Linguifex

Balearic Hebrew: Difference between revisions

Page Discussion

Balearic Hebrew (view source)

Revision as of 18:23, 12 September 2023

13,996 bytes added ,  12 September 2023
→‎Meanings & Use of Finite Verbs
 
(66 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Infobox language
|creator = [[User:Godisawoman|Godisawoman]]
|nativename = 𐤁𐤀𐤋𐤉𐤀𐤓𐤉𐤕‎ 𐤎𐤅𐤐𐤅 <br/>sufu balyarīt
|image = File:Balearicislands-location.jpg
|setting = Alternate Earth
|name = Balearic Hebrew
|pronunciation = /su.'fu bal.ja.'ri:t/
|states = Spain
|speakers = 800,000
|date = 2023
|familycolor=afroasiatic
|fam1=[[w:Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]
|fam2=[[w:Semitic languages|Semitic]]
|fam3=[[w:Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
|fam4=[[w:Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]]
|fam5=[[w:Canaanite languages|Canaanite]]
|fam6=[[w:Biblical Hebrew|Biblical Hebrew]]
|script=[[w:Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]]
|-
|notice=IPA
}}
'''Balearic Hebrew'''
(Paleo-Hebrew scipt: 𐤁𐤀𐤋𐤉𐤀𐤓𐤉𐤕‎ 𐤎𐤅𐤐𐤅 ‎‎‎‎''sufu balyarīt'') is a Canaanite Semitic language descended from a variety of Hebrew spoken in the northern kingdom of ancient Israel between the 10th century and the 8th century BCE. Formed from the speech of ancient Israelites who migrated to the Phoenician speaking Balearic islands, the language therefore has a Canaanite core, evolving between the 8th and 2nd centuries BCE. Roman occupation brought in considerable Latin influence, which would only strengthen as more settlers speaking Iberian Romance languages such as Old Spanish and Catalan came to the islands.
The language emerged from contact between diverse peoples in Antiquity. Although its vocabulary largely derives from ancient Hebrew, words that deal with subjects such as law, war, and politics tend to be of Latin derivation. The grammar preserves to an extent ancient Semitic verb paradigms, and has changed alongside Classical Latin influence.
== History ==
Phoenician colonists encouraged Hebrew migration to the islands, and many more emigrated around 720 BCE after the destruction of the Kingdom of Samaria. Eventually, Hebrew speakers outnumbered Phoenician speakers, though the two closely related languages facilitated communication.
After the Second Punic War, the islands came under Roman control. Roman Latin speakers settled on the islands, considerably influencing the speech of the majority Jewish population. This period saw the reduction of many Biblical phonological and grammatical structures, as the language leaned toward the Latin spoken by the new settlers. Despite the Roman occupation, the islands enjoyed considerable autonomy and were a flourishing economic center of the Republic, exporting agricultural produce, cattle, rabbits, snails, and a red dye favored by Roman painters. The speakers of this dialect of Hebrew also clung to the alphabet of their Phoenician and Israelite ancestors, never switching to the Assyrian script used by their counterparts in the Levant. 
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the islands fell under the control of the Umayyad Dynasty, and subsequently lived under Islamic political control until the 13th century. The islands' population fell drastically as crusaders fought the less tolerant Almoravid dynasty, destroying harbors and reducing the islands as a regional sea power. After the Reconquista, the islands became a major center of economic and military power for the kingdom of Aragón, and Balearic Hebrew was the major language of the province, until the islands' conquest by the Ottomans.
In 1492, the Edict of Expulsion caused many Spanish Jews to emigrate to the Ottoman-controlled islands. The Jewish population fluctuated, but still remained the major demographic force in the region up until the modern period. Now, there are nearly a million speakers of Balearic Hebrew, and a similar amount of Jews on the islands.
== Writing System ==
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
!Name
!ʔulif
!bet
!gīmil
!dulit
!hag
!bub
!sen
!ħet
!ṭet
!yod
!kuf
!lumid
!min
!nun
!sumak
!hen
!fag
!ṣudī
!reš
!šin
!tub
|-
!Balearic Hebrew Letter
|𐤀
|𐤁
|𐤂
|𐤃
|𐤄
|𐤅
|𐤆
|𐤇
|𐤈
|𐤉
|𐤊
|𐤋
|𐤌
|𐤍
|𐤎
|𐤏
|𐤐
|𐤑
|𐤓
|𐤔
|𐤕
|-
!Square Hebrew (Ktav Ashuri) letter
|א
|ב
|ג
|ד
|ה
|ו
|ז
|ח
|ט
|י
|כ
|ל
|מ
|נ
|ס
|ע
|פ
|צ
|ר
|ש
|ת
|-
!Pronounciation
|ʔ / a
|b
|g
|d
|h
|u
|s
|ħ
|tˤ <ṭ>
|j <y> / i <ī>
|k
|l
|m
|n
|s
|e
|f
|sˤ <ṣ>
|r
|ʃ <š>
|t
|}
Balearic Hebrew uses a modified version of the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet. The language is written right to left, with little punctuation. Like other Semitic abjads, vowels are generally unwritten. The only exceptions being the "strong" vowels, ''a, ī, u''. ''e'' is also sometimes written, using the ancient letter for ''ayin''. Some writing has no vowels indicated at all.
== Phonology ==
== Phonology ==
=== Consonants ===
=== Consonants ===
Balearic Hebrew has 19 consonantal phonemes.
Balearic Hebrew has 19 consonantal phonemes.
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"  
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="1" rowspan="2" |Labial
! colspan="1" rowspan="2" |Labial
Line 46: Line 171:
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2" |Fricative
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Fricative
!voiceless
|f
|f
|
|
|s
|s
|sˤ<sup>2</sup>
|sˤ<sup>1</sup>
|ʃ
|ʃ
|
|
|ħ
|ħ
|h
|h
|-
!voiced
|
|ð<sup>1</sup>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Trill
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Trill
Line 87: Line 201:
|
|
|}
|}
<sup>1</sup> In Balearic Hebrew, /ð/ is considered a phoneme despite having a confusing allophonic relationship with /d/ and /r/.


<sup>2</sup>The emphatic fricative has various pronunciations due to Iberian influence. Besides the pharyngealized pronunciation, it is most often pronounced as a denti-alveolar voiceless affricate /ts/, as in Modern Hebrew.
<sup>1</sup>The emphatic fricative has various pronunciations due to Iberian influence. Besides the pharyngealized pronunciation, it is most often pronounced as a denti-alveolar voiceless affricate /ts/, as in Modern Hebrew.


