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[[Tigal/Lexicon]]
[[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Lexicon]]<br/>
[[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]]<br/>
[[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Names]]<br/>


Tigal is a [[West Talmic languages|West Talmic]] language.
{{Infobox language
|image =
|imagesize =
|setting = {{SUBPAGENAME}}verse
|name = {{SUBPAGENAME}}
|nativename = ''an {{SUBPAGENAME}}''
|pronunciation=  [ə ˈʃtʃoːʟʊ]
|region = Talma
|speakers = 100 million L1 speakers (300 million L2 speakers)
|date = fT 1670<sub>dd</sub> (2676)
|familycolor=PfK
|fam1= [[Proto-Quihum|Quihum]]
|fam2= [[Talmic languages|Talmic]]
|fam3= Thensaric
|fam4= Old Eevo
|iso3=qtg
|notice=IPA
}}


1: cēm > ciamh
 
2: tithōr > tythar
{{Infobox language
3: nazge > nég-L
|image =
4: dhaufe > dő-L
|imagesize =
5: salir > selar
|setting = Tíogallverse
6: stām > stámh
|name = {{SUBPAGENAME}}
7: rōde > ryadh-L
|nativename = ''an Tíogall''
8: lorethe > lörath-L
|pronunciation=  [ə ˈtiːɡ̊ɤᵝˤ]
9: farve > erbh-L
|region = Talma
10: ħiōr > iar
|speakers = 100 million L1 speakers (300 million L2 speakers)
|date = fT 1670<sub>dd</sub> (2676)
|familycolor=PfK
|fam1= [[Proto-Quihum|Quihum]]
|fam2= [[Talmic languages|Talmic]]
|fam3= Thensaric
|fam4= Old Eevo
|iso3=qtg
|notice=IPA
}}
 
'''{{SUBPAGENAME}}''' ({{SUBPAGENAME}}: ''an Tíogall'' /ə ˈtiːɡəʟ/ or ''an gháth Thíogall'' /ə ɣa:θ ˈθiːɡəʟ/ 'the {{SUBPAGENAME}} language'; English: /ˈtiːgəl/ "teagle") is a [[Talmic languages|Talmic language]] inspired by Irish, German and English. {{SUBPAGENAME}} began as a thought experiment posing the question "What would Irish look like with umlaut instead of palatalization?".
 
Tíogall is a pluricentric language - it is an official language in three countries, the peninsular Sceola with more dialect diversity, the larger Anbhair with less dialect diversity, and in Phormatin in addition to [[Phormatolidin]]. It is the largest Talmic language in terms of number of speakers. Like most modern Talmic languages, {{SUBPAGENAME}} is a descendant of [[Thensarian]]. It is spoken on the northwest coast of the continent of Etalocin (called ''Éatha'' in Tíogall) on the planet of Clotricin.
 
Modern Standard Tíogall arose as a literary koiné from disparate earlier Tíogallic dialects descended from [[Old Eevo]] from around fT 1160dd (1968). Thanks in large part to the printing press, Tíogall rapidly gained prominence over a larger area in Northern Talma and came to serve as a lingua franca for northern mainland Talma. Today, Tíogall still enjoys status as a "cultured" language and is one of the most widely taught foreign languages.
 
The name ''Tíogall'' is thought to be a [[Clofabic languages|Clofabic]] formation (before Modern Tíogall): ''Tiga'' (Tíogall ''Tíoga'') was a river in the northwestern Talma area where Tíogall originated, and to that was added the Clofabic attributive ''-l''.
 
==Todo==
*Should have had more dh's
*Single vs. double negatives: use both, do something weird
*Old Eevo prefixes:
**''ar-'': on, at
**''(deut.) as-'': telic
**''(prot.) de-, (deut.) do-'': in, at
**''é-'': with, co-
**''fin-''/''sin-'' = well, thoroughly
**''for-'': causative, through
**''(prot.) ful-, (deut.) fol-'': around, back
**''(prot.) gel-, (deut.) gol-'': up, out
**''ro-'': down
**''sol-'': a causative
**''(prot.) sur-, (deut.) sor-'': back
**''(prot.) su-, (deut.) so-'': towards
**''(prot.) u(cc)-, (deut.) oc-'': from
*a few transitive verbs should randomly have that m (and it should be a different set in tiogall and bhadhagha)
*if ng is common, slender ng = ñ
*"inb4"
*graduate high school = ?
*Definitions in law codes look like "Given ''X'', we say that ''P(X)'' if ..."
*Translation exercises:  
**Haggadah
**[[Literature:Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]
**[[Literature:Through the Looking-Glass]]
*irregular constructs


==Notes==
==Notes==
===Symbols===
*<sup>i</sup> - i-umlaut
*<sup>i</sup> - i-umlaut
*<sup>u</sup> - u-umlaut
*<sup>L</sup> - lenition/aspiration
*<sup>L</sup> - lenition
*<sup>N</sup> - eclipsis
*<sup>N</sup> - eclipsis
*<sup>h</sup> - h-prothesis
 
===Special readings===
*When unstressed, ''-adh'' is devoiced to /əθ/ or /ət/.
*The ending ''-aigh/-igh'' is pronounced /ɨ/.
 
===Note on the Anglicization of {{SUBPAGENAME}}===
The {{SUBPAGENAME}} liquids ''r'' and ''l'' are consistently mapped to /r/ and /l/. (This is in fact a legitimate pronunciation in {{SUBPAGENAME}} provided you always velarize the /l/ as in American English.)
 
The following mapping for vowels is recommended:
 
/a aː ɛ eː ɪ iː ɔ ɵː ʊ ʉː œ øː ʏ yː iə yə uə aw ɛj ɛw œj œw ɛ:j ɛ:w œ:j œ:w iəw yəw yəj uəj/ → /æ ɑː ɛ eɪ ɪ iː ɑ oʊ ʊ uː ɛ eɪ ɪ iː iːə iːə uːə aʊ aɪ aʊ eɪ oʊ eɪ oʊ eɪ oʊ iːə iːə iːə uːə/
 
For {{SUBPAGENAME}} post-tonic /ð/, the pronunciation /ð/ is recommended, but /d/ is also allowed for ease of pronunciation.
 
For onset clusters that are disallowed in English, such as /tn/, we allow the addition of an epenthetic /ə/.
 
For syllable-initial /ŋ/ or /sŋ/, we recommend adding an epenthetic unstressed /ə/ or /ɪ/ before the /ŋ/. /ŋ/ after a tense vowel can be replaced with /n/.
 
The reduced vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ should map to /ə/ and /ɪ/. If you have the weak-vowel merger, you can merge these two vowels.
 
==Orthography==
[[File:{{SUBPAGENAME}} script.png|thumbnail|{{SUBPAGENAME}} script]]
 
{{SUBPAGENAME}} is written in the Talmic script, which is written from left to right. The letters ''ħ'' /h/, ''j'' /j/ and ''v'' /v/ are used in [[Netagin]] and other loanwords. The letter ''h'' is used for lenition as in Irish. So the {{SUBPAGENAME}} alphabet is usually considered to have 23 letters (''r d z i a ħ f l m g c h b s v o j ŋ t n p e u'') (disregarding digraphs and length diacritics).
 
The native orthography is extremely conservative and in part reflects Old Eevo pronunciation. The romanization used in this article reflects the native spelling.
 
===Numerals===
Written {{SUBPAGENAME}} uses a base-12 positional numeral system.
 
*digits: ɔ ı ʎ ɺ ħ ʕ ʑ ɛ ɴ κ ə ʋ = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X E
*duodecimal point: :
*1728's separator (optional): ·
*minus sign: ʳ
*plus, minus, multiply, divide, mod = ?
 
Examples:
 
2017 = 1,201dd = ı·ʎɔı
 
π = 3.184809493b918...dd = ɺ:ıɴħ·ɴɔк·ħкɺ·кʋı·ɴ...
 
