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[[{{ | [[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Lexicon]]<br/> | ||
[[{{ | [[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]]<br/> | ||
[[{{ | [[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Names]]<br/> | ||
{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
|image = | |image = | ||
|imagesize = | |imagesize = | ||
| | |setting = {{SUBPAGENAME}}verse | ||
| | |name = {{SUBPAGENAME}} | ||
|name = {{ | |nativename = ''an {{SUBPAGENAME}}'' | ||
|pronunciation= [ə ˈʃtʃoːʟʊ] | |||
|region = Talma | |||
|speakers = 100 million L1 speakers (300 million L2 speakers) | |||
|date = fT 1670<sub>dd</sub> (2676) | |||
|familycolor=PfK | |||
|fam1= [[Proto-Quihum|Quihum]] | |||
|fam2= [[Talmic languages|Talmic]] | |||
|fam3= Thensaric | |||
|fam4= Old Eevo | |||
|iso3=qtg | |||
|notice=IPA | |||
}} | |||
{{Infobox language | |||
|image = | |||
|imagesize = | |||
|setting = Tíogallverse | |||
|name = {{SUBPAGENAME}} | |||
|nativename = ''an Tíogall'' | |nativename = ''an Tíogall'' | ||
|pronunciation= [ə ˈtiːɡ̊ɤᵝˤ] | |pronunciation= [ə ˈtiːɡ̊ɤᵝˤ] | ||
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|fam2= [[Talmic languages|Talmic]] | |fam2= [[Talmic languages|Talmic]] | ||
|fam3= Thensaric | |fam3= Thensaric | ||
|fam4= Old | |fam4= Old Eevo | ||
|iso3=qtg | |iso3=qtg | ||
|notice=IPA | |notice=IPA | ||
}} | }} | ||
'''{{ | '''{{SUBPAGENAME}}''' ({{SUBPAGENAME}}: ''an Tíogall'' /ə ˈtiːɡəʟ/ or ''an gháth Thíogall'' /ə ɣa:θ ˈθiːɡəʟ/ 'the {{SUBPAGENAME}} language'; English: /ˈtiːgəl/ "teagle") is a [[Talmic languages|Talmic language]] inspired by Irish, German and English. {{SUBPAGENAME}} began as a thought experiment posing the question "What would Irish look like with umlaut instead of palatalization?". | ||
Tíogall is a pluricentric language - it is an official language in three countries, the peninsular Sceola with more dialect diversity, the larger Anbhair with less dialect diversity, and in Phormatin in addition to [[Phormatolidin]]. It is the largest Talmic language in terms of number of speakers. Like most modern Talmic languages, {{SUBPAGENAME}} is a descendant of [[Thensarian]]. It is spoken on the northwest coast of the continent of Etalocin (called ''Éatha'' in Tíogall) on the planet of Clotricin. | |||
Tíogall | Modern Standard Tíogall arose as a literary koiné from disparate earlier Tíogallic dialects descended from [[Old Eevo]] from around fT 1160dd (1968). Thanks in large part to the printing press, Tíogall rapidly gained prominence over a larger area in Northern Talma and came to serve as a lingua franca for northern mainland Talma. Today, Tíogall still enjoys status as a "cultured" language and is one of the most widely taught foreign languages. | ||
The name ''Tíogall'' is thought to be a [[Clofabic languages|Clofabic]] formation (before Modern Tíogall): ''Tiga'' (Tíogall ''Tíoga'') was a river in the northwestern Talma area where Tíogall originated, and to that was added the Clofabic attributive ''-l''. | |||
==Todo== | ==Todo== | ||
*'' | *Should have had more dh's | ||
*'' | *Single vs. double negatives: use both, do something weird | ||
*'' | *Old Eevo prefixes: | ||
**''ar-'': on, at | |||
**''(deut.) as-'': telic | |||
**''(prot.) de-, (deut.) do-'': in, at | |||
**''é-'': with, co- | |||
**''fin-''/''sin-'' = well, thoroughly | |||
**''for-'': causative, through | |||
**''(prot.) ful-, (deut.) fol-'': around, back | |||
**''(prot.) gel-, (deut.) gol-'': up, out | |||
**''ro-'': down | |||
**''sol-'': a causative | |||
**''(prot.) sur-, (deut.) sor-'': back | |||
**''(prot.) su-, (deut.) so-'': towards | |||
**''(prot.) u(cc)-, (deut.) oc-'': from | |||
*a few transitive verbs should randomly have that m (and it should be a different set in tiogall and bhadhagha) | |||
*if ng is common, slender ng = ñ | |||
*"inb4" | *"inb4" | ||
*graduate high school = ? | *graduate high school = ? | ||
*Definitions in law codes look like "Given ''X'', we say that ''P(X)'' if ..." | *Definitions in law codes look like "Given ''X'', we say that ''P(X)'' if ..." | ||
*Translation exercises: | *Translation exercises: | ||
**Haggadah | **Haggadah | ||
**[[Literature:Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]] | **[[Literature:Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]] | ||
**[[Literature:Through the Looking-Glass]] | **[[Literature:Through the Looking-Glass]] | ||
*irregular constructs | |||
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
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*The ending ''-aigh/-igh'' is pronounced /ɨ/. | *The ending ''-aigh/-igh'' is pronounced /ɨ/. | ||
===Note on the Anglicization of | ===Note on the Anglicization of {{SUBPAGENAME}}=== | ||
The | The {{SUBPAGENAME}} liquids ''r'' and ''l'' are consistently mapped to /r/ and /l/. (This is in fact a legitimate pronunciation in {{SUBPAGENAME}} provided you always velarize the /l/ as in American English.) | ||
The following mapping for vowels is recommended: | |||
/a aː ɛ eː ɪ iː ɔ ɵː ʊ ʉː œ øː ʏ yː iə yə uə aw ɛj ɛw œj œw ɛ:j ɛ:w œ:j œ:w iəw yəw yəj uəj/ → /æ ɑː ɛ eɪ ɪ iː ɑ oʊ ʊ uː ɛ eɪ ɪ iː iːə iːə uːə aʊ aɪ aʊ eɪ oʊ eɪ oʊ eɪ oʊ iːə iːə iːə uːə/ | |||
For | For {{SUBPAGENAME}} post-tonic /ð/, the pronunciation /ð/ is recommended, but /d/ is also allowed for ease of pronunciation. | ||
