive future-stem forms | |||
<!-- | |||
! colspan="5"| Present active infinitive | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|colspan="3"| | |||
|- | |||
--> | |||
! colspan="5"| Future passive participle | |||
|colspan="3"| -(ə)tos, -(ə)tom, -(ə)tā | |||
|colspan="3"| -omnos, -omnom, -omnā | |||
|- | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! colspan="2"|Future indicative !!colspan="2"| Future subjunctive !! colspan="2"|Gnomic !! colspan="2"|Jussive !! colspan="2"|Simple imperative | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -(ũ)mar || -omar || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmar || -(ũ)ma || -oma || -yema/īma || -oyema || -(ũ)mau || -omau | |||
|- | |||
!2S | |||
| -(ə)star || -estar || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ēstar || -(ə)sta || -esta || -ista/īsta || -oista || -zo/so/əzo || -ezo | |||
|- | |||
!3S | |||
| -(ə)tor || -etor ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētor ||-(ə)to || -eto || -ito/īto || -oito || -(ə)tou || -etou | |||
|- | |||
!1D | |||
| -(u)westa || -owesta ||colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōwesta || -(u)weđa || -oweđa || -iweđa/īweđa || -oiweđa || -(u)weđau || -oweđau | |||
|- | |||
!2D | |||
| -(ə)tonsta || -etonsta ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētonsta || -(ə)tonđa || -etonđa || -itonđa/ītonđa || -oitonđa || -(ə)tonđau || -etonđau | |||
|- | |||
!3D | |||
| -(ə)tānsta || -etānsta ||colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētānsta|| -(ə)tānđa || -etānđa || -itānđa/ītānđa || -oitānđa || -(ə)tānđau || -etānđau | |||
|- | |||
!1P | |||
| -(ũ)mesta || -omesta || colspan="2"| -(ʕ)ōmesta || -(ũ)međa ||-omeđa || -īmeđa/īmeđa || -oimeđa || -(ũ)međau || -omeđau | |||
|- | |||
!2P | |||
| -(ə)testa || -etesta || colspan="2"| -(ʔ)ētesta || -(ə)teđa || -eteđa || -iteđa/īteđa || -oiteđa || -đwe/ŧwe/əđwe || -eđwe | |||
|- | |||
!3P | |||
| -ntor/entor || -ontor || colspan="2"|-(ʕ)ōntor || -nto/ento || -onto || -yento/īnto || -oyento || -ntou/entou || -ontou | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
'''Notes:''' | |||
#Phonemes in brackets are inserted after consonant clusters when phonotactically necessary (if a vowel) or after vowels (if a consonant). | |||
#When two endings are given separated by a slash, they are used after vowels and after consonants respectively. If a third is also given, it is used after consonant clusters. | |||
<!-- | |||
#When stress is not indicated, the final syllable of the stem is stressed. When it is indicated, the ending is stressed. However, when the weak stem has lexical stress, the ending loses its stress.--> | |||
====Forms based on the perfect stem==== | |||
The following tenses are based on the perfect stem: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Forms based on the perfect stem | |||
! Form !! Stem type | |||
|- | |||
| Perfect indicative || Mixed | |||
|- | |||
| Perfect subjunctive || Strong | |||
|- | |||
| Conditional || Weak | |||
|- | |||
| Perfect participles || Weak | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
The endings are as follows: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Conjugation of active perfect-stem forms | |||
! colspan="2"| Perfect active participle | |||
|colspan="2"| -(u)wōs, -(u)wos, -uzes, -uzī, -uzyās | |||
|- | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Perfect indicative !! Perfect subjunctive !! Conditional | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -(ħ)a || -(ʕ)ō || -yem/īm | |||
|- | |||
!2S | |||
| -(ə)ta || -zi/ezi || -is/īs | |||
|- | |||
!3S | |||
| -(ʔ)e || -ti/eti ||-it/īt | |||
|- | |||
!1D | |||
| -(u)we || -wes/owes || -iwe/īwe | |||
|- | |||
!2D | |||
| -(ə)tom || -tons/etons || -itom/ītom | |||
|- | |||
!3D | |||
| -(ə)tām || -tāns/etāns|| -itām/ītām | |||
|- | |||
!1P | |||
| -(ũ)me || -mes/omes || -ime/īme | |||
|- | |||
!2P | |||