==Sound changes==
===Thensarian to Old Eevo===
Thn. ''sb, sd, sg'' > OBh ''dhbh, d, dhgh''
 
Medial ''sm, sn, sȝ, sl, sr'' > ''m, nn, ŋŋ, ll, rr''
 
Thn. ''a e i o u y ā ē ī ō ū ȳ ae ao ui ia iā iō iū'' > OBh ''a e i o u a á é í ó ú uí ae ao oí ea eá eó iú''
 
In stressed syllables: ''a e i o u á é í ó ú ae ao eá eó iú oí uí'' >
*before a syllable with no e/ē/i/ī: ''a e io o u á é ío ó ú ae ao eá eó iú oío uío''
*before a syllable with e/ē/i/ī: ''ai ei i oi ui ái éi í ói úi aei aoi eái eói iúi oí uí''
 
Unstressed vowels reduce to ''a''
 
Harmonization: ''a'' > ''e'' (when final) or ''i'' after ''i'' in the previous syllable
 
Sometimes:
*''éa, ó, ói'' > ''ia, ua, uai''
 
===Old Eevo to Modern {{SUBPAGENAME}}===
*aspirated stops start to become fricatives: /mʰ pʰ bʰ tʰ dʰ kʰ gʰ fʰ sʰ/ > /ʍ f v θ ð x ɣ h h/  
*prenasalized stops coalesce
*/k g x ɣ/ > [c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ] allophonically before front vowels
*Vowel simplifications:
**''i(o)'' > /ɪ/; ''í(o) oí(o) uí(o)'' > /iː/
**''eá(i) eó(i) iú(i)'' merge into ''á(i) ó(i) ú(i)'', preventing further palatalization; /c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ/ become phonemic.
*Further monophthongization
**''ae ao'' > /eː oː/
**''ai ái ei éi oi ói ui úi aei aoi uai'' > /ɛ eː ɪ iː œ øː ʏ yː eː øː yə/
*Fricativization of aspirates complete; /c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ/ have become /tʃ dʒ ʃ j/
*a lot of z's from Netagin loans by this time; s eclipses to z and z lenites to /Ø/, by analogy
*unstressed vowels reduce to /ə/
*voiceless stops gain aspiration except after /s/
*/ʍ/ > /w/; /ɣ/ > /ː/ when not word-initial
*/oː uː/ front to /ɵː ʉː/ except before /l/ and possibly /r/
*/l/ > /ʀ~ʟ/; /r/ > /ɾ~l/
*Some dialects: /s/ > /ʃ/ before /p t k m n ŋ ʟ ɾ/
 
==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Tigal phonology is partially based on German, Philadelphia English and Irish.
''Étaoin'' (Standard) Tíogall is defined by a set of grammar rules, rather than by an accent (as long as it is intelligible to the majority of Tíogall speakers). Certain defined phonemes and phonetic processes can be observed within Standard Tíogall which in turn display diaphonemic variation based on the accent region.
 
The following describes Tíogall as spoken in ''Smeola'', the capital of Duínidhe which is often called the "Duínidhe accent".
===Stress===
In native words, primary stress usually falls on the first syllable, except for some inflected prepositions. In loans, stress may not be initial; in that case, vowels before the stressed syllable are ''not'' reduced.
 
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Tigal has a relatively average consonant inventory of around 20 consonants, like most West Talmic languages.
{{PAGENAME}} has a relatively average consonant inventory of around 25 consonants. The phonology is unusual for having two liquids that do not distinguish "rhoticity".


{| class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="text-align:center;"
|+ '''Tigel consonants'''
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} consonants'''
|-
|-
!colspan="2"| !! Labial !! Alveolar !! Lateral !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
!colspan="2"| !! Labial !! Dental/Alveolar !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Glottal
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|Nasal  
!colspan="2"|Nasal  
| /m/|| /n/|| || /ŋ/ || [ɴ] ||
| /m/  
| /n/
|  
|colspan="2"| /ŋ/ ||  
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"|Stop/Affricate
!rowspan="2"|Stop
!<small>tenuis</small>
!<small>fortis</small>
| /b̥/ || /d̥/ || || /ɡ̊/|| ||
| /p/
| /t/
|  
|colspan="2"| /k/ || (ʔ)
|-
|-
!<small>aspirated</small>
!<small>lenis</small>
| /pʰ/ || /tʰ/ || || /kʰ/ || ||
| /b/
| /d/
|  
|colspan="2"| /g/ ||
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"|Fricative
!rowspan="2"|Affricate
!<small>voiceless</small>
!<small>fortis</small>
| /f/ || /s/ || /ɬ/ || /x/  
|
|rowspan="3"| /χ~ʁ~ʀ/ || /h/
| /ts/
| /tʃ/
| || ||
|-
!<small>lenis</small>
|
| /dz/
| /dʒ/
| || ||
|-
!rowspan="2"|Spirant
!<small>unvoiced</small>
| /f/  
| /θ/
|  
| /x/ || ||
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
| /v/
| /ð/  
|  
| /ɣ/ || ||
|-
!rowspan="2"|Sibilant
!<small>unvoiced</small>
| 
| /s/
| /ʃ/ || ||
| /h/
|-
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
!<small>voiced</small>
| /v/ || /z/ || /ɮ/  || /ɣ/
|
||
| /z/ || || || ||
|-
|-
!colspan="2"| Trill
!colspan="2"| Liquid
| || || || ||  
|  
| /ɾ~ɺ~l/ || ||  
| /ʟ/ ||
|-
|-
!colspan="2"| Approximant
!colspan="2"| Approximant
| /w/ || || || || /ʟ/ ||
| ||  
| /j/ ||  
| ||
|}
|}


====Notes====
;Notes
*The aspiration distinction is neutralized word-finally.
*An initial /ʔ/ can be added to null initials (but is not mandatory).
*Unaspirated consonants are half-voiced between vowels.
*Voiceless stops are aspirated syllable-initially; voiced stops devoice after voiceless sounds.
*/tʰ, d̥/ are alveolar [tʰ, d̥] for most speakers.
*Smeola {{PAGENAME}} has a form of Auslautverhärtung: voicing is neutralized for word-final stops but not word-final fricatives.
*/ɬ, ɮ/ is formally dental lateral fricatives [ɬ̪, ɮ̪], often alveolar [ɬ, ɮ] in colloquial speech.
*/n, t, d, θ, ð/ are usually dental [n̪, t̪, d̪, θ, ð].
*/s, z/ are alveolar retracted [s̠, z̠], similar to the Northern/Central Castillan Spanish and Modern Greek counterparts.
*/s, z/ are laminal alveolar [s, z].  
*/ŋ, kʰ, ɡ̊/ are usually velar [ŋ, kʰ, ɡ̊], but are often uvular [ɴ, qʰ, ɢ̊] next to /ʀ/ and /ʟ/.
*The coronal liquid /ɺ/ has 3 allophones broadly:
*/ʟ/ is phonetically a pharyngealized uvular approximant [ʁ̞ˤ] or a backed uvular approximant [ʁ̠̞] which may be pronounced with compressed lips [ʁ̞ˤᵝ~ʁ̠̞ᵝ]; the vocalic quality resembles [ɤ]. It is similar to the Philadelphia English vocalized L. (This article uses /ʟ/ for simplicity.)
**After a consonant, it is a postalveolar [ɾ̞].
** It is vocalized in unstressed syllables to [ɤˁ].  
**Word-initially or intervocalically, it is a postalveolar [ɾ], [l̠̆] or [l̆].
** In classical singing and some dialects [ɫ] is used.
**Before a consonant or word-finally, it is a prevelar approximant [j̠] or a postalveolar [l̠] with varying resonances (though never velarized) depending on speaker.
*/ʀ/ is a trill [ʀ] in careful speech. It is a fricative [ʁ] in casual speech which devoices to [χ] word-finally or after an aspirate or another fricative. The main features distinguishing /ʀ/ from /ʟ/ are greater frication and absence of pharyngealization in the former.
*/ŋ, k, g/ are usually velar [ŋ, k, g], but are often labialized pharyngealized uvular [qʷ, qʷˁ, ɢʷˁ] next to /ʀ~ʟ/. /kʟ/ becomes an affricate or a trilled affricate [qχ].
** In classical singing and some dialects [r] is used.
*/ŋ, k, g, x, ɣ/ are prevelar before front vowels.
*The uvular liquid, transcribed as /ʟ/ for convenience' sake, has the following allophones:
**The allophone occuring before vowels is a pharyngealized uvular flap [ɢ̆ᵝˤ] or trill [ʀᵝˤ] in careful speech which devoices to [χᵝˤ] after an aspirate or another fricative. In casual speech it tends to become an approximant [ʁᵝ] or velar [ɰᵝ].
**The allophone occuring before consonants is phonetically a pharyngealized uvular approximant with compressed rounding [ʁ̞ᵝˤ~ʁ̠̞ᵝ]; the vocalic quality resembles [ɤ]. It is similar to the Philadelphia English vocalized L.
**In classical singing and drama, [ɫ] is used in all positions.
*After a vowel, /ɣ/ colloquially disappears with compensatory lengthening of the vowel if the vowel is short (unless the /ɣ/ begins a stressed syllable.)
 