Various consonants characteristic of the Biblical era have been lost.  
Various consonants characteristic of the Biblical era have been lost.  
Line 109: Line 222:
===== Historical Spirantization and Allophony =====
===== Historical Spirantization and Allophony =====
Similar to the Hebrew dialects spoken in the Levant, the stops /p t b d g/ underwent spirantization in Balearic Hebrew. /k/ is never spirantized, unlike the Aramaic-influenced speech of the Levant.  
Similar to the Hebrew dialects spoken in the Levant, the stops /p t b d g/ underwent spirantization in Balearic Hebrew. /k/ is never spirantized, unlike the Aramaic-influenced speech of the Levant.  
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
!Letter
!Letter
!Stop
!Stop
Line 140: Line 253:
=== Vowels ===
=== Vowels ===
The vowel system of Balearic Hebrew is much more conservative compared to modern Hebrew pronunciations. Nevertheless, there are significant differences that contrast Balearic Hebrew from its ancestor, Biblical Hebrew.  
The vowel system of Balearic Hebrew is much more conservative compared to modern Hebrew pronunciations. Nevertheless, there are significant differences that contrast Balearic Hebrew from its ancestor, Biblical Hebrew.  
{| class="wikitable nowrap"  
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"  
!
!
!Front
!Front
Line 165: Line 278:
== Nouns and Adjectives ==
== Nouns and Adjectives ==
Nouns are marked for gender (masculine or feminine), number (singular, plural, and dual), and state (absolute or construct), and also definiteness.  
Nouns are marked for gender (masculine or feminine), number (singular, plural, and dual), and state (absolute or construct), and also definiteness.  
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+Overview of Noun and Adjective Inflection
|+Overview of Noun and Adjective Inflection
!
!
Line 175: Line 288:
! rowspan="2" |Masculine
! rowspan="2" |Masculine
!Absolute
!Absolute
| rowspan="2" |∅
| rowspan="2" |∅/-o
| rowspan="4" | -e
| rowspan="4" | -e
| -(h)ī
| -(h)ī
Line 184: Line 297:
! rowspan="2" |Feminine
! rowspan="2" |Feminine
!Absolute
!Absolute
| -ū
| -ū/a
| rowspan="2" | -(h)ot
| rowspan="2" | -(h)ot
|-
|-
Line 190: Line 303:
| -at
| -at
|}
|}
In nouns that end in a vowel in the singular, the plural form inserts an /h/ for prosodic reasons.
In nouns that end in a vowel in the singular, the plural form inserts an /h/ for euphonic reasons.


Adjectives match the noun they modify in terms of gender and number (if a noun is dual, the adjective declines for the plural number), Adjectives can also stand alone and function as a noun rather than only describe a noun.
Adjectives match the noun they modify in terms of gender and number (if a noun is dual, the adjective declines for the plural number), Adjectives can also stand alone and function as a noun rather than only describe a noun.
Line 211: Line 324:
Gender is often visible from the noun. Most nouns without a specific suffix are likely masculine, and these nouns with no unique ending are the standard dictionary ending of a form. The most common feminine endings are -ū and -t. Nouns agree with verbs in gender as well as in number.  
Gender is often visible from the noun. Most nouns without a specific suffix are likely masculine, and these nouns with no unique ending are the standard dictionary ending of a form. The most common feminine endings are -ū and -t. Nouns agree with verbs in gender as well as in number.  


Certain nouns, while appearing masculine or feminine, are actually the other gender. As a general rule, feminine nouns deal with the following topics: place names, cities, directions, instruments, tools, body parts, elements, powers, forces, abstract nouns, and women. Animate nouns, such as those referring to people or animals, have the grammatical gender corresponding to their natural gender. For example, the noun ''sū'' is a male horse (a stallion), while a female horse is ''sūhū'', or a male horse with the feminine ending -''hū''.  
Certain nouns, while appearing masculine or feminine, are actually the other gender. As a general rule, feminine nouns deal with the following topics: place names, cities, directions, instruments, tools, body parts, elements, powers, forces, abstract nouns, and women. Animate nouns, such as those referring to people or animals, have the grammatical gender corresponding to their natural gender. For example, the noun ''sū'' is a male horse (a stallion), while a female horse is ''sūhū'', or a male horse with the feminine ending -''hū''.
 
Adjectives acting as adverbs will use the definite article and the feminine singular to express meaning.


=== State ===
=== State ===
Line 247: Line 362:
The general translation for ''be'' is and. It connects two ideas together. When attached to two different verbs, it indicates that they occur at the same time or are otherwise related in meaning.  
The general translation for ''be'' is and. It connects two ideas together. When attached to two different verbs, it indicates that they occur at the same time or are otherwise related in meaning.  


Two instances of ''be'' is equivalent to the English correlative "either...or." When connected to verbs that are negated, it can have the meaning "neither...nor." For example, ''al katab '''be'''ʔal ʔakal'' means "neither write nor eat." The second negative particle is not required.
Two instances of ''be'' is equivalent to the English correlative "either...or." When connected to verbs that are negated, it can have the meaning "neither...nor." For example, ''ʔal katab '''be'''ʔal ʔakal'' means "neither write nor eat." The second negative particle is not required.


=== Uses of ''kī'' ===
=== Uses of ''kī'' ===
The word ''kī'' is very versatile. Most generally, it expresses a causal relationship between two ideas, similar to English "because" or "for." For example, '''''kī''' kūtabta lūkūtabtī-kū,'' means "because you wrote, I am blessing you."
The word ''kī'' is very versatile. Most generally, it expresses a causal relationship between two ideas, similar to English "because" or "for." For example, '''''kī''' kūtabta lūbīrrattī-kū,'' means "because you wrote, I am blessing you."


With the subjunctive in the clause introduced after ''kī'', the conjunction expresses purpose or a goal. In this context, it is translated as "so that" or "in order to."
With the subjunctive in the clause introduced after ''kī'', the conjunction expresses purpose or a goal. In this context, it is translated as "so that" or "in order to."
Line 263: Line 378:


Additionally, ''ʔašir'' can stand alone and form a jussive or cohortative meaning with the subjunctive form. For example, ''ʔašir nīktūb'' means "let us write."
Additionally, ''ʔašir'' can stand alone and form a jussive or cohortative meaning with the subjunctive form. For example, ''ʔašir nīktūb'' means "let us write."
== Particles ==
== Particles ==


Line 281: Line 397:
The first, ''lo,'' is the most common and is used to negate verbs in the indicative, as well as non-finite verbs. For example, ''lo kūtabtī'' means "I did not write." Additionally, ''lo'' is used in verbless clauses to negate them, with an implied linking verb. For example, the phrase ''si lo bikamfo'' means "he is not on the battlefield."
The first, ''lo,'' is the most common and is used to negate verbs in the indicative, as well as non-finite verbs. For example, ''lo kūtabtī'' means "I did not write." Additionally, ''lo'' is used in verbless clauses to negate them, with an implied linking verb. For example, the phrase ''si lo bikamfo'' means "he is not on the battlefield."


The second, ''ʔal'', is used to negate verbs in the imperative or subjunctive. For example, ''al kītbū'' means "do not write."
The second, ''ʔal'', is used to negate verbs in the imperative or subjunctive. For example, ''ʔal kītbū'' means "do not write."