| -(ə)te || -tes/etes || -ite/īte | |||
|- | |||
!3P | |||
| -nt/ent || -nti/onti || -yent/īnt | |||
|- | |||
! IMP | |||
| -(ʔ)ēr || -ri/ori || -yer/īr | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Conjugation of middle perfect-stem forms | |||
! colspan="2"| Perfect passive participle | |||
|colspan="2"| -mnos/umnos, -mnom/umnom, -mnā/umnā | |||
|- | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Perfect indicative !! Perfect subjunctive !! Conditional | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -(ũ)mas || -(ʕ)ōzi || -yemas/īmas | |||
|- | |||
!2S | |||
| -(ə)stas || -stazi/estazi || -istas/īstas | |||
|- | |||
!3S | |||
| -(ə)tos || -tozi/etozi ||-itos/ītos | |||
|- | |||
!1D | |||
| -(u)weđas || -westas/owestas || -iweđas/īweđas | |||
|- | |||
!2D | |||
| -(ə)tonđas || -tonstas/etonstas || -itonđas/ītonđas | |||
|- | |||
!3D | |||
| -(ə)tānđas || -tānstas/etānstas|| -itānđas/ītānđas | |||
|- | |||
!1P | |||
| -(ũ)međas || -mestas/omestas || -imeđas/īmeđas | |||
|- | |||
!2P | |||
| -(ə)teđas || -testas/etestas || -iteđas/īteđas | |||
|- | |||
!3P | |||
| -ntos/entos || -ntozi/ontozi || -yentos/īntos | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Conjugation of passive perfect-stem forms | |||
! colspan="2"| Perfect passive participle | |||
|colspan="2"| -(ə)tos, -(ə)tom, -(ə)tā | |||
|- | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Perfect indicative !! Perfect subjunctive !! Conditional | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -(ũ)ma || -(ʕ)ōr || -yema/īma | |||
|- | |||
!2S | |||
| -(ə)sta || -star/estar || -ista/īsta | |||
|- | |||
!3S | |||
| -(ə)to || -tor/etor ||-ito/īto | |||
|- | |||
!1D | |||
| -(u)weđa || -westa/owesta || -iweđa/īweđa | |||
|- | |||
!2D | |||
| -(ə)tonđa || -tonsta/etonsta || -itonđa/ītonđa | |||
|- | |||
!3D | |||
| -(ə)tānđa || -tānsta/etānsta|| -itānđa/ītānđa | |||
|- | |||
!1P | |||
| -(ũ)međa || -mesta/omesta || -imeđa/īmeđa | |||
|- | |||
!2P | |||
| -(ə)teđa || -testa/etesta || -iteđa/īteđa | |||
|- | |||
!3P | |||
| -nto/ento || -ntor/ontor || -yento/īnto | |||
|} | |||
'''Notes:''' | |||
#Phonemes in brackets are inserted after consonant clusters when phonotactically necessary (if a vowel) or after vowels (if a consonant). | |||
#When two endings are given separated by a slash, they are used after vowels and after consonants respectively. If a third is also given, it is used after consonant clusters. | |||
<!-- | |||
#When stress is not indicated, the final syllable of the stem is stressed. When it is indicated, the ending is stressed. However, when the weak stem has lexical stress, the ending loses its stress.--> | |||
====Forms based on the neutral stem==== | |||
All forms based on the neutral stem are non-finite. | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Forms based on the neutral stem | |||
! Form !! Stem type !! colspan="2"| Ending !! Usage !! Example | |||
|- | |||
<!--- | |||
| Verbal noun 1 (neuter) || Strong || -(ʕ)os, -(ʕ)ōs, -(ʕ)ozes || -ōs, -ōzes | |||
|- | |||
| Verbal noun 2 (neuter) || Weak || -tər/otər, -tōr/otōr, -tnes/otnes || -ōtər, -ōtnes | |||
|- | |||
--> | |||
| Abstract noun (feminine) || Mixed || -(ə)tis, -(ə)teis || -etis, -eteis || Denotes an abstract state of the verb being performed or having been performed. It can also have meanings extended from this. || ''dṓtis, dotéis'' "givingness, generosity"; ''fū́tis, fūtéis'' "existence, essence, being, nature"; ''méntis, mə̃téis'' "thinkingness, rationality; thought"; ''féretis, féreteis'' "state of carrying/being carried" | |||
|- | |||
| Action noun (masculine) || Mixed || -(ə)tus, -(ə)teus || -etus, -eteus || Denotes an action/state, similar to the English gerund. It can also have secondary meanings extended from this. || ''dṓtus, dotéus'' "(the act of) giving"; ''fū́tus, fūtéus'' "(the act of) becoming"; ''féretus, féreteus'' "(the act of) carrying"; ''méntus, mə̃téus'' "(the act of) thinking"; ''jéustus, justéus'' "(the act of) tasting; taste" | |||