====Fortis and lenis resonants====
Certain conservative accents and dialects preserve to varying degrees the Old Eevo distinction between fortis and lenis resonants: /l L n N r R/. In fact, the Tumacaimh dialect has:
*/l/ > /ʁᵝˤ/
*/L/ > /l̪ˠ/
*/n/ > /ð̞̃/
*/N/ > /n/
*/r/ > /ɹ/
*/R/ > /ɾ/


====Mutations====
====Mutations====
Line 76: Line 279:
|-
|-
!|Grapheme
!|Grapheme
!''m''!!''p''!!''b''!!''f''!!''n''!!''t''!!''d''!!''s''!!''z''!!''l''!!''ŋ''!!''c''!!''g''!!''r''
!''m''!!''p''!!''b''!!''f''!!''n''!!''t''!!''d''!!''s''<sup>*</sup>!!''z''!!''r''!!''ŋ''!!''c''!!''g''!!''l''!!''ħ''!!''0''
|-
|-
!IPA
!IPA
|/m/||/pʰ/||/p/||/f/||/n/||/tʰ/||/t/||/s/||/z/||/ʟ/||/ŋ/||/kʰ/||/k/||/ʀ/
|/m/||/p/||/b/||/f/||/n/||/t/||/d/||/s/||/z/||/ɺ~l/||/ŋ/||/k/, /tʃ/||/g/, /dʒ/||/ʟ/||/h/||/ʔ/
|-
|-
!|Lenited
!|Lenited
!''mh''!!''ph''!!''bh''!!''fh''!!''-''!!''th''!!''dh''!!''sh''!!''zh''!!''-''!!''-''!!''ch''!!''gh''!!''-''
!''mh''!!''ph''!!''bh''!!''fh''!!''-''!!''th''!!''dh''!!''sh''!!''zh''!!''-''!!''-''!!''ch''!!''gh''!!''-''!!''-''!!''h-''
|-
|-
!IPA
!IPA
|/w/||/f/||/v/
|/v/||/f/||/v/||/h/
|''silent''
|''-''
|''-''
|/ɬ/||/ɮ/||/h/||''silent''
|/θ/||/ð/||/h/||''silent''
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''||/x/||/ɣ/
|''-''||/x/, /ʃ/||/ɣ/, /j/
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''
|/h/
|-
|-
!|Eclipsed
!|Eclipsed
!''-''!!''bp''!!''mb''!!''bhf''!!''-''!!''dt''!!''nd''!!''zs''!!''-''!!''nl''!!''-''!!''gc''!!''ŋg''!!''-''
!''-''!!''bp''!!''mb''!!''bhf''!!''-''!!''dt''!!''nd''!!''zs''!!''-''!!''-''!!''-''!!''gc''!!''ŋg''!!''-''!!''-''!!''n-''
|-
|-
!IPA
!IPA
|''-''||/p/||/m/||/v/
|''-''||/b/||/m/||/v/
|''-''||/t/||/n/||/z/
|''-''||/d/||/n/||/z/
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''
|''-''
||/k/||/ŋ/||''-''
||/g/, /dʒ/||/ŋ/||''-''||''-''||/n/
|}
|}
<sup>*</sup>The clusters written ''sp'', ''st'', ''sc'' do not mutate.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Tigel has a vowel system with a complexity comparable to that of German, with 7 basic vowel qualities, vowel length, and the effects of L-vocalization.
{{PAGENAME}} has a vowel system with a complexity comparable to that of German, with 7 basic vowel qualities with a tense-lax distinction, and the effects of L-vocalization.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
 
|+ '''Tigel vowels'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="text-align:center;"
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} vowels'''
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" |
! rowspan="3" |
Line 115: Line 322:
! colspan="3" |Back
! colspan="3" |Back
|-
|-
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |<small>unrounded</small>
! colspan="2" style="" |<small>unrounded</small>
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |<small>rounded</small>
! colspan="2" style="" |<small>rounded</small>
! style="width: 45px; " |<small>unrounded</small>
! style=" " |<small>unrounded</small>
! style="width: 90px; " |<small>rounded</small>
! style=" " |<small>rounded</small>
! style="width: 45px; " |<small>unrounded</small>
! style=" " |<small>unrounded</small>
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |<small>rounded</small>
! colspan="2" style=" " |<small>rounded</small>
|-
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style=" "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style=" "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style=" "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style=" "|<small>long</small>
|-
|-
! style="" |Close
! style="" |Close
| '''i''' /ɪ/
| /ɪ/
| '''í''' /iː/
| /iː/
| '''y''' /ʏ/
| /ʏ/
| '''ý''' /yː/
| /yː/
|
| /ɨ/
| '''ú''' /ʉː/
| /ʉː/
|  
|  
| '''u''' /ʊ/
| /ʊ/
| '''ul, úl''' /ʊˁː/
| [uː]<sup>1</sup>
|-
|-
! style="" |Mid
! style="" |Mid
| '''e''' /ɛ/
| /ɛ/
| '''é''' /eː/
| /eː/
| '''ø''' /œ/
| /œ/
| '''ǿ''' /øː/
| /øː/
| '''e''' /ə/
| /ə/
| '''ó''' /ɵː/
| /ɵː/
| '''el''' [ɤˁ]
| [ɤˁ]
| '''o''' /ɔ/
| /ɔ/
| '''ol, ól''' /ɔˤː/
| [oː]<sup>1</sup>
|-
|-
! style="" |Open
! style="" |Open
|  
|  
| '''á''' /aː/
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''a''' /ɐ/
|  
| /a/
| /aː/
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''al, ál''' /ɒˁː/
|}
|}


Diphthongs:
<sup>1</sup> /ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones [uː, oː] before /ɾ~l/ in some accents, especially in Sceola Tíogall.
'''ie yø uo il/íl yl/ýl el él øl ǿl''' /iə yə uə ɪɤˁ ʏɤˁ ɛɤˁ eɤˁ œɤˁ øɤˁ/  
 
 
 
Diphthongs: /iə yə uə aw ɛj ɛw œj œw ɛ:j ɛ:w œ:j œ:w iəw yəw uəj/
 
The vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ occur only in unstressed syllables; they merge before ''l''.
 
====''L''-colored vowels====
L-colored vowels and diphthongs result from combinations of any vowels or diphthongs with the back liquid /ʟ/ (phonetic values are as in Smeola Tíogall):
 
* /iː/, /iə/ + /ʟ/ > /iʟ/ [iɤˁ]
* /ɪ/ + /ʟ/ > /ɪʟ/ [ɪɤˁ]
* /yː/, /yə/ + /ʟ/ > /yʟ/ /yɤˁ/
* /ʏ/ + /ʟ/ > /ʏʟ/ [ʏɤˁ]
* /ʊ/, /ʉː/, /uə/ + /ʟ/ > /ʊʟ/ [ʊˁː~ʊɤˁ]
* /eː/ + /ʟ/ > /eʟ/ [eɤˁ]
* /ɛ/ + /ʟ/ > /ɛʟ/ [ɛɤˁ]
* /øː/ + /ʟ/ > /øʟ/ [øɤˁ]
* /œ/ + /ʟ/ > /œʟ/ [œɤˁ]
* /ɔ/, /ɵː/ + /ʟ/ > /ɔʟ/ [ɔˁː~ɔɤˁ]
* /ɐ/, /aː/ + /ʟ/ > /ɑʟ/ /ɒˁː~ɑɤˁ/
 
Accents that are ''lambdic'' may realize the /ʟ/ in one of several ways (pharyngealization, nasalization, [ɴ], [ʀ]). ''Non-lambdic'' accents are those in which vocalization of ''l'' after vowels is complete; the L-coloring is purely a difference in vowel quality and displays no secondary articulation.