For onset clusters that are disallowed in English, such as /tn/, we allow the addition of an epenthetic /ə/. | For onset clusters that are disallowed in English, such as /tn/, we allow the addition of an epenthetic /ə/. | ||
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The reduced vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ should map to /ə/ and /ɪ/. If you have the weak-vowel merger, you can merge these two vowels. | The reduced vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ should map to /ə/ and /ɪ/. If you have the weak-vowel merger, you can merge these two vowels. | ||
== | ==Orthography== | ||
[[File:{{SUBPAGENAME}} script.png|thumbnail|{{SUBPAGENAME}} script]] | |||
{{SUBPAGENAME}} is written in the Talmic script, which is written from left to right. The letters ''ħ'' /h/, ''j'' /j/ and ''v'' /v/ are used in [[Netagin]] and other loanwords. The letter ''h'' is used for lenition as in Irish. So the {{SUBPAGENAME}} alphabet is usually considered to have 23 letters (''r d z i a ħ f l m g c h b s v o j ŋ t n p e u'') (disregarding digraphs and length diacritics). | |||
The native orthography is extremely conservative and in part reflects Old Eevo pronunciation. The romanization used in this article reflects the native spelling. | |||
== | ===Numerals=== | ||
{{ | Written {{SUBPAGENAME}} uses a base-12 positional numeral system. | ||
*digits: ɔ ı ʎ ɺ ħ ʕ ʑ ɛ ɴ κ ə ʋ = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X E | |||
*duodecimal point: : | |||
*1728's separator (optional): · | |||
*minus sign: ʳ | |||
*plus, minus, multiply, divide, mod = ? | |||
Examples: | |||
2017 = 1,201dd = ı·ʎɔı | |||
π = 3.184809493b918...dd = ɺ:ıɴħ·ɴɔк·ħкɺ·кʋı·ɴ... | |||
==Sound changes== | ==Sound changes== | ||
===Thensarian to Old | ===Thensarian to Old Eevo=== | ||
Thn. ''sb, sd, sg'' > OBh ''dhbh, d, dhgh'' | Thn. ''sb, sd, sg'' > OBh ''dhbh, d, dhgh'' | ||
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In stressed syllables: ''a e i o u á é í ó ú ae ao eá eó iú oí uí'' > | In stressed syllables: ''a e i o u á é í ó ú ae ao eá eó iú oí uí'' > | ||
*before a syllable with no e/ē/i/ī: ''a | *before a syllable with no e/ē/i/ī: ''a e io o u á é ío ó ú ae ao eá eó iú oío uío'' | ||
*before a syllable with e/ē/i/ī: ''ai ei i oi ui ái éi í ói úi aei aoi eái eói iúi oí uí'' | *before a syllable with e/ē/i/ī: ''ai ei i oi ui ái éi í ói úi aei aoi eái eói iúi oí uí'' | ||
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*''éa, ó, ói'' > ''ia, ua, uai'' | *''éa, ó, ói'' > ''ia, ua, uai'' | ||
===Old | ===Old Eevo to Modern {{SUBPAGENAME}}=== | ||
*aspirated stops start to become fricatives: /mʰ pʰ bʰ tʰ dʰ kʰ gʰ fʰ sʰ/ > /ʍ f v θ ð x ɣ h h/ | *aspirated stops start to become fricatives: /mʰ pʰ bʰ tʰ dʰ kʰ gʰ fʰ sʰ/ > /ʍ f v θ ð x ɣ h h/ | ||
*prenasalized stops coalesce | *prenasalized stops coalesce | ||
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**''eá(i) eó(i) iú(i)'' merge into ''á(i) ó(i) ú(i)'', preventing further palatalization; /c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ/ become phonemic. | **''eá(i) eó(i) iú(i)'' merge into ''á(i) ó(i) ú(i)'', preventing further palatalization; /c ɟ cʰ ɟʰ/ become phonemic. | ||
*Further monophthongization | *Further monophthongization | ||
**''ae ao'' > /eː oː/ | **''ae ao'' > /eː oː/ | ||
**''ai ái ei éi oi ói ui úi aei aoi uai'' > /ɛ eː ɪ iː œ øː ʏ yː eː øː yə/ | **''ai ái ei éi oi ói ui úi aei aoi uai'' > /ɛ eː ɪ iː œ øː ʏ yː eː øː yə/ | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!colspan="2"| Approximant | !colspan="2"| Approximant | ||
| | | || | ||
| /j/ || | | /j/ || | ||
| || | | || | ||
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;Notes | ;Notes | ||
*An initial /ʔ/ can be added to null initials (but is not mandatory). | *An initial /ʔ/ can be added to null initials (but is not mandatory). | ||
*Voiceless stops are aspirated syllable-initially; voiced stops devoice after voiceless sounds. | |||
*Smeola {{PAGENAME}} has a form of Auslautverhärtung: voicing is neutralized for word-final stops but not word-final fricatives. | *Smeola {{PAGENAME}} has a form of Auslautverhärtung: voicing is neutralized for word-final stops but not word-final fricatives. | ||
*/n, t, d, θ, ð/ are usually dental [n̪, t̪, d̪, θ, ð]. | */n, t, d, θ, ð/ are usually dental [n̪, t̪, d̪, θ, ð]. | ||
*/s, z/ are laminal alveolar [s, z]. | */s, z/ are laminal alveolar [s, z]. | ||
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**The allophone occuring before consonants is phonetically a pharyngealized uvular approximant with compressed rounding [ʁ̞ᵝˤ~ʁ̠̞ᵝ]; the vocalic quality resembles [ɤ]. It is similar to the Philadelphia English vocalized L. | **The allophone occuring before consonants is phonetically a pharyngealized uvular approximant with compressed rounding [ʁ̞ᵝˤ~ʁ̠̞ᵝ]; the vocalic quality resembles [ɤ]. It is similar to the Philadelphia English vocalized L. | ||
**In classical singing and drama, [ɫ] is used in all positions. | **In classical singing and drama, [ɫ] is used in all positions. | ||
*After a vowel, /ɣ/ disappears with compensatory lengthening of the vowel if the vowel is short (unless the /ɣ/ begins a stressed syllable.) | *After a vowel, /ɣ/ colloquially disappears with compensatory lengthening of the vowel if the vowel is short (unless the /ɣ/ begins a stressed syllable.) | ||