|- | |||
| Instance noun (feminine) || Weak || -(ə)twā, -(ə)twās|| -etwā, -etwās || Denotes an instance of an action/state | |||
|| ''dotwā́, dotwā́s'' "an instance of giving"; ''fūtwā́, -s'' "an instance of being/becoming/coming into being"; ''mə̃twā́, -s'' "an instance of thinking; an individual thought"; ''féretwā, -s'' "an instance of carrying" | |||
|- | |||
<!-- | |||
| Tenseless active participle || Weak|| -(ə)los, -(ə)lom, -(ə)lā || -elos, -elom, -elā || This describes something/someone that does/is something, without reference to time.<!-- When used with intransitive verbs, it implies the presence of volition/agency.--><!-- || ''dolós, -óm, -ā́'' "giving"; ''fūlós, -óm, -ā́'' "being, becoming" | |||
|- | |||
| Tenseless passive participle || Weak || -(ə)tos, -(ə)tom, -(ə)tā || -etos, -etom, -etā || This describes something/someone on which an action is done, without reference to time. <!--For intransitive verbs, it is similar to its active counterpart but implies an absence of volition/agency.--><!-- || ''dotós, -óm, -ā́'' "(being) given (something)"; ''fūtós, -óm, -ā́'' "coming into being" | |||
|- | |||
--> | |||
| Stative participle || Weak || -(ə)nos, -(ə)nom, -(ə)nā || -enos, -enom, -enā || Describes someone/something that is in a state resulting from an action being performed, with an implication of a lack of volition/agency. <!--For intransitive verbs, it is synonymous to the tenseless passive participle, although their secondary meanings may differ.--> || ''donós, -óm, -ā́'' "(having been) given (something)"; ''fūnós, -óm, -ā́'' "existing"; ''férenos, -om, -ā'' "carried" | |||
|- | |||
| Agent noun (masc.) || Weak || -(ə)tēr, -(ə)teres, -tres || -etēr, -eteres, -etres || Denotes the masculine performer of an action (where the verb would be expressed in the active voice). <!--It implies the presence of volition/agency.--> || ''dotḗr, dotéres, dotrés'' "giver (m.)"; ''fūtḗr, fūtéres, fūtrés'' "he who becomes/is (something)"; ''féretēr, -teres, -tres'' "carrier (m.)" | |||
|- | |||
| Agent noun (fem.) || Weak || -(ə)trī, -(ə)təryās || -etrī, -təryās || The feminine equivalent of the masculine agent noun. || ''dotrī́, dotəryā́s'' "giver (f.)"; ''fūtrī́, fūtəryā́s'' "she who becomes/is (something)"; ''féretrī, -təryās'' "carrier (f.)" | |||
|- | |||
| Agent noun (neut.) || Mixed || -(ə)tər, -(ə)tōr, -tres || -etər, -etōr, -etres || The neuter equivalent of the masculine agent noun. || ''dṓtər, dṓtōr, dotrés'' "that which gives"; ''fū́tər, fū́tōr, fūtrés'' "that which becomes/is (something)"; ''féretər, féretōr, féretres'' "that which carries; vehicle" | |||
|- | |||
<!-- | |||
|Theme noun (masc.) || Weak || -(ə)los, -(ə)lośśo || -elos, -elośśo || Denotes the "doer" of a verb expressed in the middle voice. <!--It implies the presence of volition/agency. || ''dolós, -ōs'' "receiver (m.)"; ''fūlós, -ōs'' "he who becomes/makes himself (something)"; ''férelos, -ōs'' "he who carries himself" | |||
|- | |||
| Theme noun (fem.) || Weak || -(ə)lā, -(ə)lās || -elā, -elās || The feminine equivalent of the masculine theme noun. || ''dolā́, -s'' "receiver (f.)"; ''fūlā́, -s'' "she who becomes/makes herself (something)"; ''férelā, -s'' "she who carries herself" | |||
|- | |||
| Theme noun (neut.) || Mixed || -(ə)lom, -(ə)tośśo || -elom, -elośśo || The neuter equivalent of the masculine theme noun. || ''dolóm, -ōs'' "that which receives"; ''fūlóm, -ōs'' "that which becomes (something)"; ''férelom, -ōs'' "that who carries itself" | |||
--> | |||
|- | |||
| Patient noun (masc.) || Weak || -(ũ)mēn, -(ũ)menes, -mnes/ũnes || -omēn, -omenes, -omnes || Denotes the masculine patient an action is performed on or, equivalently, the "doer" of a middle- or passive-voice verb.<!-- With intransitive verbs, it is similar in meaning to the agent noun but implies a lack of volition/agency.--> || ''domḗn, -ménes, -mnés'' "he who is given (to someone)"; ''fūmḗn, -ménes, -mnés'' "he who exists; male being"; ''féromēn, -menes, -mnes'' "he who is carried" | |||