== Prepositions ==
== Prepositions ==
Some prepositions are always prefixed to nouns, modifying, if present, the definite article. Other noun phrases act as prepositions, but are not as widely used. The prefixing prepositions do not stem from the triconsonantal roots.  
Some prepositions are always prefixed to nouns, modifying, if present, the definite article. Other noun phrases act as prepositions, but are not as widely used. The prefixing prepositions do not stem from the triconsonantal roots.  


=== The four prepositions ===
=== The three major prepositions ===
These prepositions are the most commonly used prepositions and are a single consonant and a vowel.  
These prepositions are the most commonly used prepositions and are a single consonant and a vowel.  


Line 300: Line 416:
Instrumental words such as "by," "with," or "using," are equivalent to the preposition ''bi''.  
Instrumental words such as "by," "with," or "using," are equivalent to the preposition ''bi''.  


Temporal constructions in Balearic Hebrew are most often used with the preposition ''bi''. ''Bi'' describes when an action happened, and common English translations include "in," "during," "at," "while." Circumstantial clauses with the infinitive are usually introduced with ''bi''. For example, the phrase "while talking" is the translation of Balearic Hebrew ''bi-dabbir''. Other temporal clauses that do not have this "when" meaning are formed with other prepositions.  
Temporal constructions in Balearic Hebrew are most often used with the preposition ''bi''. ''Bi'' describes when an action happened, and common English translations include "in," "during," "at," "while." temporal clauses with the infinitive are usually introduced with ''bi''. For example, the phrase "while talking" is the translation of Balearic Hebrew ''bi-dabbir''. Other temporal clauses that do not have this "when" meaning are formed with other prepositions.


==== Uses of ''li'' ====
==== Uses of ''li'' ====
Line 307: Line 423:
The direction towards something is always expressed with the preposition ''li''. This meaning is categorized in two different ways: one, the direction toward an object, and two, the reaching of or attaining to it. In this way, it is very semantically similar to the Latin preposition ''ad''.  
The direction towards something is always expressed with the preposition ''li''. This meaning is categorized in two different ways: one, the direction toward an object, and two, the reaching of or attaining to it. In this way, it is very semantically similar to the Latin preposition ''ad''.  


''Li'' is also the preposition used to create the construction for the agent of a passive verb. This preposition attaches to the enclitic personal pronoun, or a noun, to show who is causing the passive action to happen to the patient  
''Li'' is also the preposition used to create the construction for the agent of a passive verb. This preposition attaches to the enclitic personal pronoun, or a noun, to show who is causing the passive action to happen to the patient
 
While simple possession in Balearic Hebrew is denoted by the use of pronominal suffixes, or with the preposition ''mi'', it can also be expressed with ''li'' and the impersonal verb ''het'', a descendant of Latin ''habet'', supplanting the Biblical adverb ''yiš''. ''Het'' is generally translated as "there is," or "there are."
For example, ''lo het sū li-hak'' means "You don not have a horse," literally, "there is no horse to you."


==== Uses of ''mi'' ====
==== Uses of ''mi'' ====
Line 316: Line 435:
=== With the definite article ===
=== With the definite article ===
These three prepositions lose the <nowiki><i> when the noun or adjective they modify is definite. Instead, the <i> is exchanged for /a/. Therefore:</nowiki>
These three prepositions lose the <nowiki><i> when the noun or adjective they modify is definite. Instead, the <i> is exchanged for /a/. Therefore:</nowiki>
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+Prefixing Preposition with ''bet''
|+Prefixing Preposition with ''bet''
!
!
Line 350: Line 469:


=== Definite object preposition ===
=== Definite object preposition ===
The definite object preposition ''ʔit'' indicates the direct object of some verb. It does this by directly preceding the noun or phrase that functions as the direct object of a verb (either finite or non-finite). It is only used if the object is definite, in the case of an indefinite direct object, no preposition is used to mark it. For example, in the sentence "God created the sun," ''būratta ʔilohī '''ʔit''' hašimiš,'' the particle is on view before ''hašimiš'', "the sun."  
The definite object preposition ''ʔit'' indicates the direct object of some verb. It does this by directly preceding the noun or phrase that functions as the direct object of a verb (either finite or non-finite). It is only used if the object is definite, in the case of an indefinite direct object, no preposition is used to mark it. For example, in the sentence "God created the sun," ''būratta ʔilohī '''ʔit''' hašimiš,'' the particle is on view before ''hašimiš'', "the sun." Enclitic pronouns define a noun, so the preposition is used in this case as well.


Conjunctions such as ''be'', "and" can attach to this particle if there are two direct objects.
Conjunctions such as ''be'', "and" can attach to this particle if there are two direct objects.
Line 358: Line 477:
=== Personal Pronouns ===
=== Personal Pronouns ===
Balearic Hebrew has 10 distinct forms for the personal pronouns. The 1st person has no gender distinction.
Balearic Hebrew has 10 distinct forms for the personal pronouns. The 1st person has no gender distinction.
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |Person
! colspan="2" |Person
!Singular
!Singular
Line 391: Line 510:
==== Enclitic Pronouns ====
==== Enclitic Pronouns ====
These are suffixes that can be attached to nouns, verbs, particles, or prepositions.  
These are suffixes that can be attached to nouns, verbs, particles, or prepositions.  
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |Person
! colspan="2" |Person
!Singular
!Singular
Line 398: Line 517:
! colspan="2" |1st
! colspan="2" |1st
| -(y)ī
| -(y)ī
| -anū
| -nū
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |2nd
! rowspan="2" |2nd
Line 420: Line 539:
When attached to a noun, the noun must be in the construct state. This forms a construction equivalent to possessive pronouns in English. Therefore, "my horse," would be ''sūyī'', and "my horses" would be ''sūheyī.''  
When attached to a noun, the noun must be in the construct state. This forms a construction equivalent to possessive pronouns in English. Therefore, "my horse," would be ''sūyī'', and "my horses" would be ''sūheyī.''  


For prosodic reasons, if a word ends in a vowel, then a /h/ is inserted before the enclitic pronoun, unless it is the first person singular, in which case a <y> is.   
For euphonic reasons, if a word ends in a vowel, then a /h/ is inserted before the enclitic pronoun, unless it is the first person singular, in which case a <y> is.   