====Fortis and lenis resonants==== | ====Fortis and lenis resonants==== | ||
Certain conservative accents and dialects preserve to varying degrees the Old | Certain conservative accents and dialects preserve to varying degrees the Old Eevo distinction between fortis and lenis resonants: /l L n N r R/. In fact, the Tumacaimh dialect has: | ||
*/l/ > /ʁᵝˤ/ | */l/ > /ʁᵝˤ/ | ||
*/L/ > /l̪ˠ/ | */L/ > /l̪ˠ/ | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!IPA | !IPA | ||
|/ | |/v/||/f/||/v/||/h/ | ||
|''-'' | |''-'' | ||
|/θ/||/ð/||/h/||''silent'' | |/θ/||/ð/||/h/||''silent'' | ||
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|} | |} | ||
<sup>1</sup> /ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones [uː, oː] before /ɾ~l/ in some accents, especially in | <sup>1</sup> /ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones [uː, oː] before /ɾ~l/ in some accents, especially in Sceola Tíogall. | ||
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The vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ occur only in unstressed syllables; they merge before ''l''. | The vowels /ə/ and /ɨ/ occur only in unstressed syllables; they merge before ''l''. | ||
====''L''-colored vowels==== | ====''L''-colored vowels==== | ||
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===Phonotactics=== | ===Phonotactics=== | ||
Allowed initial clusters in roots (in native words): | Allowed initial clusters in roots (in native words): | ||
*''bl br cl cn cr dl dr fl fr gl gn gr ml mn mr ŋl ŋr (pl) (pr) sc scl scr (sp) | *''bl br cl cn cr dl dr fl fr gl gn gr ml mn mr ŋl ŋr (pl) (pr) sc scl scr (sp) sl sm sn sŋ sr st tn tl tr'' | ||
===Some phonological rules=== | ===Some phonological rules=== | ||
*unstressed /əwə/ > ''-ú-'' /ʉː/ | *unstressed /əwə/ > ''-ú-'' /ʉː/ | ||
*/ʏw/, /yəw/, /yːw/ > /ʉː/ | */ʏw/, /yəw/, /yːw/ > /ʉː/ | ||
* | |||
===Prosody=== | |||
{{SUBPAGENAME}} has a distinctive intonation paradigm. Within said paradigm, some accents (e.g. Smeola) can sound like a stereotypical Cork accent, while some accents (e.g. Óc Eo) sound more like Valspeak. | |||
*In declarative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word (if there is no focused constituent, the last word) has a lower pitch than the immediately preceding syllable. ("...mid ꜜ LOW mid...") This originates from discursive uptalk in older forms of {{SUBPAGENAME}}, which has since generalized to all declarative sentences. A few accents, such as Tumacan accents, do not use this pattern. | |||
*In interrogative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word has a higher pitch than the syllable immediately before. ("... mid ꜛ HIGH mid ... ?") | |||
*In exclamations, the pattern is "... mid ꜜ LOW-HIGH mid ... !", possibly with a gradual drop to low pitch in the end. Angry or indignant questions also use an exclamatory intonation. | |||
==Dialectology== | ==Dialectology== | ||
{{SUBPAGENAME}} is subject to a fair amount of accentual and dialectal variation due to the number of speakers. | |||
/ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones before /ɾ~l/ in some accents, especially in Duínidhean accents. | /ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones before /ɾ~l/ in some accents, especially in Duínidhean accents. | ||
===Scádar accent=== | ===Scádar accent=== | ||
This dialect is most prominent in and around the Óc Eo (/ɵːk ɵː/ 'white rock', English: /ˈoʊk.oʊ/ "oak-oh") metropolitan area in | This dialect is most prominent in and around the Óc Eo (/ɵːk ɵː/ 'white rock', English: /ˈoʊk.oʊ/ "oak-oh") metropolitan area in Anbhair. | ||
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic | *''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic | ||
*/Vʟ/ = [Vɴ] before a consonant | */Vʟ/ = [Vɴ] before a consonant | ||
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*/ɛ, œ, ɔ/ > [ɪ, ʏ, ʊ] before nasals | */ɛ, œ, ɔ/ > [ɪ, ʏ, ʊ] before nasals | ||
*/ɛj/ > [aj] | */ɛj/ > [aj] | ||
*/a/ = [æ] before coronals | |||
*/aː/ is backed to [ɑː~ɒː] | */aː/ is backed to [ɑː~ɒː] | ||
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**/iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː] | **/iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː] | ||
**/yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː] | **/yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː] | ||
**/ʊʟ/ = [ | **/ʊʟ/ = [ʊː] | ||
**/eʟ/ = [eːɔ] | **/eʟ/ = [eːɔ] | ||
**/ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ] | **/ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ] | ||
**/øʟ/ = [øːɔ] | **/øʟ/ = [øːɔ] | ||
**/œʟ/ = [œɔ] | **/œʟ/ = [œɔ] | ||
**/ɔʟ/ = [ | **/ɔʟ/ = [uː] | ||
**/aʟ/ = [ɒː] | **/aʟ/ = [ɒː] | ||
*''r'' = [ɾ] before a vowel, [l] before a consonant or word-finally | *''r'' = [ɾ] before a vowel, [l] before a consonant or word-finally | ||
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*/b d dʒ g/ are devoiced to (unaspirated) [p t c k] in all positions. | */b d dʒ g/ are devoiced to (unaspirated) [p t c k] in all positions. | ||
*/tʃ, dʒ, ʃ/ = [c, ɟ, ç] | */tʃ, dʒ, ʃ/ = [c, ɟ, ç] | ||