|- | |||
| Patient noun (fem.) || Weak || -mnī/ũnī, -mnyās/ũnyās || -omnī, -omnyās || The feminine equivalent of the masculine patient noun. || ''domnī́, -mnyā́s'' "she who is given (to someone)"; ''fūmnī́, fūmnyā́s'' "she who exists; female being"; ''féromnī, -mnyās'' "she who is carried" | |||
|- | |||
| Patient noun (neut.) || Mixed || -(ũ)mə̃, -(ũ)mōn, -mnes/ũnes || -omə̃, -omōn, -omnes || The neuter equivalent of the masculine patient noun. || ''dṓmə̃, dṓmōn, domnés'' "that which is given (to someone)"; ''fū́mə̃, fū́mōn, fūmnés'' "that which is; thing"; ''ménmə̃, ménmōn, mə̃mnés'' "that which is thought; belief, understanding"; ''féromə̃, -mōn, -mnes'' "that which is carried" | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
'''Notes:''' | |||
# In non-finite forms, "mixed" stem means that the strong stem is used in the nominative, vocative, and accusative, and the weak stem is used in other cases. | |||
# The forms in the above table can be formed from any verb and have predictable meaning (although there may be unpredictable secondary meanings). Besides the above forms, there are many other nouns and adjectives that can be derived from verbs through various suffixes. However, they may not apply to all verbs and the meanings are often unpredictable. | |||
<!-- | |||
===Derived verbs=== | |||
====Verbs derived from verb stems==== | |||
Generally, the neutral stem is used for verb derivation. | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Verbs derived from verbs | |||
! rowspan="2"| Derived verb !! rowspan="2"|Stem !! colspan="3"|Suffix | |||
|- | |||
! Present !! Future !! Perfect | |||
|- | |||
|}--> | |||
===Special verbs=== | |||
*'''Deponent verbs:''' These verbs take passive forms despite being active in meaning. | |||
*'''The verb "to be":''' | |||
**In the passive, it means "to exist". | |||
**In the middle, it means "to become, to make oneself" or, by extension, "to act as" or even "to pretend to be". | |||
**Forms based on the non-present stems usually have an inchoative meaning (i.e."to become").<!-- In these cases, the middle has a more emphatic meaning. | |||
***E.g. ''fūmi orēś'' "I will be(come) a king" vs ''fūmazi orēś'' "I will --> | |||
==Particles== | ==Particles== | ||
===Adverbs=== | |||
====Nominal adverbs==== | |||
Nominal adverbs are adverbs that are transparently derived from nouns or adjectives. | |||
They may be derived from any case other than the nominative and vocative, or through the use of other suffixes. | |||
====Non-nominal adverbs==== | |||
These are adverbs that are not transparently derived from nouns or adjectives, although they may be related. These include: | |||
*''cóm'' "along, together" | |||
*''én'' "in" | |||
===Postpositions=== | |||
Postpositions follow the words they modify. They may govern any case other than the nominative. | |||
Many postpositions are identical to adverbs but unaccented. | |||
Some postpositions include; | |||
*''com'' "with" (governs instrumental) | |||
*''en'' "in" (governs locative); "into" (governs accusative) | |||
*''pontō'' "like" (governs genitive) | |||
===Conjunctions=== | |||
*''me'' "and" | |||
**Joins nominals. | |||
*''-qe'' "and" | |||
**Joins words, following every word being joined except the first. For extra emphasis, it can also follow the first word. It implies a closer relationship than ''me'' does. Unlike ''me'', it can also be used to join verbs provided that they immediately follow each other. | |||
*''ħau(qe)'' "and" | |||
**Joins clauses. | |||
*''nū'' "or" | |||
**Used similarly to ''me''. | |||
*''-we'' "or" | |||
**Takes the same position as ''-qe'' and is used similarly. | |||
*''ħawwe'' "or" | |||
**Used similarly to ''ħau''. | |||
*''-de'' "but" | |||
**Postpositive. | |||
*''ħaude'' "but" | |||