If the direct object of a verb is a personal pronoun, no direct object particle is used with the non-enclitic forms. Instead, the enclitic is attached to the end of the verb. For example, "he judges you" is the translation of ''lūšūpaṭ-kū''. However, for emphasis, the enclitic form can actually attach to the end of the direct object particle, causing a vowel change. Instead of usual ''ʔit'', the particle becomes ''ʔot''.  
If the direct object of a verb is a personal pronoun, no direct object particle is used with the non-enclitic forms. Instead, the enclitic is attached to the end of the verb. For example, "he judges you" is the translation of ''lūšūpaṭ-kū''. However, for emphasis, the enclitic form can actually attach to the end of the direct object particle, causing a vowel change. Instead of usual ''ʔit'', the particle becomes ''ʔot''.  
Line 429: Line 548:
The three prefixing prepositions take the enclitic pronoun as the object of said preposition. This causes their <nowiki><i> vowel to lengthen to <ī>. Thus, "to you," is </nowiki>''lī-kū''. The first person singular enclitic adds no epenthetic /h/.
The three prefixing prepositions take the enclitic pronoun as the object of said preposition. This causes their <nowiki><i> vowel to lengthen to <ī>. Thus, "to you," is </nowiki>''lī-kū''. The first person singular enclitic adds no epenthetic /h/.


In addition to the three prefixing prepositions, all the other non-phrasal prepositions also take the enclitic pronoun. For example, "upon them" is ''hal-ahi'', not *''hal ʔilī''.  
In addition to the three prefixing prepositions, all the other non-phrasal prepositions also take the enclitic pronoun. For example, "upon them" is ''hal-ahi'', not *''hal ʔilī''.


=== Demonstratives ===
=== Demonstratives ===
Balearic Hebrew has three kinds of demonstratives, whose use depends on the distance (physical or figurative) between the speaker and the modified noun. This is similar to Spanish or Old English, and an innovation from Biblical Hebrew
Balearic Hebrew has three kinds of demonstratives, whose use depends on the distance (physical or figurative) between the speaker and the modified noun. This is similar to Spanish or Old English, and an innovation from Biblical Hebrew
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
!Demonstratives
!Demonstratives
!Proximal
!Proximal
Line 463: Line 582:
These demonstratives can function either as pronouns or as attributive adjectives.  
These demonstratives can function either as pronouns or as attributive adjectives.  


Additionally, to introduce a personal relative clause, the medial demonstratives are used, not necessarily requiring an antecedent. For example, ''ʔūkal hakesū sot tūrattī'' means "he ate the cheese which I surrendered," with ''sot'' serving as the introduction to that relative clause.  
Additionally, to introduce a personal relative clause, the medial demonstratives are used, not necessarily requiring an antecedent. For example, ''ʔūkal hakehū sot tūrattī'' means "he ate the cheese which I surrendered," with ''sot'' serving as the introduction to that relative clause.


=== Indefinite Pronouns ===
=== Indefinite Pronouns ===
Line 472: Line 591:
=== Interrogative Pronouns ===
=== Interrogative Pronouns ===
Besides the pronouns ''mī'' and ''mū'' that also function as question words, Balearic Hebrew has many others. These pronouns also function as adjectives.
Besides the pronouns ''mī'' and ''mū'' that also function as question words, Balearic Hebrew has many others. These pronouns also function as adjectives.
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+Question markers
|+Question markers
!Meaning
!Meaning
Line 508: Line 627:
==== Cardinal Numbers ====
==== Cardinal Numbers ====
Like Classical Arabic, Balearic Hebrew exhibits gender polarity in numeral agreement, but only for numbers after 20. Multiples of 10 do not decline according to the gender of the counted noun.  
Like Classical Arabic, Balearic Hebrew exhibits gender polarity in numeral agreement, but only for numbers after 20. Multiples of 10 do not decline according to the gender of the counted noun.  
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+The cardinal numerals "one" and "two"
|+The cardinal numerals "one" and "two"
!
!
Line 522: Line 641:
|šte
|šte
|}
|}
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+3-10
|+3-10
!
!
Line 561: Line 680:
|}
|}
The numbers 11-19 are formed by writing the number 10 followed by the number 1-9. In this way, Hebrew reverses English "seven-ten" with something more similar to Spanish "diez-y-siete." However, the masculine form of 10 is ''hūšūr,'' and the feminine is ''hišri''. Therefore, "seventeen" would be ''hūšūr šivan'' for 17 masculine nouns, and ''hišri šīvnū'' for 17 feminine nouns.  
The numbers 11-19 are formed by writing the number 10 followed by the number 1-9. In this way, Hebrew reverses English "seven-ten" with something more similar to Spanish "diez-y-siete." However, the masculine form of 10 is ''hūšūr,'' and the feminine is ''hišri''. Therefore, "seventeen" would be ''hūšūr šivan'' for 17 masculine nouns, and ''hišri šīvnū'' for 17 feminine nouns.  
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+Multiples of 10 (20-90)
|+Multiples of 10 (20-90)
!
!
Line 593: Line 712:


Multiples of 10 plus units are written with the same rules as the number 11-19. For example, "thirty three" is written as ''šlošī bišūloš'', or "thirty and-three." The only thing notable about these numbers is that they exhibit gender polarity, so ''šlošī bišūloš'' refers to 33 '''feminine''' nouns, because ''šūloš'' is the masculine form of the numeral 3.  
Multiples of 10 plus units are written with the same rules as the number 11-19. For example, "thirty three" is written as ''šlošī bišūloš'', or "thirty and-three." The only thing notable about these numbers is that they exhibit gender polarity, so ''šlošī bišūloš'' refers to 33 '''feminine''' nouns, because ''šūloš'' is the masculine form of the numeral 3.  
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+Larger Numbers
|+Larger Numbers
!
!
Line 615: Line 734:


Ordinal numbers express a rank or order of items in a series, or a fraction.  
Ordinal numbers express a rank or order of items in a series, or a fraction.  
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+1st and 2nd
|+1st and 2nd
!
!
Line 658: Line 777:


==== Mood ====
==== Mood ====
There are three moods in Balearic Hebrew. These are the indicative, the subjunctive, and the imperative. The indicative mood is the only mood with two tenses, as the subjunctive does not inflect for tense. The imperative is only productive for affirmative commands in the second person, and unlike the other moods, has no gender distinction in its conjugation. Negative commands are formed with a conjunction, negating particle, and the subjunctive.  
There are three moods in Balearic Hebrew. These are the indicative, the subjunctive, and the imperative. The indicative mood is the only mood with two tenses, as the subjunctive does not inflect for tense. The imperative is only used for commands in the second person, and unlike the other moods, has no gender distinction in its conjugation.  


The subjunctive is used in ''that''-clauses, and generally as a conditional or precative. It is a descendant of the Biblical prefixing conjugation, which previously conveyed only aspect.
The subjunctive is used in ''that''-clauses, and is very versatile and common in the language. It is a descendant of the Biblical prefixing conjugation, which previously conveyed only aspect.