====Notes====
====Notes====
=====Close vowels=====
=====Close vowels=====
*/iː/ is close front unrounded [iː].
*/iː/ is close front unrounded [iː] ([[Media:Tigall_í.ogg|listen]]).
*/yː/ is close front rounded [yː]. Its rounding is compressed.
*/iə/ is phonetically [iə] ([[Media:Tigall_é.ogg|listen]]).
*/ʉː/ is somewhat retracted close central rounded [ʉ̠ː]. Its rounding is protruded.
*/iʟ/ is phonetically [iːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_íl.ogg|listen]]).
*/ʊˁː/ is near-close back rounded [ʊ̠ˁː]. Its rounding is compressed.
*/yː/ is usually close near-front rounded [y̠ː] ([[Media:Tigall_úi.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
*/yə/ is phonetically [yə], [y̠ə] or [ʏə] ([[Media:Tigall_ói.ogg|listen]]).
*/yʟ/ is phonetically [y̠ːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_úil.ogg|listen]]).
*/ʉː/ is somewhat retracted close central rounded [ʉ̠ː] ([[Media:Tigall_ú.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is protruded.
*/uə/ is phonetically [uə] or [ʊə] ([[Media:Tigall_ó.ogg|listen]]). It is a monophthong [uː] for some speakers.
*/ʊʟ/ is near-close back rounded [ʊ̠ˁː] ([[Media:Tigall_ul.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
**In careful speech, this is a diphthong [ʊ̠ɤˁ].
**In careful speech, this is a diphthong [ʊ̠ɤˁ].
*/ɪ/ is near-close near-front unrounded [ɪ] or close-mid near-front unrounded [e̠].
*/ɪ/ is near-close near-front unrounded [ɪ] ([[Media:Tigall_i.ogg|listen]]).
*/ʏ/ is near-close near-front rounded [ʏ]. Its rounding is compressed.
*/ʏ/ is near-close near-front rounded [ʏ] ([[Media:Tigall_ui.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
*/ʊ/ is near-close near-back rounded [ʊ] or back rounded [ʊ̠]. Its rounding is protruded.
*/ʏʟ/ is phonetically [ʏɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_uil.ogg|listen]]).
*/ʊ/ is near-close near-back rounded [ʊ] or back rounded [ʊ̠] ([[Media:Tigall_u.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is protruded.


=====Mid vowels=====
=====Mid vowels=====
*/eː/ is close-mid front unrounded [eː].
*/eː/ is close-mid front unrounded [eː] ([[Media:Tigall_aé.ogg|listen]]).
**Some non-standard accents use [eɪ].
*/eʟ/ is phonetically [eːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_aél.ogg|listen]]).
*/øː/ is close-mid near-front rounded [øː] or mid front rounded [ø̞ː]. Its rounding is compressed.
*/øː/ is close-mid near-front rounded [ø̠ː] or mid front rounded [ø̞ː] ([[Media:Tigall_aói.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
**Some non-standard accents use [øʏ].
*/øʟ/ is phonetically [ø̠ːɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_aóil.ogg|listen]]).
*/ɵː/ is somewhat retracted close-mid central rounded [ө̠ː]. Its rounding is protruded.
*/ɵː/ is somewhat retracted close-mid central rounded [ө̠ː] ([[Media:Tigall_aó.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is protruded.
**Some non-standard accents use [өʉ].
*/ɔʟ/ is open-mid near-back rounded [ɔˁː] ([[Media:Tigall_aol.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
*/ɔˁː/ is open-mid near-back rounded [ɔˁː]. Its rounding is compressed.
**In careful speech, this is a diphthong [oɤˁ] or [ɔɤˁ].
**In careful speech, this is a diphthong [ʌɤˁ] or [ɔɤˁ].
*/ɛ/ is open-mid front unrounded [ɛ] or mid near-front unrounded [ɛ̽] ([[Media:Tigall_e.ogg|listen]]).
*/ɛ/ is open-mid front unrounded [ɛ] or mid near-front unrounded [ɛ̽].
*/ɛʟ/ is phonetically [ɛ̞ɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_el.ogg|listen]]).
*/œ/ is open-mid near-front rounded [œ]. Its rounding is compressed.
*/œ/ is open-mid near-front rounded [œ] ([[Media:Tigall_oi.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is compressed.
*[ə] is mid central unrounded [ə]. It is often fronted [ə̟] when word-final.
*/œʟ/ is phonetically [œɤˁ] or [ɞɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_oil.ogg|listen]]).
*[ə] is mid central unrounded [ə]. It is often fronted [ə̟] in pausa.
*[ɤˁ] is close-mid compressed pharyngealized [ɤᵝˁ].
*[ɤˁ] is close-mid compressed pharyngealized [ɤᵝˁ].
*/ɔ/ is open-mid back rounded [ɔ] or mid back rounded [o̞]. Its rounding is protruded.
*/ɔ/ is open-mid back rounded [ɔ] or mid back rounded [o̞] ([[Media:Tigall_o.ogg|listen]]). Its rounding is protruded.


=====Open vowels=====
=====Open vowels=====
*/ɐ/ is near-open central unrounded [ɐ].
*/aː/ is central unrounded [äː] ([[Media:Tigall_á.ogg|listen]]); historically, upper-class accents used [ɑː].
*/aː/ is open front unrounded front [aː], or near-open front unrounded [æː].
*/a/ is near-open central unrounded [ɐ] ([[Media:Tigall_a.ogg|listen]]).
*/ɒˁː/ is most often phonetically a diphthong [ɒɤˁ] or [äɤˁ].
*/ɑʟ/ is most often phonetically a diphthong [ɑɤˁ] or [äɤˁ] ([[Media:Tigall_ál.ogg|listen]]).


====Umlaut====
====Umlaut====
Words may undergo i-umlaut or u-umlaut under the addition of some affixes.
Vowels in the first syllable of roots may undergo i-mutation or umlaut or under the addition of some affixes.
 
===Phonotactics===
Allowed initial clusters in roots (in native words):
*''bl br cl cn cr dl dr fl fr gl gn gr ml mn mr ŋl ŋr (pl) (pr) sc scl scr (sp) sl sm sn sŋ sr st tn tl tr''
 
===Some phonological rules===
*unstressed /əwə/ > ''-ú-'' /ʉː/
*/ʏw/, /yəw/, /yːw/ > /ʉː/
 
===Prosody===
{{SUBPAGENAME}} has a distinctive intonation paradigm. Within said paradigm, some accents (e.g. Smeola) can sound like a stereotypical Cork accent, while some accents (e.g. Óc Eo) sound more like Valspeak.
*In declarative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word (if there is no focused constituent, the last word) has a lower pitch than the immediately preceding syllable. ("...mid ꜜ LOW mid...") This originates from discursive uptalk in older forms of {{SUBPAGENAME}}, which has since generalized to all declarative sentences. A few accents, such as Tumacan accents, do not use this pattern.
*In interrogative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word has a higher pitch than the syllable immediately before. ("... mid ꜛ HIGH mid ... ?")
*In exclamations, the pattern is "... mid ꜜ LOW-HIGH mid ... !", possibly with a gradual drop to low pitch in the end. Angry or indignant questions also use an exclamatory intonation.
 
==Dialectology==
{{SUBPAGENAME}} is subject to a fair amount of accentual and dialectal variation due to the number of speakers.
 
/ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones before /ɾ~l/ in some accents, especially in Duínidhean accents.
===Scádar accent===
This dialect is most prominent in and around the Óc Eo (/ɵːk ɵː/ 'white rock', English: /ˈoʊk.oʊ/ "oak-oh") metropolitan area in Anbhair.
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
*/Vʟ/ = [Vɴ] before a consonant
*''r'' = [l] in all positions
*/θ, ð/ = [ts, dz] when not before a plosive
*No Auslautverhärtung at all (except ''-ig'' and ''-igh'')
**Word-final ''-ig'' and ''-igh'' pronounced as [-ɪç].
*/ɛ, œ, ɔ/ > [ɪ, ʏ, ʊ] before nasals
*/ɛj/ > [aj]
*/a/ = [æ] before coronals
*/aː/ is backed to [ɑː~ɒː]
 
===Cnólta accent===
Spoken in the largely rural areas of Cnólta (/ˈknɔːˁtə/, English: /kəˈnɔːltə/ or /kəˈnoʊltə/). Stereotypically associated with backwardness and boorishness.
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
**/Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃]
*/tʃ, dʒ/ = [ts~tɕ, dz~dʑ]
*/eː, øː/ = [eə, øə]
*/eːj, øːj, ɛj, œj/ = [eː, øː, ɛː, œː]
*''r'' is pronounced as a bunched [ɹ], which retracts preceding front vowels /ɪ, ɛ/ to /ɨ, ɜ/.
*/ʉː, ɵː, aw/ = [ʉu, ɵu, æu]
**/ʉː, ɵː/ = [u:, o:] before ''r''
*/aː/ = [æ:]
*/sp, st, sk, sm, sn, sŋ, sʟ, sɾ/ = [ʃp, ʃt, ʃk, ʃm, ʃn, ʃŋ, ʃʁ, ʃɹ]
 
===Códha accent===
Códha (/ˈkɵːðə/, English: /ˈkoʊðə/) is a Duínidhe accent. It is non-lambdic.
 