*/n, ʟ, ɾ/ distinguish between "fortis" or unlenited [n̪, ɫ, r] and "lenis" or lenited [ð̞̃, ʀ, | */n, ʟ, ɾ/ distinguish between "fortis" or unlenited [n̪, ɫ, r] and "lenis" or lenited [ð̞̃, ʀ, z]. | ||
*''th, dh'' are [ħ, z] word-initially and become [h, z] word-finally. | *''th, dh'' are [ħ, z] word-initially and become [h, z] word-finally. | ||
*/ʉ, ɵ/ are always fully back [uː, oː]. | */ʉ, ɵ/ are always fully back [uː, oː]. | ||
=== | ===Tecadh an bhFuŋŋ accent=== | ||
non-lambdic, L-colored vowels similar to Códha | non-lambdic, L-colored vowels similar to Códha | ||
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise: | *''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise: | ||
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**/ɔʟ/ = [oː] | **/ɔʟ/ = [oː] | ||
**/aʟ/ = [ɑə~ɔ] | **/aʟ/ = [ɑə~ɔ] | ||
*/a/ = [æ] | |||
*/aː/ = [ɑː] | */aː/ = [ɑː] | ||
===Éise accent=== | ===Éise accent=== | ||
This accent is primarily used in the Éise (/ˈiːsə/) province | This accent is primarily used in the Éise (/ˈiːsə/) province (including the famous city Flian). | ||
Vowel length is mainly realized as tenseness: | Vowel length is mainly realized as tenseness: | ||
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*''r'' = [l] in all positions | *''r'' = [l] in all positions | ||
*ú ó backed before r | *ú ó backed before r | ||
*In ''sp st sc'', the s is weakened so that these are voiceless unaspirated [p t k/tS] initially and preaspirated [hp ht hk/htS] medially. | *In ''sp st sc'', the s is weakened so that these are voiceless unaspirated [p t k/tS] initially and preaspirated [hp ht hk/htS] medially. These are distinguished from ''b d g'' by having a higher pitch. | ||
*Reduced ''ai'' = [ʊ], reduced ''i'' = [ʏ] | *Reduced ''ai'' = [ʊ], reduced ''i'' = [ʏ] | ||
===Phormatin accent=== | ===Phormatin accent=== | ||
The majority accent of | The majority accent of {{SUBPAGENAME}} native speakers in Phormatin is a lot like Éise, except most notably the short vowels /ɛ œ ɔ/ raise to /ɪ ʏ ʊ/ before nasals and /ʟ/. Lax vowels are also slightly laxer than in Éise; Éise speakers often hear Phormatian lax vowels as schwas. <!--inspiration: Canada, New Zealand 'fush and chups' --> | ||
==="Stage | ==="Stage {{SUBPAGENAME}}"=== | ||
So-called "Stage | So-called "Stage {{SUBPAGENAME}}" is a semi-artificial standard developed for use in classical singing and other elevated stage performances. | ||
*/ʟ/ is always pronounced [ɫ] | */ʟ/ is always pronounced [ɫ] | ||
*/ɾ/ may be trilled [r] | |||
*Short vowels before single C + V - the C is allophonically geminated | *Short vowels before single C + V - the C is allophonically geminated | ||
*Non-lambdic vowels are close to their Smeola counterparts, except /aː/ is pronounced [ɑː~ɒː] (close to its Classical Netagin counterpart) | *Non-lambdic vowels are close to their Smeola counterparts, except /aː/ is pronounced [ɑː~ɒː] (close to its Classical Netagin counterpart) | ||
*/ɨ/ is pronounced [ɪ] | */ɨ/ is pronounced [ɪ] | ||
===Early Modern | ===Early Modern {{SUBPAGENAME}}=== | ||
*''ae/ái, aoi, ao'' were pronounced /ɛː, œː, ɔː/ as opposed to ''é, ói, ó'' /eː, øː, oː/; these two sets have merged to /eː, øː, ɵː/ in most modern dialects. | *''ae/ái, aoi, ao'' were pronounced /ɛː, œː, ɔː/ as opposed to ''é, ói, ó'' /eː, øː, oː/; these two sets have merged to /eː, øː, ɵː/ in most modern dialects. | ||
*/ɨ/ was pronounced [ɪ]. | |||
==Morphology== | ==Morphology== | ||
===Nouns=== | ===Nouns=== | ||
Nouns are classed into two genders, masculine (''reist ŋullán'' /ˈɾɪst ˈŋʊʟaːn/) and feminine (''reist dhéán'' /ˈɾɪst ˈðeːaːn/); they are also inflected in two numbers (singular and plural) and three states (indefinite, definite, construct). The construct suffix is usually ''- | Nouns are classed into two genders, masculine (''reist ŋullán'' /ˈɾɪst ˈŋʊʟaːn/) and feminine (''reist dhéán'' /ˈɾɪst ˈðeːaːn/); they are also inflected in two numbers (singular and plural) and three states (indefinite, definite, construct). There are some trends in gender assignment of nouns: for example, substances tend to be masculine, and abstract concepts and processes tend to be feminine. The construct suffix is usually ''-adh/-edh'' for singular nouns and ''-ann/-enn'' for plural nouns; however, for Netagin loans no suffix is used for the singular construct. | ||
There are no possessive suffixes, unlike in [[Thensarian]] or other Talmic languages. If the possessor is a pronoun, the disjunctive form of the pronoun is used with the construct state: e.g. ''suaradh | There are no possessive suffixes, unlike in [[Thensarian]] or other Talmic languages. If the possessor is a pronoun, the disjunctive form of the pronoun is used with the construct state: e.g. ''suaradh scainedh ná'' 'my friend's house'. | ||
{{col-begin}} | {{col-begin}} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!|Construct | !|Construct | ||
|''máradh''||'' | |''máradh''||''máirenn'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
{{col-break}} | {{col-break}} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!|Construct | !|Construct | ||
|'' | |''scainedh''||''scainenn'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
{{col-break}} | {{col-break}} | ||
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | {| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | ||
|+ '' | |+ ''sert'' 'pole' (feminine, declension 3) | ||