==== Voice ====
==== Voice ====
Line 670: Line 789:
The system of verb conjugations in Balearic Hebrew has many complications. In this table is outlined the conjugation of a regular verb, ''k-t-b'' in all four ''binyanim'' for the 3rd person masculine singular.
The system of verb conjugations in Balearic Hebrew has many complications. In this table is outlined the conjugation of a regular verb, ''k-t-b'' in all four ''binyanim'' for the 3rd person masculine singular.
Many verbs in Biblical Hebrew which were classified as "hollow" have been regularized in Balearic Hebrew, its direct descendant. However, many weak roots remain. Regular verbs in Balearic Hebrew constitute basic, triliteral roots with three non-"weak" consonants. Weak consonants are
Many verbs in Biblical Hebrew which were classified as "hollow" have been regularized in Balearic Hebrew, its direct descendant. However, many weak roots remain. Regular verbs in Balearic Hebrew constitute basic, triliteral roots with three non-"weak" consonants. Weak consonants are
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
!'''Form'''
!'''Form'''
!'''Past'''
!'''Past'''
Line 704: Line 823:


Here is a table outlining the indicative for one of the stems, ''qal'' for the verb ''k-t-b'' "to write."
Here is a table outlining the indicative for one of the stems, ''qal'' for the verb ''k-t-b'' "to write."
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="1" rowspan="2" |Person & gender
! colspan="1" rowspan="2" |Person & gender
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Preterite
! colspan="2" rowspan="1" |Preterite
Line 770: Line 889:


The reflexive stem in Balearic Hebrew is an insular innovation, resulting from Latin influence. What was previously another construction, the so-called ''hitpael,'' was lost and relexified in favor of Latin-based pronominal verb forms. The conjugation is essentially the D-stem verb with a Latin affix, these affixes descending from Latin accusative personal pronouns.  These affixes in Balearic Hebrew are:
The reflexive stem in Balearic Hebrew is an insular innovation, resulting from Latin influence. What was previously another construction, the so-called ''hitpael,'' was lost and relexified in favor of Latin-based pronominal verb forms. The conjugation is essentially the D-stem verb with a Latin affix, these affixes descending from Latin accusative personal pronouns.  These affixes in Balearic Hebrew are:
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+Reflexive affixes
|+Reflexive affixes
!Person
!Person
Line 793: Line 912:


Depending on the stem of the verb, the infinitive has different vowel formations.
Depending on the stem of the verb, the infinitive has different vowel formations.
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+Infinitives of ''k-t-b''
|+Infinitives of ''k-t-b''
!Stem
!Stem
Line 825: Line 944:


Participle conjugate for gender and number. The only participle in Balearic Hebrew is passive in meaning, likely as a result of Latin influence. Verbs of the D-stem will reform to the ''qal'' construction for a participle.
Participle conjugate for gender and number. The only participle in Balearic Hebrew is passive in meaning, likely as a result of Latin influence. Verbs of the D-stem will reform to the ''qal'' construction for a participle.
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+Participles of ''k-t-b''
|+Participles of ''k-t-b''
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |
Line 866: Line 985:
* 3rd He
* 3rd He
* 3rd Chet
* 3rd Chet
* 1st Chet
* 2nd Alef
* 1st Chet or He
* 1st Nun or Lamed
* 1st Nun or Lamed
* 1st Yod
* 1st Yod
Line 873: Line 993:
The first three categories, categorized by a guttural as the third letter of a verbal root, cause gemination in the verbal affix nearby. For example, the 2nd person feminine singular ''qal'' preterite construction of the root ''h-r-h,'' to be pregnant, is hūratti, instead of the ungrammatical *''hūrahti''. This gemination occurs not only with the affixes, but also to the other parts of the root. In addition, these consonants cause a vowel change from <ū> to <o> always. Other vowels are unaffected. For example, using the same verb but in the 3rd person, the construction is ''horra'', instead of expected *''hūrha''. In the case of a final /h/, it always drops.   
The first three categories, categorized by a guttural as the third letter of a verbal root, cause gemination in the verbal affix nearby. For example, the 2nd person feminine singular ''qal'' preterite construction of the root ''h-r-h,'' to be pregnant, is hūratti, instead of the ungrammatical *''hūrahti''. This gemination occurs not only with the affixes, but also to the other parts of the root. In addition, these consonants cause a vowel change from <ū> to <o> always. Other vowels are unaffected. For example, using the same verb but in the 3rd person, the construction is ''horra'', instead of expected *''hūrha''. In the case of a final /h/, it always drops.   


The fourth category, 1st Chet, causes vowel change, and/or gemination in the paradigm. The vowel immediately preceding and following this letter is always /a/. Thus, ''ħ-b-š'', meaning to cover a wound, in the masculine 3rd person singular ''qal'' subjunctive is ''yabbūš'', instead of expected *''yiħbūš''. Here, the vowel is changed from <nowiki><i> to <a>, and the <b> 2nd radical consonant is geminated as the first is lost.</nowiki>
The fourth category, 2nd Alef, only has this consonant drop when it is preceded or followed by a stop consonant ([t k b d g]) and by a vowel. For example, ''bʔb'', meaning "to come" has the form ''būbū'' for the 3rd person masculine plural ''qal'' preterite form, instead of expected *''būʔbū''.
 
The fifth category, 1st Chet or He, causes vowel change, and/or gemination in the paradigm. The vowel immediately preceding and following this letter is always /a/. Thus, ''ħ-b-š'', meaning to cover a wound, in the masculine 3rd person singular ''qal'' subjunctive is ''yabbūš'', instead of expected *''yiħbūš''. Here, the vowel is changed from <nowiki><i> to <a>, and the <b> 2nd radical consonant is geminated as the first is lost.</nowiki>


The fifth category, 1st Nun or Lamed, causes vowel changes in the subjunctive and imperative conjugations, as well as in the H-stem and N-stem. In these instances, where some sort of prefix is attached to the verb radical, the /n/ or /l/ of the verb root drops and causes vowel changes. Like the 1st Chet irregulars, the vowel is almost always changed to an /a/. In the N-stem construction, the /a/ is conserved. For example, the root ''l-h-ṭ'', menaing to burn, in the 3rd person masculine singular H-stem preterite is ''halhīṭ'', instead of expected *''hīlhīṭ''. Unlike the 1st Chet category, the present marker ''lū'' is never changed by these irregularities.
The sixth category, 1st Nun or Lamed, causes vowel changes in the subjunctive and imperative conjugations, as well as in the H-stem and N-stem. In these instances, where some sort of prefix is attached to the verb radical, the /n/ or /l/ of the verb root drops and causes vowel changes. Like the 1st Chet irregulars, the vowel is almost always changed to an /a/. In the N-stem construction, the /a/ is conserved. For example, the root ''l-h-ṭ'', menaing to burn, in the 3rd person masculine singular H-stem preterite is ''hahīṭ'', instead of expected *''hīlhīṭ''. Unlike the 1st Chet category, the present marker ''lū'' is never changed by these irregularities.