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise:
**/iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː]
**/yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː]
**/ʊʟ/ = [ʊː]
**/eʟ/ = [eːɔ]
**/ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ]
**/øʟ/ = [øːɔ]
**/œʟ/ = [œɔ]
**/ɔʟ/ = [uː]
**/aʟ/ = [ɒː]
*''r'' = [ɾ] before a vowel, [l] before a consonant or word-finally
*/ʉː, ɵː/ = [uː, oː] before /ɾ/
*(other features)
 
===Tumaca accent===
A conservative accent used in the mountainous regions of Tumaca /tʊməkə/ in Duínidhe; continuous with [[Tumacan]].
*/b d dʒ g/ are devoiced to (unaspirated) [p t c k] in all positions.
*/tʃ, dʒ, ʃ/ = [c, ɟ, ç]
*/n, ʟ, ɾ/ distinguish between "fortis" or unlenited [n̪, ɫ, r] and "lenis" or lenited [ð̞̃, ʀ, z].
*''th, dh'' are [ħ, z] word-initially and become [h, z] word-finally.
*/ʉ, ɵ/ are always fully back [uː, oː].
 
===Tecadh an bhFuŋŋ accent===
non-lambdic, L-colored vowels similar to Códha
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise:
*''r'' = [l] in all positions
**/iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː]
**/yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː]
**/ʊʟ/ = [uː]
**/eʟ/ = [eːɔ]
**/ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ]
**/øʟ/ = [øːɔ]
**/œʟ/ = [œɔ]
**/ɔʟ/ = [oː]
**/aʟ/ = [ɑə~ɔ]
*/a/ = [æ]
*/aː/ = [ɑː]
 
===Éise accent===
This accent is primarily used in the Éise (/ˈiːsə/) province (including the famous city Flian).
 
Vowel length is mainly realized as tenseness:
*/ɪ i ʏ y ʉ ʊ/
*/ɛ e œ ø ə ɵ ɔ/
*/ɐ ɑ/
*/iə yə uə aw æj œj ej øj/
*/Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃] (nasalization)
*''r'' = [l] in all positions
*ú ó backed before r
*In ''sp st sc'', the s is weakened so that these are voiceless unaspirated [p t k/tS] initially and preaspirated [hp ht hk/htS] medially. These are distinguished from ''b d g'' by having a higher pitch.
*Reduced ''ai'' = [ʊ], reduced ''i'' = [ʏ]
 
===Phormatin accent===
The majority accent of {{SUBPAGENAME}} native speakers in Phormatin is a lot like Éise, except most notably the short vowels /ɛ œ ɔ/ raise to /ɪ ʏ ʊ/ before nasals and /ʟ/. Lax vowels are also slightly laxer than in Éise; Éise speakers often hear Phormatian lax vowels as schwas. <!--inspiration: Canada, New Zealand 'fush and chups' -->
 
==="Stage {{SUBPAGENAME}}"===
So-called "Stage {{SUBPAGENAME}}" is a semi-artificial standard developed for use in classical singing and other elevated stage performances.
 
*/ʟ/ is always pronounced [ɫ]
*/ɾ/ may be trilled [r]
*Short vowels before single C + V - the C is allophonically geminated
*Non-lambdic vowels are close to their Smeola counterparts, except /aː/ is pronounced [ɑː~ɒː] (close to its Classical Netagin counterpart)
*/ɨ/ is pronounced [ɪ]
 
===Early Modern {{SUBPAGENAME}}===
*''ae/ái, aoi, ao'' were pronounced /ɛː, œː, ɔː/ as opposed to ''é, ói, ó'' /eː, øː, oː/; these two sets have merged to /eː, øː, ɵː/ in most modern dialects.
*/ɨ/ was pronounced [ɪ].
 
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Nouns are classed into two genders, masculine (''reist ŋullán'' /ˈɾɪst ˈŋʊʟaːn/) and feminine (''reist dhéán'' /ˈɾɪst ˈðeːaːn/); they are also inflected in two numbers (singular and plural) and three states (indefinite, definite, construct). There are some trends in gender assignment of nouns: for example, substances tend to be masculine, and abstract concepts and processes tend to be feminine. The construct suffix is usually ''-adh/-edh'' for singular nouns and ''-ann/-enn'' for plural nouns; however, for Netagin loans no suffix is used for the singular construct.
 
There are no possessive suffixes, unlike in [[Thensarian]] or other Talmic languages. If the possessor is a pronoun, the disjunctive form of the pronoun is used with the construct state: e.g. ''suaradh scainedh ná'' 'my friend's house'.
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''már'' 'tree' (masculine, declension 1)
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Indefinite
|''már''||''máir''
|-
!|Definite
|''an már''||''na máir''
|-
|-
|+ '''Umlaut'''
!|Construct
|''máradh''||''máirenn''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''búta'' 'cave' (masculine, declension 1)
|-
|-
!|Root vowel
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!''a''!!''a''!!''e''!!''é''!!''i''!!''í''!!''ie''!!''o''!!''ó''!!''u''!!''ú''!!''uo''
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
|-
!|u-umlaut
!|Indefinite
|''o''||''ó''||''ø''||''ǿ''||''y''||''ý''||''yø''||''-''||''-''||''-''||''-''||''-''
|''búta''||''bútaí''
|-
|-
!|i-umlaut
!|Definite
|''e''||''é''||''-''||''-''||''-''||''-''||''-''||''ø''||''ǿ''||''y''||''ý''||''yø''
|''an búta''||''na bútaí''
|-
|-
!|Construct
|''bútadh''||''bútaíonn''
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
====L-colored vowels====
 
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
====Masculine vowel declension====
Use ~ AW neuter determiner endings?
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''scain'' 'friend' (masculine, declension 2)
|-
|-
!colspan="3" |''clúda'' - 'time'
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Indefinite
|''scain''||''scaine''
|-
!|Definite
|''an scain''||''na scaine''
|-
!|Construct
|''scainedh''||''scainenn''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''sert'' 'pole' (feminine, declension 3)
|-
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
Line 232: Line 621:
|-
|-
!|Indefinite
!|Indefinite
|''clúda-L''||''clúdann''
|''sert''||''sertar''
|-
|-
!|Definite
!|Definite
|''a clúda''||''clúdar''
|''an zsert''||''na sertar''
|-
|-
!|Construct
!|Construct
|''clúdath''||''clúdar''
|''sertadh''||''sertann''
|}
|}
{{col-end}}
===Adjectives===
{{SUBPAGENAME}} adjectives have three principal parts: the predicative (the unmarked form), the masculine absolute plural form and the feminine absolute plural form.
The predicative determines:
*the indefinite and definite singular, which are the same as the predicative (modulo mutations for gender and definiteness).
*the construct singular: specifically, if the adjective ends in a ''-th'' or a ''-dh'', the suffix ''-adh'' is not added in the construct singular.
The feminine absolute plural determines:
*the construct plural


====Masculine consonantal declension====
{{col-begin}}
The mutation after the noun surfaces on adjectives and genitive nouns.
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
|+ ''árd'' 'big'
!colspan="3" |''suar'' - 'house'
|-
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Predicative
|colspan="2"|''árd''
|-
|-
!|Indefinite
!|Indefinite
|''suar-N''||''suara-H''
|''árd'' (m.)<br/>''h-árd'' (f.)
|rowspan="2"|''áird'' (m.)<br/>''árdar'' (f.)
|-
|-
!|Definite
!|Definite
|''a shuar-L''||''suarann''
|''árd'' (m.)<br/>''n-árd'' (f.)
|-
|-
!|Construct
!|Construct
|''suara-L''||''suarar''
|''árdadh''||''árdann''
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
====Feminine vowel declension====
====Feminine consonant declension====
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
|+ ''caraimh'' 'human'
!colspan="3" |''iamh'' - 'mother'
|-
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Predicative
|colspan="2"|''caraimh''
|-
|-
!|Indefinite
!|Indefinite
|''iamh''||''iamhar''
|''caraimh'' (m.)<br/>''charaimh'' (f.)
|rowspan="2"|''carú'' (m.)<br/>''carúr'' (f.)
|-
|-
!|Definite
!|Definite
|''a n-iamh-N''||''a h-iamh-H''
|''caraimh'' (m.)<br/>''gcaraimh'' (f.)
|-
|-
!|Construct
!|Construct
|''yamha-L''||''yamhar''
|''carúdh''||''carúnn''
|}
|}
{{col-end}}
====Degree====
The comparative form of adjectives is formed with the suffix ''-ta/-te'' /-tə/ which becomes ''-ata/-eata'' /-ətə/ after ''t, d, th, dh'' and ''-tha/-the'' /θə/ after ''b, p, g, c''. The comparandum is marked with the particle ''rá'' /ɾaː/ 'than'.
The superlative is formed with the suffix ''-as'' /-əs/.
====Forming adverbs====
Adverbs are formed by adding ''go'' 'with' before the predicative form of the adjective.