|- | |- | ||
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓ | !style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓ | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!|Indefinite | !|Indefinite | ||
|'' | |''sert''||''sertar'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|Definite | !|Definite | ||
|''an | |''an zsert''||''na sertar'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|Construct | !|Construct | ||
|'' | |''sertadh''||''sertann'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
{{col-end}} | {{col-end}} | ||
===Adjectives=== | ===Adjectives=== | ||
{{SUBPAGENAME}} adjectives have three principal parts: the predicative (the unmarked form), the masculine absolute plural form and the feminine absolute plural form. | |||
The predicative determines: | The predicative determines: | ||
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{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | {| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | ||
|- | |- | ||
|+ '''{{ | |+ '''{{SUBPAGENAME}} personal pronouns''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!| | !| | ||
!1sg!!2sg!!3sg.m!!3sg.f!!1pl.ex!!1pl.in!!2pl!!3pl | !1sg!!2sg!!2pol!!3sg.m!!3sg.f!!1pl.ex!!1pl.in!!2pl!!3pl | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|Conjunctive | !|Conjunctive | ||
|''ná''||''fiar''||''hú''||''hí''||''cámh''||''céid''||''séid''||''hár'' | |''ná''||''fiar''||''dTlá''||''hú''||''hí''||''cámh''||''céid''||''séid''||''hár'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|Disjunctive | !|Disjunctive | ||
|''ná''||''iar''||''ú''||''í''||''ámh''||'' | |''ná''||''iar'' ||''dTlá''||''ú''||''í''||''ámh''||''chéid''||''héid''||''ár'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
The disjunctive ''iar'' is often shortened to '' 'r'' in informal speech. | |||
To emphasize a pronoun or an inflected preposition, ''-na''/''-ne'' is added to the pronoun. | To emphasize a pronoun or an inflected preposition, ''-na''/''-ne'' is added to the pronoun. | ||
In archaic usage, ''séid'' is used as an honorific pronoun when speaking to a person of high social standing | ====Politeness==== | ||
In archaic usage, ''séid'' is used as an honorific pronoun when speaking to a person of high social standing. In modern {{SUBPAGENAME}}, this usage is restricted to e.g.: | |||
* books, movies, games, ... when depicting the past or past-like settings (such as historical fiction or fantasy) | * books, movies, games, ... when depicting the past or past-like settings (such as historical fiction or fantasy) | ||
* when addressing a deity | * when addressing a deity or a king | ||
* in BDSM contexts when a slave refers to their master. | * in BDSM contexts when a "slave" refers to their "master". | ||
In modern {{SUBPAGENAME}}, ''fiar'' and ''séid'' are used for family members, friends, children or teens, animals, people on the Internet, or to address people of lower social position, and ''dTlá'' is used to an addressee of higher position and for strangers; for example, it is considered acceptable for a professor to address his students, or for a boss his employees, using familiar pronouns. | |||
==== | ====Correlatives==== | ||
*''mé'' = this | *''mé'' = this | ||
*''cé'' = that | *''cé'' = that | ||
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*''tach'' = where? | *''tach'' = where? | ||
*''tuín, tiann'' = why? | *''tuín, tiann'' = why? | ||
*''tér'' = how? | |||
*''tís'' = when? | |||
===Prepositions=== | ===Prepositions=== | ||
Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestral Thensarian. | Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestral Thensarian. The pronoun ''dTlá'' is not fused with the preposition, however. | ||
''ebh'' = 'after', ''ebhta'' = near/next to | |||
''ful'' = 'around' (fulan, fulas, fula, fuli, fulam, fulad, fulac, fular) | |||
The | The sequences ''le'' + ''an'' and ''de'' + ''an'' contract to ''len'' /ʟɛn/ and ''den'' /dɛn/. | ||
The 1sg and 2sg forms of prepositions are stressed on the last syllable; all other forms have initial stress. | The 1sg and 2sg forms of prepositions are stressed on the last syllable; all other forms have initial stress. | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!|''ar'' 'on' | !|''ar'' 'on' | ||
|''aran''||''aras''||'' | |''aran''||''aras''||''or''||''ari''||''aram''||''arad''||''arac''||''arar'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|''geil'' 'from' | !|''geil'' 'from' | ||
|'' | |''geilan''||''geilas''||''gela''||''geili''||''geilem''||''geiled''||''geilec''||''geiler'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|''go'' 'with' | !|''go'' 'with' | ||
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|} | |} | ||
''Ar'' can be used to indicate obligation, | ''Ar'' 'on' can be used to indicate obligation, similarly to Irish and Hebrew: | ||
:'''''Aran an cáin le | :'''''Aran an cáin le descach.''''' | ||
:on-1SG DEF.SG.M food to eat-VN | :on-1SG DEF.SG.M food to eat-VN | ||
:''I have to eat the food.'' | :''I have to eat the food.'' | ||
===Verbs=== | ===Verbs=== | ||