The six category, 1st Yod, causes vowel changes. The /j/ drops out of the stem as well. If the preceding vowel is  <a>, it is changed to <e>. If it is <ū>, it is changed to <o>. Thus, the first person singular N-stem preterite of the verb ''y-t-r'', to be useless, is ''notartī'', instead of expected *''natartī.''
The seventh category, 1st Yod, causes vowel changes. The /j/ drops out of the stem as well. If the preceding vowel is  <a>, it is changed to <e>. If it is <ū>, it is changed to <o>. Thus, the first person singular N-stem preterite of the verb ''y-t-r'', to be useless, is ''notartī'', instead of expected *''natartī.'' If such a change would cause two vowels to come into contact with each other, they merge to ''ī'' if there is an ''i'', and if there is not, then they merge to ''o''.


The last category, verbs that have the stops /t/, /d/, /k/, or /g/ as their last letter, cause only gemination. These stops drop out of the stem but cause the consonant immediately following them to geminate in compensation. For example, the root ''b-r-g'', meaning to create, in the second masculine singular ''qal'' preterite form is ''būratta'', instead of expected ''*būragta.''
The last category, verbs that have the stops /t/, /d/, /k/, or /g/ as their last letter, cause only gemination. These stops drop out of the stem but cause the consonant immediately following them to geminate in compensation. For example, the root ''b-r-g'', meaning to create, in the second masculine singular ''qal'' preterite form is ''būratta'', instead of expected ''*būragta.''
Line 893: Line 1,015:


==== The Preterite Tense ====
==== The Preterite Tense ====
The preterite is not analogous with the Biblical perfect (from which the preterite descends). The preterite is most often used in narratives recounting events in the past.
'''Uses'''
The preterite is used to indicate the following:
*'''An action completed in the past''': This use expresses an action that is viewed as a completed event. It is often accompanied by adverbial expressions of time, such as ''ʔitmūl''.
''ʔitmūl mūṣattī ʔit hafiraħ'' = "Yesterday, I found the flower"
*'''Perfect actions''': Aligning with English perfect constructions, actions in the past with present relevance.
''hatū šūmanta ʔoto'' = "Now you have heard him"
*'''A general truth''' actions which are commonly accepted, present or past.
''hatsīforot hūbfū'' = "Birds fly"


==== The Present Tense ====
==== The Present Tense ====
'''Uses'''
The present tense is used to indicate the following:
*'''Punctual present''': This expresses an action that is being done at this very moment.
''lūkīttibū līho'' = "She is talking to him"
*'''Continuous present''': This expresses an action that is being done from the moment of speaking, extending into the past or future.
''lūgūrartī biyirūšūle'' = "I live in Jersualem"
*'''An immediate future''': This expresses an action that will be done with a high degree of certainty.
''halelū hapot lūdūraštī'' = "Tonight, I will study"


==== The Subjunctive ====
==== The Subjunctive ====
The subjunctive expresses an imagined, possible, or desired action in the past, present, or future. Its time depends on the tense of the main verb. It is used, almost exclusively in subordinate clauses, to express the speaker's opinion or judgment, such as doubts, possibilities, emotions, and events that may or may not occur. It is almost always introduced with the conjunction ''ʔašir''.
===== Uses of the subjunctive =====
'''Optative subjunctive''' is when a speaker wishes for something to happen in an independent clause. It is introduced with the particle ''nilertsū'', equivalent to "if God shall will it." For example,
"If only I could write!" is the translation of ''nilertsū ʔaktūb''.
'''Jussive subjunctive''' is essentially a command for a third person party. It is introduced with the word ''ʔašir'' functioning adverbially. For example, "let them write" is the translation of ''ʔašir yīktibū''.
'''Cohortative subjunctive''' is essentially a command for a first person party. Like the jussive, it is introduced with the word ''ʔašir'' functioning adverbially. For example, "let us write" is the translation of ''ʔašir nīktūb''.
In '''indirect questions''' the verb is typically in the subjunctive, though it can be in the indicative if the speaker is sure of the action referred to in the indirect question. All interrogative pronouns can introduce an indirect question in the subjunctive. For example, "I do not know why they are writing" is the translation of ''lodabtī lūmū yīktibū''.
In '''indirect commands or wishes''' the verb is always in the subjunctive and introduced by the subordinator ''ʔašir''. The main verb in these contexts deal with such topics as orders, commands, advising, asking, wishes, desires, and recommendations. It does not matter if the two clauses have the same or a different subject, the subordinate one will always be in the subjunctive. For example, consider these two sentences:
*''lūrūtsattī ʔašir '''tībūb''' libeto'' = "I want you to come to his house"
*''lūrūtsattī ʔašir '''ʔabūb''' libeto ''*= "I want to come to his house"
While English expresses these ideas with an infinitive, and Spanish expresses the first with the subjunctive and and the second with an infinitive, both are in the subjunctive in Balearic Hebrew.
Additionally, where English would use a helping verb and an infinitive, Balearic Hebrew uses a subjunctive in a subordinate clause. For example, "You can write" in Balearic Hebrew would be ''lokalta ʔašir tīktūb'', literally "You are able to that you may write."
In '''characteristic relative clauses''' the subjunctive is used. These clauses define their antecedent as belonging to a certain character or king, rather than to only state a fact about it. Often, these clauses are used in questions, though not always. Note the following examples:
*''sakīfyo, si bīnnik garitħūdūšū, lo hūša ʔit pe'' = "Scipio, who conquered Carthage, did not do this"
*''sakīfyo, si bīnnik garitħūdūšū, si ʔal '''yīššū''' ʔit pe'' = "Scipio, who conquered Carthage, is not the kind of person to have done this"
*''het mī si '''yīššū''' ʔit pe?'' = "Is there a kind of person who does this?"
The first sentence is entirely in the indicative, while the other two are both subjunctive. Note how in the third sentence, the interrogative pronoun is offset by the relative pronoun, so it is not an indirect question.
===== Uses with kī =====
*'''Causal Clauses''': These are clauses introduced by the conjunction ''kī''. There are many types of these clauses, causal and circumstantial being the most common. A causal clause shows purpose. Often, these are infinitives in English.
''būna hagarit '''kī''' yīmfūr''= "He built the city so that he would rule"
*'''Circumstantial Clauses''': This type of clause offers a description of events at the time of the main verb. These differ from normal temporal clauses (indicated by an infinitive typically) since circumstantial clauses offer more than time-related information about the action of the main clause. ''Kī'' can also be translated as "since" or "because." 
'''''kī''' roma tapūgin, bīrriħ hafoflo harab''= "When Rome was attacked, many people fled"
===== Conditions =====
Conditions in Balearic Hebrew indicate statements about facts, potentiality, or complete contra-reality. They are always introduced with the particle ''ʔīn.'' Here is an outline of the different conditions possible in Balearic Hebrew:
'''Logical and General Conditions''' that refer to facts in the present. The ''if'' clause is in the present indicative, and the ''then'' clause is in the present:
= "If you like cats, then you are smart"
'''Future''' '''conditions''' that imagine events yet to come. The ''if'' clause is in the subjunctive'','' while the ''then'' clause is in the imperative or present indicative:
= "If you (will) go to school, you will learn"
'''Contrafactual conditions''' that refer to the present or past and clearly imply that the outcome did not happen because of an unfulfilled condition. The ''if'' clause is in the subjunctive, and the ''then'' clause is in subjunctive as well.
= "If he were living, you would hear him"
There is no aspectual distinction in these conditions in Balearic Hebrew, but approximations can be made with adverbs. For example, saying "If you had run, you would have been tired," is equivalent to saying "If you ran, you would be tired."
Another category of conditional clauses have to do with comparison. These are equivalent to English "as if," in the sentence "I walk '''as if''' I were blind." In these clauses, the clause introduced with ''as if'' is in the subjunctive, while the other can be present or preterite indicative.
Another use of the particle ''ʔīn'' with the subjunctive is when it introduces a concessive clause. Combined with the particle ''kī'', it has the meaning of "although." The clause introduced by these two particles is always in the subjunctive, while the ''then'' clause is indicative. For example, "Although he was born in a small town, he became very wealthy,"