===Adjectives===
===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
====Personal====
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
|+ '''{{SUBPAGENAME}} personal pronouns'''
|-
!|
!1sg!!2sg!!2pol!!3sg.m!!3sg.f!!1pl.ex!!1pl.in!!2pl!!3pl
|-
!|Conjunctive
|''ná''||''fiar''||''dTlá''||''hú''||''hí''||''cámh''||''céid''||''séid''||''hár''
|-
!|Disjunctive
|''ná''||''iar'' ||''dTlá''||''ú''||''í''||''ámh''||''chéid''||''héid''||''ár''
|}
The disjunctive ''iar'' is often shortened to '' 'r'' in informal speech.
To emphasize a pronoun or an inflected preposition, ''-na''/''-ne'' is added to the pronoun.
====Politeness====
In archaic usage, ''séid'' is used as an honorific pronoun when speaking to a person of high social standing. In modern {{SUBPAGENAME}}, this usage is restricted to e.g.:
* books, movies, games, ... when depicting the past or past-like settings (such as historical fiction or fantasy)
* when addressing a deity or a king
* in BDSM contexts when a "slave" refers to their "master".
In modern {{SUBPAGENAME}}, ''fiar'' and ''séid'' are used for family members, friends, children or teens, animals, people on the Internet, or to address people of lower social position, and ''dTlá'' is used to an addressee of higher position and for strangers; for example, it is considered acceptable for a professor to address his students, or for a boss his employees, using familiar pronouns.
====Correlatives====
*''mé'' = this
*''cé'' = that
*''tá'' = what?
*''tua'' = who?
*''tach'' = where?
*''tuín, tiann'' = why?
*''tér'' = how?
*''tís'' = when?
===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestral Thensarian. The pronoun ''dTlá'' is not fused with the preposition, however.
''ebh'' = 'after', ''ebhta'' = near/next to
''ful'' = 'around' (fulan, fulas, fula, fuli, fulam, fulad, fulac, fular)
The sequences ''le'' + ''an'' and ''de'' + ''an'' contract to ''len'' /ʟɛn/ and ''den'' /dɛn/.
The 1sg and 2sg forms of prepositions are stressed on the last syllable; all other forms have initial stress.
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
|+ '''Inflection of prepositions'''
|-
!|
!1sg!!2sg.m!!3sg.m!!3sg.f!!1pl.ex!!1pl.in!!2pl!!3pl
|-
!|''de-L, d'-'' 'in, at'
|''dian''||''dias''||''diú''||''dí''||''diam''||''diad''||''diac''||''diar''
|-
!|''ar'' 'on'
|''aran''||''aras''||''or''||''ari''||''aram''||''arad''||''arac''||''arar''
|-
!|''geil'' 'from'
|''geilan''||''geilas''||''gela''||''geili''||''geilem''||''geiled''||''geilec''||''geiler''
|-
!|''go'' 'with'
|''guan''||''góis''||''gú''||''gúi''||''guam''||''guad''||''guac''||''guar''
|-
!|''le-L'' 'to'
|''lion''||''leis''||''leo''||''léi''||''liom''||''liod''||''lioc''||''lior''
|-
!|''nae'' 'with (instrumental)'
|''naen''||''naes''||''nae''||''naí''||''naem''||''naed''||''naec''||''naer''
|-
!|''ŋal'' 'before'
|''chaoin''||''chaois''||''chao''||''chaoi''||''chaoim''||''chaoid''||''chaoic''||''chaoir''
|-
!|''ro'' (ergative)
|''rún''||''rús''||''rú''||''rúi''||''rúm''||''rúd''||''rúc''||''rúr''
|}
''Ar'' 'on' can be used to indicate obligation, similarly to Irish and Hebrew:
:'''''Aran an cáin le descach.'''''
:on-1SG DEF.SG.M food to eat-VN
:''I have to eat the food.''
===Verbs===
===Verbs===
[[Old Eevo]] had a verb system with complex alternations, almost comparable to that of Old Irish. Modern {{SUBPAGENAME}} simplified this system substantially, leaving behind a mixture of synthetic forms (used without a subject pronoun) and analytic forms (used with a subject noun or pronoun), similar to the Modern Irish system. However, many basic verbs are irregular, with many "principal parts"; some common verbs even retain the Old Eevo allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.
Ex:
*''cáigh ná'' 'I eat'; ''cáir'' 'you eat'
*''ní dhesc ná'' 'I don't eat'; ''ní dhescar'' 'you don't eat'
====Present tense====
The present tense is conjugated as follows. For some verbs, umlaut occurs with certain affixes. For verb stems ending in ''-gh'' or ''-igh'', the ''-gh'' or ''-igh'' is deleted: ''tnáigh hú'' < {{recon|''tnáighigh hú''}} 'he believes'.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-n}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Present tense
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''STEM-((a)igh) ná''<br/>''STEM-an/en''
|''STEM-ú''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''STEM-((a)igh) céid''<br/>''STEM-ad/ed'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|2
|''STEM-(e)ar''
|''STEM-((a)igh) séid''<br/>''STEM-as/es'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|3.m
|''STEM-((a)igh) hú/hí''
|''STEM-((a)igh) hár''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''STEM-a<sup>1</sup>ra/-e<sup>1</sup>ra''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Present tense of the verb ''molaigh'' 'thank'
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
| ''mol(aigh) ná''<br/> ''molan''
| ''molú''
|-
!|1.in
| ''-''
| ''mol(aigh) géid''<br/>''molad'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|2
| ''molar''
| ''mol(aigh) séid''<br/>''molas'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|3.m
|''mol(aigh) hú''<br/>''mol(aigh) hí''
|''mol(aigh) hár''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''molara''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Present tense of the verb {{abbtip|idaigh|''idigh''}} 'lie in a place'
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
| ''id(igh) ná''<br/>''iden''
| ''idú''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
| ''id(igh) céid''<br/>''ided'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|2
| ''idear''
| ''id(igh) zéid''<br/>''ides'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|3.m
|''id(igh) hú/hí''
|''id(igh) hár''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''idre''
|}
{{col-end}}
<sup>1</sup> The buffer ''-e-'' is added when the previous consonant is a cluster, r or l.
The ''-igh'' ending in analytic forms must be deleted when a preverbal particle such as ''ní'' 'not', ''ri'' 'REL', ''bhfá'' 'COMP': ''molaigh hú'' 'he thanks', but ''ní mhol hú'' 'he does not thank'. For verbs that have a separate stem for imperatives, the imperative stem is used with a preverbal particle. The ''-igh'' may also be deleted or added in poetry. This is a remnant of Middle {{SUBPAGENAME}} where there was a distinction between ''molamh hú'' 'he thanks (once)' (dependent ''mola hú'' or ''mol hú'') and ''molaigh hú'' 'he thanks (regularly)'.
====Present progressive====
''Laidh ná de dhescach'' = I'm eating
''Níl ná de dhescach'' = I'm not eating
====Imperfect tense====
To form the imperfect tense, the particle ''go'' is used before the verb, and the verb undergoes lenition.