[[Old | [[Old Eevo]] had a verb system with complex alternations, almost comparable to that of Old Irish. Modern {{SUBPAGENAME}} simplified this system substantially, leaving behind a mixture of synthetic forms (used without a subject pronoun) and analytic forms (used with a subject noun or pronoun), similar to the Modern Irish system. However, many basic verbs are irregular, with many "principal parts"; some common verbs even retain the Old Eevo allomorphy between independent and dependent forms. | ||
Ex: | |||
*''cáigh ná'' 'I eat'; ''cáir'' 'you eat' | |||
*''ní dhesc ná'' 'I don't eat'; ''ní dhescar'' 'you don't eat' | |||
====Present tense==== | ====Present tense==== | ||
The present tense is conjugated as follows. For some verbs, umlaut occurs with certain affixes. For verb stems ending in ''-gh'' or ''-igh'', the ''-gh'' or ''-igh'' is deleted: ''tnáigh hú'' < {{recon|''tnáighigh hú''}} 'he believes'. | The present tense is conjugated as follows. For some verbs, umlaut occurs with certain affixes. For verb stems ending in ''-gh'' or ''-igh'', the ''-gh'' or ''-igh'' is deleted: ''tnáigh hú'' < {{recon|''tnáighigh hú''}} 'he believes'. | ||
{{col-begin}} | {{col-begin}} | ||
{{col- | {{col-n}} | ||
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | {| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!|1.ex | !|1.ex | ||
|''STEM-( | |''STEM-((a)igh) ná''<br/>''STEM-an/en'' | ||
|''STEM-ú'' | |''STEM-ú'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|1.in | !|1.in | ||
|''-'' | |''-'' | ||
|''STEM-(a)igh | |''STEM-((a)igh) céid''<br/>''STEM-ad/ed'' (''poetic'') | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|2 | !|2 | ||
|''STEM-(e)ar'' | |''STEM-(e)ar'' | ||
|''STEM-(a)igh séid''<br/>'' | |''STEM-((a)igh) séid''<br/>''STEM-as/es'' (''poetic'') | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|3.m | !|3.m | ||
|''STEM-(a)igh hú | |''STEM-((a)igh) hú/hí'' | ||
|''STEM-(a)igh hár'' | |''STEM-((a)igh) hár'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|Impersonal | !|Impersonal | ||
|colspan="2"|''STEM- | |colspan="2"|''STEM-a<sup>1</sup>ra/-e<sup>1</sup>ra'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
{{col-break}} | {{col-break}} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!|1.ex | !|1.ex | ||
| ''molan'' | | ''mol(aigh) ná''<br/> ''molan'' | ||
| ''molú'' | | ''molú'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|1.in | !|1.in | ||
| ''-'' | | ''-'' | ||
| '' | | ''mol(aigh) géid''<br/>''molad'' (''poetic'') | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|2 | !|2 | ||
| ''molar'' | | ''molar'' | ||
| '' | | ''mol(aigh) séid''<br/>''molas'' (''poetic'') | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|3.m | !|3.m | ||
|'' | |''mol(aigh) hú''<br/>''mol(aigh) hí'' | ||
|'' | |''mol(aigh) hár'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|Impersonal | !|Impersonal | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!|1.ex | !|1.ex | ||
| '' | | ''id(igh) ná''<br/>''iden'' | ||
| ''idú'' | | ''idú'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|1.in | !|1.in | ||
|''-'' | |''-'' | ||
| '' | | ''id(igh) céid''<br/>''ided'' (''poetic'') | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|2 | !|2 | ||
| ''idear'' | | ''idear'' | ||
| '' | | ''id(igh) zéid''<br/>''ides'' (''poetic'') | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|3.m | !|3.m | ||
|'' | |''id(igh) hú/hí'' | ||
|'' | |''id(igh) hár'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|Impersonal | !|Impersonal | ||
|colspan="2"|'' | |colspan="2"|''idre'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
{{col-end}} | {{col-end}} | ||
<sup>1</sup> The buffer ''-e-'' is added when the previous consonant is a | <sup>1</sup> The buffer ''-e-'' is added when the previous consonant is a cluster, r or l. | ||
The -igh ending may be deleted in poetry | The ''-igh'' ending in analytic forms must be deleted when a preverbal particle such as ''ní'' 'not', ''ri'' 'REL', ''bhfá'' 'COMP': ''molaigh hú'' 'he thanks', but ''ní mhol hú'' 'he does not thank'. For verbs that have a separate stem for imperatives, the imperative stem is used with a preverbal particle. The ''-igh'' may also be deleted or added in poetry. This is a remnant of Middle {{SUBPAGENAME}} where there was a distinction between ''molamh hú'' 'he thanks (once)' (dependent ''mola hú'' or ''mol hú'') and ''molaigh hú'' 'he thanks (regularly)'. | ||
====Present progressive==== | ====Present progressive==== | ||
''Laidh ná de | ''Laidh ná de dhescach'' = I'm eating | ||
''Níl ná de | ''Níl ná de dhescach'' = I'm not eating | ||
====Imperfect tense==== | ====Imperfect tense==== | ||
To form the imperfect tense, the particle | To form the imperfect tense, the particle ''go'' is used before the verb, and the verb undergoes lenition. | ||
*'' | *''go mhola ná'' 'I used to thank' | ||
*'' | *''go h-airde hí'' 'she used to lie' | ||
====Preterite tense==== | ====Preterite tense==== | ||
The suffix '' | The suffix ''-ín'' is added to the preterite stem to form the past participle. The subject is preceded by an ergative marker ''lu''. For the impersonal the subject is simply omitted. This is the standard way of forming the preterite in ''Étaoin'' {{SUBPAGENAME}}. | ||
:''''' | :'''''Déicín luc rúin.''''' | ||
:''I ate/have eaten a fruit.'' | :''I ate/have eaten a fruit.'' | ||
====Pluperfect tense==== | ====Pluperfect tense==== | ||
'' | ''g'lao'' + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite. | ||