==== The Imperative ====
==== The Imperative ====
The imperative mood is used for giving direct orders. It has a singular and plural form, with the implied subject of "you." Like the subjunctive, ''ʔal'' is used to negate imperatives, not the particle ''lo''.
Imperatives are almost never used to command someone of higher social standing. Instead, speakers prefer to indirectly influence actions with the subjunctive. Using the imperative is considered rude and ill-mannered.
An example of the imperative:
* ''Tītarid!'' = "Surrender yourself!"


=== Meanings & Use of Non-Finite Verbs ===
=== Meanings & Use of Non-Finite Verbs ===
Line 906: Line 1,104:


===== Future Certainty and Commands =====
===== Future Certainty and Commands =====
In most cases, the infinitive is coupled with a finite verb of the same root. In this context, the infinitive acts as an adverb emphasizing the action of the main verb, or to define it more accurately. The infinitive most often precedes the verb it modifies. This construction is semantically very similar to the Spanish non-periphrastic future tense, and in Balearic Hebrew is a way to convery future time and a kind of command, prohibition, or obligation. For example, the phrase ''mūtot ʔamtūt'', with the ''qal'' infinitive and the subjuntive of the root ''m-t-t'', meaning to die, means "I will surely die." This construction is always used with the subjunctive and the infintive.
In most cases, the infinitive is coupled with a finite verb of the same root. In this context, the infinitive acts as an adverb emphasizing the action of the main verb, or to define it more accurately. The infinitive most often precedes the verb it modifies. This construction is semantically very similar to the Spanish non-periphrastic future tense, and in Balearic Hebrew is a way to convery future time and a kind of command, prohibition, or obligation. For example, the phrase ''mūtot lūmūtattī'', with the ''qal'' infinitive and the present of the root ''m-t-t'', meaning to die, means "I will surely die." This construction is always used with the preterite and the infintive.


The infintive can also function as an emphatic or emotive command for an unspecified group of people. For example, from the root ''s-k-r'', meaning to remember, comes the form ''sūkor'', meaning "remember," with the intended listener being of an unknown number or for a general large community.
The infintive can also function as an emphatic or emotive command for an unspecified group of people. For example, from the root ''s-k-r'', meaning to remember, comes the form ''sūkor'', meaning "remember," with the intended listener being of an unknown number or for a general large community.


===== Descriptive Infinitive =====
===== Descriptive Infinitive =====
In the case where an infinitive is paired with a verb of a different root, an English translation requires some sort of circumstantial clause, or the preposition "by" to define more exactly the manner in which the action is performed. This use supplants the now inexistent active participle of Biblical Hebrew. For example, using the roots ''d-b-r'' (to say), and the root ''ʔ-l-h'' (to swear), the phrase ''dībbirū'' ''ʔūlo,'' meaning they said (swearing) is most accurately translated as "they said by swearing" or "they promised."  
In the case where an infinitive is paired with a verb of a different root (though sometimes the same to emphasize its meaning), an English translation requires some sort of circumstantial clause, or the preposition "by" to define more exactly the manner in which the action is performed. This use supplants the now inexistent active participle of Biblical Hebrew. For example, using the roots ''d-b-r'' (to say), and the root ''ʔ-l-h'' (to swear), the phrase ''dībbirū'' ''ʔūlo,'' meaning they said (swearing) is most accurately translated as "they said by swearing" or "they promised."  
 
In the case of an infinitive acting as a circumstantial clause, various prepositions will clarify the time when, after, before, until, or during. 


Interestingly, Biblical Hebrew used the infinitive of the verb ''h-l-k'' to show continuous action. This infinitive grammaticalized as the prefix ''lū'' on the also archaic waw-consecutive of the Biblical suffix conjugation, forming the Balearic present tense. Here is an example of the semantic evolution of this construction:  
Interestingly, Biblical Hebrew used the infinitive of the verb ''h-l-k'' to show continuous action. This infinitive grammaticalized as the prefix ''lū'' on the also archaic waw-consecutive of the Biblical suffix conjugation, forming the Balearic present tense. Here is an example of the semantic evolution of this construction:  
Line 926: Line 1,122:
As a noun, the infinitive acts very similarly to the Spanish infinitive. It is always singular and there is no definite article placed upon it. If these infinitive nouns were to have a complement, there is no accusative marker placed on it. For example, the phrase "eating meat," uses the infinitive as the subject, with the object of the infinitive being meat. This phrase is translated as ''ʔūkol būšūr,'' with the root ''ʔ-k-l,'' meaning "to eat." The infinitive noun can also be the object of a main verb, similar to the use of the infinitive in Spanish phrases such as ''me gusta comer'', "I like to eat." It is likely that this use, very rare in Biblical Hebrew, became more common on the islands due to Romance influence.  
As a noun, the infinitive acts very similarly to the Spanish infinitive. It is always singular and there is no definite article placed upon it. If these infinitive nouns were to have a complement, there is no accusative marker placed on it. For example, the phrase "eating meat," uses the infinitive as the subject, with the object of the infinitive being meat. This phrase is translated as ''ʔūkol būšūr,'' with the root ''ʔ-k-l,'' meaning "to eat." The infinitive noun can also be the object of a main verb, similar to the use of the infinitive in Spanish phrases such as ''me gusta comer'', "I like to eat." It is likely that this use, very rare in Biblical Hebrew, became more common on the islands due to Romance influence.  


==== The Participle and the verbal noun ====
==== The Participle and the Verbal Noun ====
Balearic Hebrew only makes use of a passive participle. This participle occupies the middle place between a noun and a verb. In essence, they are most commonly used as adjectives and therefore do not conjugate for tense or mood. However, unlike pure adjectives, participles deal with action and activity. It indicates the person or thing in a state which has been brought about by external action.
Balearic Hebrew only makes use of a passive participle. This participle occupies the middle place between a noun and a verb. In essence, they are most commonly used as adjectives and therefore do not conjugate for tense or mood. However, unlike pure adjectives, participles deal with action and activity. It indicates the person or thing in a state which has been brought about by external action.