*''go mhola ná'' 'I used to thank'
*''go h-airde hí'' 'she used to lie'
====Preterite tense====
The suffix ''-ín'' is added to the preterite stem to form the past participle. The subject is preceded by an ergative marker ''lu''. For the impersonal the subject is simply omitted. This is the standard way of forming the preterite in ''Étaoin'' {{SUBPAGENAME}}.
:'''''Déicín luc rúin.'''''
:''I ate/have eaten a fruit.''
====Pluperfect tense====
''g'lao'' + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.
*''g'lao moilín ná'' 'I had thanked'
*''g'lao fairdín hí'' 'she had lain'
====Future tense====
The future tense is formed by suffixing the future marker ''t'' and conjugating the result like a present tense verb, except that the analytic form is invariably ''-ta/-te''.
The future marker ''-t-'' becomes ''-at-/-et-'' after ''t, d, th, dh'' or any time when a resulting cluster does not consist of two obstruents and would violate the sonority hierarchy (voiced C between two voiceless C's) and ''-th-'' after ''b, p, g, c''.
====Future perfect tense====
''fácht'' + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.
====Jussive====
The jussive is mainly used for third-person imperatives and sometimes to specify a wish or a requirement.
Modern {{SUBPAGENAME}} just uses ''molúr'' in every person: ''molúr ná'', ''mólúr fiar'', etc. The passive form is ''molrúr''.
This form uses ''dá''-L for the negative, not ''tir''-L.
:'''''Geilan bhfá ŋgríciúr hí guan.'''''
:''I want her to stay with me.''
====Conditional====
====Imperative====
{{col-begin}}
{{col-n}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Imperative
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''STEM-ad!''
|-
!|2
|''STEM!''
|''STEM-as!''
|-
!|3.m
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''-''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Imperative of the verb ''mol'' 'thank'
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''molad!''
|-
!|2
|''mol!''
|''molas!''
|-
!|3.m
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''-''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Imperative of the verb ''id'' 'lie in a place'
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
!|1.in
| ''-''
| ''airded!''
|-
!|2
| ''aird!''
| ''airdes!''
|-
!|3.m
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''-''
|}
{{col-end}}
The polite 2nd person equivalents are ''molúr dTlá'' and ''airdúr dTlá''.
The imperative stem is used in a Hebrew-style "infinitive absolute" construction: ''deasc déctha hú ú'' = 'he will indeed eat it'
====Verbal noun====
The verbal noun serves many important syntactic functions.
Some markers for verbal nouns:
*''-ach/-ech''
*''-as/-es''
*''-t/-ta/-te''
*ablaut
*bare stem
*''-a/-e''
*''-ú''
*umlaut/''-e''
====Emphatic forms====
To emphasize the subject the clitic ''-nna'' is added to:
*the verb if the verb is in a synthetic form;
*the subject if the verb is in an analytic form.
===Numbers===
*0: ''ħaŋíts'' /ha'ŋi:ts/
*1: ''ciamh'' /tʃiəw/
*2: ''tioth'' /tɪθ/
*3: ''náidh'' /neːð/
*4: ''daoibh'' /døːv/
*5: ''soil'' /sœʟ/
*6: ''stámh'' /staːw/
*7: ''ruai'' /ɾyə/
*8: ''lóidh'' /ʀøːð/
*9: ''bairbh'' /bɛlv/
*10: ''uar'' /uəl/
*11: ''eáichemh'' /eːʃəw/
*12: ''cnae'' /kneː/
Numbers must be used with singular nouns. The numbers ''ciamh'' comes after the noun, while other numbers come before it.
The suffix ''-ar/-er'' is used for 'nth', and ''-tar/-ter'' is used for 'n times'.
1/n = n-bhedh = "n-part" (half = ''drá'')
===Derivational morphology===
Below are some common {{SUBPAGENAME}} derivational affixes. In addition to derivational affixes, {{SUBPAGENAME}} uses compound nouns like German; also, some productive prefixes has been re-analyzed into existence from Old Eevo prefix combinations. This allowed {{SUBPAGENAME}} to coin new native words instead of using loanwords.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"|
! colspan="4"|From...
|-
! Noun
! Verb
! Adjective<br>or Determiner
! Adverb
|-
! rowspan="4"|To...
! Noun
|
|
|
|
|-
! Verb
|
|
|
|
|-
! Adjective<br>or Determiner
|
|
|
|
|-
! Adverb
|
|
|
| -
|}
*''-a/e'' (f): nominalizer of verbs and adjectives
*''-ach/-ech, -achar/-echar'' (f): verbal noun (the most common suffix)
*''-acht/-echt'' = forms adjectives from verbs
*''-ám, -áma'' (m/f): augmentative (from Netagin)
*''-án/-eán, -áin/-eáin'': adjectivizer
*''-ar, -ara'': augmentative (Talmic)
*''-(a)im, -(a)imer'' = female suffix
**''-óiŋ'' > ''-óiŋim''
*''-ú'' (f.): abstract nouns; -hood
*''-ín, -íne'' = used to form adjectives in Netagin loans; also used with native words sometimes
*''-ín, -íní'' = patient, passive participle
*''-aí/-í''/''-aíche/-íche'' = diminutive
*''-gán, -gáin'' = -able
*''é-'' = co-, con-, together
*''for-'' = causative
*''má-L'': un-
*''mí-L'': mis-
*''ní-L'' (hyphenated): non-
*''-óiŋ, -óiŋe'' (m) = agent suffix
*''sin-L'': "well"
*Nouns can often be verbed
==Syntax==
:''Main article: [[{{SUBPAGENAME}}/Syntax]]''
==Vocabulary==
{{SUBPAGENAME}} is relatively purist; most {{SUBPAGENAME}} vocabulary is of Talmic origin. However, a non-trivial fraction of the vocabulary is loaned from Netagin (either [[Classical Netagin]] or [[Koine Netagin]]) and, to a lesser extent, Clofabic. Most recently, [[Clofabosin]] words are entering the language, mostly in the domains of information technology and culture.
===Colors===
===Calendar and time===
===Kinship terms===
*''annar, annta'' = father
*''iamh, iamhar'' = mother
*''có, cótha'' = son
==Phrasebook==
*{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɪs/|''An Saichte leis!''}} (to one person)/{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɛk/|''An Saichte lec!''}} (to ≥2 people) = Hello! (lit. "the spirit-complex [give blessing] to you")
*{{abbtip|/ˈmœʟə/|''Moile!''}} = Thank you!
*{{abbtip|/ʟə ˈheːˌgantə/|''Le h-éganta!''}} = Goodbye! (lit. "to meeting")
*''Arbára ná [NAME].'' = My name is [NAME].
*{{abbtip|/ˈstaːnsə ˈbœɾə ʟɪs/| ''Stánsa boire leis!''}} = Happy Stannsa!
*{{abbtip|/ˈsŋøːˌxɾeː ˈvœɾə ʟɪs/| ''Sŋaoichré bhoire leis!''}} = Happy birthday!
*{{abbtip|/ˈɪθəl ˈhyŋaːn ʟɪn/|''Ither huiŋeán lion.''}} = Nice to meet you.
*''Aeilligh ná iar.'' / ''Aeilligh ná 'r.'' = I love you.
*''Ní thnáighin leis!'' = I don't believe you!
*''Brós na dellar iar guirenta.'' = Lower your standards. ("Put your eyes lower.")
*''Suinmigh hú'' = it makes sense ("it tunes")
*[repeat verb] = Yes, X does [verb]. (reply to ''Is '' [verb] ''... ?'')
*[repeat adjective] = Yes, X is [adjective]. (reply to ''Is '' [adjective] '' ... ?'')
*[inflected form of ''de''] = Yes, X is Y.
*''Ní'' + lenition + [verb/adjective/inflected form of ''de''] = No.
*''Níl.'' = No. (reply to ''Is laidh ... ?'')