*'' | *''g'lao moilín ná'' 'I had thanked' | ||
*'' | *''g'lao fairdín hí'' 'she had lain' | ||
====Future tense==== | ====Future tense==== | ||
The future tense is formed by suffixing the future marker ''t'' and conjugating the result like a present tense verb. | The future tense is formed by suffixing the future marker ''t'' and conjugating the result like a present tense verb, except that the analytic form is invariably ''-ta/-te''. | ||
The future marker | The future marker ''-t-'' becomes ''-at-/-et-'' after ''t, d, th, dh'' or any time when a resulting cluster does not consist of two obstruents and would violate the sonority hierarchy (voiced C between two voiceless C's) and ''-th-'' after ''b, p, g, c''. | ||
====Future perfect tense==== | ====Future perfect tense==== | ||
''fácht'' + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite. | ''fácht'' + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite. | ||
==== | ====Jussive==== | ||
Modern | The jussive is mainly used for third-person imperatives and sometimes to specify a wish or a requirement. | ||
Modern {{SUBPAGENAME}} just uses ''molúr'' in every person: ''molúr ná'', ''mólúr fiar'', etc. The passive form is ''molrúr''. | |||
This form uses ''dá''-L for the negative, not ''tir''-L. | |||
:'''''Geilan bhfá ŋgríciúr hí guan.''''' | |||
:''I want her to stay with me.'' | |||
====Conditional==== | ====Conditional==== | ||
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====Imperative==== | ====Imperative==== | ||
{{col-begin}} | {{col-begin}} | ||
{{col- | {{col-n}} | ||
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | {| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | ||
|- | |- | ||
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!|1.in | !|1.in | ||
|''-'' | |''-'' | ||
| | |''STEM-ad!'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|2 | !|2 | ||
| | |''STEM!'' | ||
| | |''STEM-as!'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|3.m | !|3.m | ||
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{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | {| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | ||
|- | |- | ||
!colspan="3" | Imperative of the verb '' | !colspan="3" | Imperative of the verb ''mol'' 'thank' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!| | !| | ||
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!|1.in | !|1.in | ||
|''-'' | |''-'' | ||
|'' | |''molad!'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|2 | !|2 | ||
|'' | |''mol!'' | ||
|'' | |''molas!'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|3.m | !|3.m | ||
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{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | {| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;" | ||
|- | |- | ||
!colspan="3" | Imperative of the verb | !colspan="3" | Imperative of the verb ''id'' 'lie in a place' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!| | !| | ||
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!|1.in | !|1.in | ||
| ''-'' | | ''-'' | ||
| '' | | ''airded!'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|2 | !|2 | ||
| '' | | ''aird!'' | ||
| '' | | ''airdes!'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|3.m | !|3.m | ||
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|} | |} | ||
{{col-end}} | {{col-end}} | ||
The polite 2nd person equivalents are ''molúr dTlá'' and ''airdúr dTlá''. | |||
The imperative stem is used in a Hebrew-style "infinitive absolute" construction: ''deasc déctha hú ú'' = 'he will indeed eat it' | |||
====Verbal noun==== | ====Verbal noun==== | ||
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Some markers for verbal nouns: | Some markers for verbal nouns: | ||
*''- | |||
*''-as/- | *''-ach/-ech'' | ||
*''- | *''-as/-es'' | ||
*''-t/-ta/-te'' | |||
*ablaut | *ablaut | ||
*bare stem | *bare stem | ||
*''-a/-e'' | |||
*''-ú'' | |||
*umlaut/''-e'' | *umlaut/''-e'' | ||
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===Numbers=== | ===Numbers=== | ||
*0: ''ħaŋíts'' /ha'ŋi:ts/ | |||
*1: ''ciamh'' /tʃiəw/ | *1: ''ciamh'' /tʃiəw/ | ||
*2: ''tioth'' /tɪθ/ | *2: ''tioth'' /tɪθ/ | ||
Line 976: | Line 1,043: | ||
*9: ''bairbh'' /bɛlv/ | *9: ''bairbh'' /bɛlv/ | ||
*10: ''uar'' /uəl/ | *10: ''uar'' /uəl/ | ||
*11: '' | *11: ''eáichemh'' /eːʃəw/ | ||
*12: ''cnae'' /kneː/ | *12: ''cnae'' /kneː/ | ||
Numbers must be used with singular nouns. The numbers ''ciamh'' comes after the noun, while other numbers come before it. | Numbers must be used with singular nouns. The numbers ''ciamh'' comes after the noun, while other numbers come before it. | ||
The suffix ''-ar/-er'' is used for 'nth', and ''-tar/-ter'' is used for 'n times'. | |||
1/n = n-bhedh = "n-part" (half = ''drá'') | |||
===Derivational morphology=== | ===Derivational morphology=== | ||
Below are some common {{ | Below are some common {{SUBPAGENAME}} derivational affixes. In addition to derivational affixes, {{SUBPAGENAME}} uses compound nouns like German; also, some productive prefixes has been re-analyzed into existence from Old Eevo prefix combinations. This allowed {{SUBPAGENAME}} to coin new native words instead of using loanwords. | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="text-align:center;" | |||
*''- | |- | ||