**Similar in meaning to ''-de'', but only used with clauses. It appears at the clause's beginning. | |||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
===Constituent order=== | ===Constituent order=== | ||
Word order is free, but the default/unmarked order is SOV. | |||
===Noun phrase=== | ===Noun phrase=== | ||
Modifiers precede the noun by default, but they can alternatively follow the noun. | |||
===Verb phrase=== | ===Verb phrase=== | ||
===Sentence phrase=== | ===Sentence phrase=== | ||
===Dependent clauses=== | ===Dependent clauses=== | ||
<!-- etc. etc. --> | <!-- etc. etc. --> | ||
==Vocabulary== | |||
===Time - ''Wétos''=== | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Seasons - ''Yēnés wétōs'' | |||
! English !! Thezhmic | |||
|- | |||
| spring || wózər, wézōr, wéznes (n.) | |||
|- | |||
| summer || samṓr, samrés (m.) | |||
|- | |||
| fall || sózər, sézōr, séznes (n.) | |||
|- | |||
| winter || śimṓr, śimrés (m.) | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Gregorian months - '' '' | |||
! English !! Thezhmic | |||
|- | |||
| January || | |||
|- | |||
| February || | |||
|- | |||
| March || | |||
|- | |||
| April || | |||
|- | |||
| May || | |||
|- | |||
| June || | |||
|- | |||
| July || | |||
|- | |||
| August || | |||
|- | |||
| September || | |||
|- | |||
| October || | |||
|- | |||
| November || | |||
|- | |||
| December || | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Days of the week - ''Septṹmās ħáźōr'' | |||
! English !! Thezhmic | |||
|- | |||
| Sunday || | |||
|- | |||
| Monday || | |||
|- | |||
| Tuesday || | |||
|- | |||
| Wednesday || | |||
|- | |||
| Thursday || | |||
|- | |||
| Friday || | |||
|- | |||
| Saturday || | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Parts of the day - '' '' | |||
! English !! Thezhmic | |||
|- | |||
| day (daytime) || ħā́mər, ħā́mōr, ħamnés (n.) | |||
|- | |||
| dawn || | |||
|- | |||
| morning || | |||
|- | |||
| noon || | |||
|- | |||
| afternoon || | |||
|- | |||
| evening || | |||
|- | |||
| dusk || | |||
|- | |||
| night || nóqs, nóqtes, néqtes (f.) | |||
|- | |||
| midnight || | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Units of time - '' '' | |||
! English !! Thezhmic | |||
|- | |||
| second || ħánterā, -ās (f.) | |||
|- | |||
| minute || páwī, pauyā́s (f.) | |||
|- | |||
| hour || mḗlā, -ās (f.) | |||
|- | |||
| day || ħáźər, ħáźōr, ħaźnés (n.) | |||
|- | |||
| week || septṹmā, -ās (f.) | |||
|- | |||
| month || mēnśā́, -ā́s (f.) | |||
|- | |||
| season || wétos, wétōs, wétezes (n.) | |||
|- | |||
| year || yṓr, yéʕōr, yēnés (n.) | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Time adverbs - '' '' | |||
! English !! Thezhmic | |||
|- | |||
| now || | |||
|- | |||
| then || | |||
|- | |||
| recently, a short time ago || | |||
|- | |||
| earlier || | |||
|- | |||
| soon, shortly || | |||
|- | |||
| later || | |||
|- | |||
| always || | |||
|- | |||
| often || | |||
|- | |||
| sometimes || | |||
|- | |||
| rarely || | |||
|- | |||
| never || | |||
|- | |||
| ever || | |||
|- | |||
| still, yet || | |||
|- | |||
| already || | |||
|- | |||
| today || | |||
|- | |||
| tonight || | |||
|- | |||
| yesterday || | |||
|- | |||
| last night || | |||
|- | |||
| tomorrow || | |||
|- | |||
| tomorrow night || | |||
|- | |||
| before yesterday || | |||
|- | |||
| two nights ago || | |||
|- | |||
| after tomorrow || | |||
|- | |||
| this week || | |||
|- | |||
| last week || | |||
|- | |||
| next week || | |||
|- | |||
| this year || | |||
|- | |||
| last year || péruti | |||
|- | |||
| next year || | |||
|} | |||
==Example texts== | ==Example texts== | ||
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. --> | <!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. --> | ||
==Other resources== | ==Other resources== | ||
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. --> | <!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. --> | ||