==Sample texts==
===E pur si muove!===
''Sóibh argann argannaigh hú!''
<!--
===The North Wind and the Sun===
====Phonetic version====
'''''An b:vuołkołn al an :ngúd'''''
''Kiewlách gré an b:vuołkołn al an :ngúd d'uskech go nale dli ní, t:thuov girel édhene, án nyødhín zothlǿng de léhe d'z:ýl go :hespeł f:wún dlú. Ieliedhín tytheln ní, ngamew édhene zufín ho ré ngú an b:ván li k:grynteteth sú hǿn, s'an z:othlǿng ho lá, an :hespeł lizu ho d:dhelvech. Anøs ngolín an b:vuołkołn go t:thán li gré conlethu, ach go ngolech al gré ngole ngú, ón al-sngýchtín an :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng dli ngúłdhu. Di hél an t:dánev, síł-wárín an b:vuołkołn gił an snǿseł. Anøs sásefín fýne lu an :ngúd, al k:chéhest delvín an :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng. Al anást fáchín frénín an b:vuołkołn ho g:gholgiespech, ní an :ngúd hí an b:ván :hédhene.''
====Orthographic version====
'''''A bhólcoln ar an ŋ-úd'''''
''Ciamhrách g'laí an bhólcoln ar an ŋ-úd d'usgach go nar dri ní thóbh gilar aédhanna, án nuaidhín zothróiŋ de reía d'zhíor go h-eisbel bhfúnn drú. éréidhín tiotharann ní ŋamamh aédhanna zufín sho laí ŋú an bhánn ri gcluintetadh sú heíon, s'an zhothróiŋ sho reá, an h-eisbel rizu sho dhearbhach. Anois ŋorrín an bhólcoln go thán ri g'laí conrathu, ach go ŋorrach ar g'laí ŋorra ŋú, aón ar-sŋúichdín an h-eisbel rizu ru an zhothróiŋ dri ŋlúdhu. Di fhaír an dtánabh, síl-bhfáilín an bhólcoln gil an snóisel. Anois sásaín fúinne ru an ŋ-úd, ar cheíesd dearbhín an h-eisbel rizu ru an zhothróiŋ. Ar anásd fáchín fléinín an bhólcoln sho ghorgéach, ní an ŋ-úd hí an bhánn h-aédhanna.''
====Gloss====
{{Gloss
|phrase = Kiewlách gré a b:vuołkołn al a :ngúd d'uskech go nale dli ní t:thuov girel édhene, án nyødhín zothlǿng de léhe d'z:ýl go :hespeł f:wún dlú.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [ˈcʰiəwl̠äːx qʷˁeː ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn əl̠ ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt ˈtʊs̠kəx kə ˈnal̠ə dɾɪ niː ˈθɵ̠ːv ˈɡɪʁᵝəl̠ ˈeːðənə̟ ǀ äːn ˈnyəðiːn ˈz̠ɔθl̠øːŋ də ˈl̠eːə ˈdyːl̠ ɡə ˈhɛs̠pɤᵝˁ ˈwʉ̠ːn dɾʉ̠ː]
| morphemes = kiewlách gré-N a-L buołkołn al a-N úd de-L uskech go-L nale dli ní-L tuov gir-el édh-ene, án-L nyødh-ín zothl-ǿng de-L léhe de-L zýl go-L espeł N-fún dl-ú
| gloss = one_time IPF DEF.M.SG north-wind and DEF.F.SG sun COMIT each_other on COMP who from-3PL strong-CMPV, when easily-PST.PART travel-AGT LOC come-VN LOC way COMIT cloak INDEF.M.SG.warm on-3SG
| translation = Once the north wind and the sun were arguing with each other about which one was stronger, when a traveler appeared in the way with a warm cloak on him.
| index =
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = Ieliedhín tythlen ní ngamew édhene zuspín ho ré ngú a b:ván li k:gryntetedh sú hǿn, s'an z:othlǿng ho lá, a :hespeł lizu ho d:dhelvech.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [ˈʔiəl̠iəðiːn ˈtʰʏθl̠ən niː ˈŋɐməw ˈeːðənə ˈʐʊs̠piːn hɔ̽ ʁeː ŋʉ̠ː ə väːn l̠ɪ ɢʷˁʏntʰətʰəθ s̠ʉ̠ː høːn ǀ s̠ən ˈɔθl̠øːŋ hɔ̽ ˈl̠äː ə ˈhɛs̠pɤᵝˁ l̠ɪz̠ʊ hɔ̽ ˈðɛl̠vəx]
| morphemes = ie-liedh-ín tythel-en ní-L ngamew édhene zusp-ín ho-L ré ngú a-L bán li-N k:grynt-et-edh s-ú hǿn so-L an-L z:othlǿng ho-L lá, a-L espeł liz-u ho-L delv-ech
| gloss = together-come-PST.PART two-DEF.M.PL COMP must strong-CMPV TEL-count_as-PST.PART TO_INFINITIVE be.VN 3SG.M.INDEP DEF-M one REL succeed-FUT-PART to-3SG.M first to DEF.M.SG traveller TO_INFINITIVE make.VN DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M TO_INFINITIVE take_off-VN
| translation = The two agreed that he was to be considered stronger who would first succeed in making the traveler take off his cloak.
| index =
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = úle ngolín a b:vuołkołn go t:thán li gré conlethu, ach go ngolech al gré ngole ngú, ón al-sngýchtín a :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng dli ngúłdhu.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [ˈʔʉ̠ːl̠ə ˈŋɔl̠iːn ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn gə ˈθäːn lɪ qʷˁeː ˈkʰɔnl̠əθʊ ǀ ʔɐx ˈŋɔl̠əx əl̠ qʷˁeː ˈŋɔl̠ə ŋʉ̠ː ǀ ˈɵːn ˈɐl̠s̠ɲyːxtiːn ˈhɛs̠pɤᵝˁ l̠ɪz̠ʊ l̠ʊ ən ˈɔθl̠øːŋ ə dɾɪ ˈŋʊᵝˁðʊ]
| morphemes = úle ngol-ín a buołkłn go-L tán li-N gré conleth-u ach go-L ngol-ech al gré ngol-e ngú ón al-sngýcht-ín a-L espeł liz-u lu an zothlǿng dli ngúłdh-u
| gloss = now blow-PST.PART DEF.M.SG north_wind COMI all DEF IPFV might-3SG.M, but COMI blow-VN and IPFV blow-IPFV 3SG.M.INDEP more fasten-PST.PART DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M ERG DEF.M.SG traveller on body-3SG.M
| translation = Now the north wind blew with all his might, but the more he blew, the more did the traveler fasten the cloak around him.
| index =
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = De f:hél a t:dánev, síł-wárín a b:vuołkołn gił a snǿseł.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [tɛ ˈheːl̠ ə däːnəv ˈsiːɤᵝˁwɑːʁᵝiːn ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn gɪɤᵝˁ ə ˈʂnøːs̠ɤᵝˁ]
| morphemes = de-L fél a-N tánev síł-wár-ín a-L buołkołn gił a-L snǿs-eł
| gloss = LOC bottom DEF lamp give_up-PST.PART DEF.M.SG north_wind from DEF.SG.N continue-VN
| translation = Realizing that continuing would be futile, the north wind gave up continuing.
| index =
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = úle sásefín fýne lu a :ngúd, al k:chéhest delvín a :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [ˈʔʉ̠ːl̠ə ˈs̠äːs̠əfiːn ˈfyːnə l̠ʊ ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt ǀ əl̠ ˈçeːəst tɛl̠viːn ə ˈhɛs̠pɤᵝˁ ˈl̠ɪz̠ʊ l̠ʊ ən ˈɔðl̠øːŋ]
| morphemes = úle sásef-ín fýne lu a-N úd al L-céhest delv-ín a-L hespeł liz-u lu an-L zothlǿng
| gloss = now shine-PST.PART warmth ERG DEF.F.SG sun, and ADV-immediate take_off-PST.PART DEF.M.SG cloak ERG DEF.M.SG traveler
| translation = Now the sun shined out warmth, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak.
| index =
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = Al anást fách frénín a b:vuołkołn ho g:gholgéhech, ní a :ngúd hí a b:ván :hédhene.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [əl̠ əˈnäːs̠t fäːx ˈfʁᵝeːniːn ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn hɔ̽ ˈɣɔl̠geːəx ǀ niː ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt hiː ə väːn ˈheːðənə̟]
| morphemes = al anást fách frén-ín a-L buołkołn ho-L golgie-ech ní a-N úd hí a-L bán L-édh-ene
| gloss = and thus be.PRET obligate-PST.PART DEF.M.SG TO_INFINITIVE confess.VN, COMP DEF.F.SG 3SG.F.INDEP DEF.M.SG one DEF.M.SG-strong-CMPV
| translation = And thus the north wind was obliged to admit that the sun was the stronger one.
| index =
}}
-->
===UDHR, Article 1===
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