*''-ach/- | ! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| | ||
! colspan="4"|From... | |||
|- | |||
! Noun | |||
! Verb | |||
! Adjective<br>or Determiner | |||
! Adverb | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="4"|To... | |||
! Noun | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Verb | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Adjective<br>or Determiner | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
! Adverb | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| - | |||
|} | |||
*''-a/e'' (f): nominalizer of verbs and adjectives | |||
*''-ach/-ech, -achar/-echar'' (f): verbal noun (the most common suffix) | |||
*''-acht/-echt'' = forms adjectives from verbs | |||
*''-ám, -áma'' (m/f): augmentative (from Netagin) | *''-ám, -áma'' (m/f): augmentative (from Netagin) | ||
*''-án/-eán, -áin/-eáin'': adjectivizer | *''-án/-eán, -áin/-eáin'': adjectivizer | ||
*''-ar, -ara'': augmentative (Talmic) | *''-ar, -ara'': augmentative (Talmic) | ||
*''- | *''-(a)im, -(a)imer'' = female suffix | ||
**''-óiŋ'' > ''-óiŋim'' | **''-óiŋ'' > ''-óiŋim'' | ||
*''-ú'' (f.): abstract nouns; -hood | *''-ú'' (f.): abstract nouns; -hood | ||
*''-ín'' = used to form adjectives in Netagin loans; also used with native words sometimes | *''-ín, -íne'' = used to form adjectives in Netagin loans; also used with native words sometimes | ||
*''-aí/-í''/''- | *''-ín, -íní'' = patient, passive participle | ||
*''- | *''-aí/-í''/''-aíche/-íche'' = diminutive | ||
*''-gán, -gáin'' = -able | |||
*''é-'' = co-, con-, together | |||
*''for-'' = causative | |||
*''má-L'': un- | |||
*''mí-L'': mis- | *''mí-L'': mis- | ||
*''ní-L'' (hyphenated): non- | *''ní-L'' (hyphenated): non- | ||
*'' | *''-óiŋ, -óiŋe'' (m) = agent suffix | ||
*''sin-L'': "well" | *''sin-L'': "well" | ||
*Nouns can often be verbed | *Nouns can often be verbed | ||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
:''Main article: [[ | :''Main article: [[{{SUBPAGENAME}}/Syntax]]'' | ||
==Vocabulary== | ==Vocabulary== | ||
{{SUBPAGENAME}} is relatively purist; most {{SUBPAGENAME}} vocabulary is of Talmic origin. However, a non-trivial fraction of the vocabulary is loaned from Netagin (either [[Classical Netagin]] or [[Koine Netagin]]) and, to a lesser extent, Clofabic. Most recently, [[Clofabosin]] words are entering the language, mostly in the domains of information technology and culture. | |||
===Colors=== | |||
===Calendar and time=== | |||
===Kinship terms=== | |||
*''annar, annta'' = father | |||
*''iamh, iamhar'' = mother | |||
*''có, cótha'' = son | |||
==Phrasebook== | ==Phrasebook== | ||
*{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɪs/|''An Saichte leis!''}} (to one person)/{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɛk/|''An Saichte | *{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɪs/|''An Saichte leis!''}} (to one person)/{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɛk/|''An Saichte lec!''}} (to ≥2 people) = Hello! (lit. "the spirit-complex [give blessing] to you") | ||
*{{abbtip|/ˈmœʟə/|''Moile!''}} = Thank you! | *{{abbtip|/ˈmœʟə/|''Moile!''}} = Thank you! | ||
*{{abbtip|/ʟə ˈheːˌgantə/|''Le h-éganta!''}} = Goodbye! (lit. "to meeting") | *{{abbtip|/ʟə ˈheːˌgantə/|''Le h-éganta!''}} = Goodbye! (lit. "to meeting") | ||
*'' | *''Arbára ná [NAME].'' = My name is [NAME]. | ||
*{{abbtip|/ˈstaːnsə ˈbœɾə ʟɪs/| ''Stánsa boire leis!''}} = Happy Stannsa! | *{{abbtip|/ˈstaːnsə ˈbœɾə ʟɪs/| ''Stánsa boire leis!''}} = Happy Stannsa! | ||
*{{abbtip|/ˈsŋøːˌxɾeː ˈvœɾə ʟɪs/| ''Sŋaoichré bhoire leis!''}} = Happy birthday! | *{{abbtip|/ˈsŋøːˌxɾeː ˈvœɾə ʟɪs/| ''Sŋaoichré bhoire leis!''}} = Happy birthday! | ||
*{{abbtip|/ˈɪθəl ˈhyŋaːn ʟɪn/|'' | *{{abbtip|/ˈɪθəl ˈhyŋaːn ʟɪn/|''Ither huiŋeán lion.''}} = Nice to meet you. | ||
* | *''Aeilligh ná iar.'' / ''Aeilligh ná 'r.'' = I love you. | ||
*''Ní thnáighin leis!'' = I don't believe you! | *''Ní thnáighin leis!'' = I don't believe you! | ||
*''Brós na | *''Brós na dellar iar guirenta.'' = Lower your standards. ("Put your eyes lower.") | ||
*''Suinmigh hú'' = it makes sense ("it tunes") | *''Suinmigh hú'' = it makes sense ("it tunes") | ||
*[repeat verb] = Yes, X does [verb]. (reply to ''Is '' [verb] ''... ?'') | *[repeat verb] = Yes, X does [verb]. (reply to ''Is '' [verb] ''... ?'') | ||
Line 1,025: | Line 1,141: | ||
*[inflected form of ''de''] = Yes, X is Y. | *[inflected form of ''de''] = Yes, X is Y. | ||
*''Ní'' + lenition + [verb/adjective/inflected form of ''de''] = No. | *''Ní'' + lenition + [verb/adjective/inflected form of ''de''] = No. | ||
*''Níl'' = No. (reply to ''Is laidh ... ?'') | *''Níl.'' = No. (reply to ''Is laidh ... ?'') | ||
==Sample texts== | ==Sample texts== | ||
===E pur si muove!=== | |||
''Sóibh argann argannaigh hú!'' | |||
<!-- | <!-- | ||
===The North Wind and the Sun=== | ===The North Wind and the Sun=== | ||
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}} | }} | ||
--> | --> | ||
===UDHR, Article 1=== | ===UDHR, Article 1=== | ||
===Featured language banner=== | ===Featured language banner=== | ||
==Other resources== | ==Other resources== | ||
[[Category:Talmic languages]] | [[Category:Talmic languages]] | ||
[[Category:Quihum languages]] | [[Category:Quihum languages]] | ||
[[Category:Languages]] | [[Category:Languages]] | ||
edits