The participle almost always corresponds to a Latin perfect passive participle, or to the Latin gerundive (or verbal adjectives ending in -''bilis'', -''e''). Such verbal adjectives indicate a capacity or worth of being acted upon. To exemplify, the root ''b-r-k'', meaning to bless, has the participle ''miborūk'', which can either mean "(having been) blessed," "necessary/worthy to be blessed," or "(which is) to be blessed." Such uses of the participle are most similar to adjectives, and these participles can either be in the attributive or predicative position.  
The participle almost always corresponds to a Latin perfect passive participle, or to the Latin gerundive (or verbal adjectives ending in -''bilis'', -''e''). Such verbal adjectives indicate a capacity or worth of being acted upon. To exemplify, the root ''b-r-k'', meaning to bless, has the participle ''miborūk'', which can either mean "(having been) blessed," "necessary/worthy to be blessed," or "(which is) to be blessed." Such uses of the participle are most similar to adjectives, and these participles can either be in the attributive or predicative position.  


Additionally, these adjectival participles can function as a verbal complement governed by the main verb of the sentence. Thus, it is translated according to the time of the main verb. While Balearic Hebrew uses one participle to express this idea, and English or Spanish approximation would be a relative clause. EXAMPLE.
Additionally, these adjectival participles can function as a verbal complement governed by the main verb of the sentence. Thus, it is translated according to the time of the main verb. While Balearic Hebrew uses one participle to express this idea, and English or Spanish approximation would be a relative clause. For example:
*''bokka haʔīšū '''habirūtū''' '' = "The woman, who had woken up, cried"


As a verb, participles can govern an entire clause, acting as a main verb. These verbal participles can express continuous, habitual, or stative action as fixed by context. Typically, participles acting as a main verb will be at the beginning of the phrase, as if it were a VSO word order for a finite verb. EXAMPLE.
As a verb, participles can also function as an entire clause, acting as a main verb in sequence with another. These verbal participles can express continuous, habitual, or stative action as fixed by context. Frequently, these participles can be translated into English with the word "when." For example:
*'''''mitofūšū''' hasirogatī likesar, bedūgarha'' = "Caesar grabbed my arm, and stabbed it"
*'''''dagirūto''' habagalha, sīnīfil'' = "And when her husband jumped, he fell"


Like finite verbs, participle can also take an object.
Note how, since participles can only have a passive or reflexive meaning, the passive agent construction must be employed in the first sentence.


===== The Verbal Noun =====
===== The Verbal Noun =====
Finally, a participle can take a definite article and function as a noun. This use is somewhat productive for noun formation, and a similar process occurs in Spanish. For example, the Spanish word ''comida'', food, is the feminine singular passive participle of the verb ''comer.'' In Balearic Hebrew, these nominal participles almost always require a definite article. EXAMPLe
Finally, a participle can take a definite article and function as a noun. This use is somewhat productive for noun formation, and a similar process occurs in Spanish. For example, the Spanish word ''comida'', food, is the feminine singular passive participle of the verb ''comer.'' In Balearic Hebrew, these nominal participles almost always require a definite article. For example, ''miʔobūdū'', from the root ''ʔ-b-d'', "to lose," means "loss."


=== Verb Comparative Table with ''k-t-b'' ===
=== Verb Comparative Table with ''k-t-b'' ===
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Binyanim for the Semitic Constructions
|+Binyanim for the Semitic Constructions
! colspan="2" |Qal
! rowspan="2" |Gender and Number
! colspan="2" |D-stem
!Qal
! colspan="2" |H-stem
!D-stem
! colspan="2" |N-stem
!H-stem
!N-stem
|-
|-
! colspan="8" |''Preterite''
! colspan="4" |Preterite
|-
|-
|3ms
!3ms
|kūtab
|kūtab
|3ms
|kīttib
|kīttib
|3ms
|hīktīb
|hīktīb
|3ms
|naktab
|naktab
|-
|-
|3fs
!3fs
|kūtba
|kūtba
|3fs
|kīttibū
|kīttibū
|3fs
|hīktībū
|hīktībū
|3fs
|naktibū
|naktibū
|-
|-
|2ms
!2ms
|kūtabta
|kūtabta
|2ms
|kīttabtū
|kīttabtū
|2ms
|hīktabtū
|hīktabtū
|2ms
|naktabtū
|naktabtū
|-
|-
|2fs
!2fs
|kūtabti
|kūtabti
|2fs
|kīttabti
|kīttabti
|2fs
|hīktabti
|hīktabti
|2fs
|naktabti
|naktabti
|-
|-
|1cs
!1cs
|kūtabtī
|kūtabtī
|1cs
|kīttabtī
|kīttabtī
|1cs
|hīktabtī
|hīktabtī
|1cs
|naktabtī
|naktabtī
|-
|-
|3cp
!3cp
|kūtbū
|kūtbū
|3cp
|kīttibū
|kīttibū
|3cp
|hīktībū
|hīktībū
|3cp
|naktibū
|naktibū
|-
|-
|2mp
!2mp
|kūtabti
|kūtabti
|2mp
|kīttabti
|kīttabti
|2mp
|hīktabti
|hīktabti
|2mp
|naktabti
|naktabti
|-
|-
|2fp
!2fp
|kūtabtin
|kūtabtin
|2fp
|kīttabtin
|kīttabtin
|2fp
|hīktabtin
|hīktabtin
|2fp
|naktabtin
|naktabtin
|-
|-
|1cp
!1cp
|kūtabnū
|kūtabnū
|1cp
|kīttabnū
|kīttabnū
|1cp
|hīktabnū
|hīktabnū
|1cp
|naktabtinū
|naktabtinū
|-
|-
! colspan="8" |''Present''
! colspan="5" |''Present''
|-
|-
|3ms
!3ms
|lūkūtab
|lūkūtab
|3ms
|lūkīttib
|lūkīttib
|3ms
|lūhīktīb
|lūhīktīb
|3ms
|lūnaktab
|lūnaktab
|-
|-
|3fs
!3fs
|lūkūtba
|lūkūtba
|3fs
|lūkīttibū
|lūkīttibū
|3fs
|lūhīktībū
|lūhīktībū
|3fs
|lūnaktibū
|lūnaktibū
|-
|-
|2ms
!2ms
|lūkūtabta
|lūkūtabta
|2ms
|lūkīttabtū
|lūkīttabtū
|2ms
|lūhīktabtū
|lūhīktabtū
|2ms
|lūnaktabtū
|lūnaktabtū
|-
|-
|2fs
!2fs
|lūkūtabti
|lūkūtabti
|2fs
|lūkīttabti
|lūkīttabti
|2fs
|lūhīktabti
|lūhīktabti
|2fs
|lūnaktabti
|lūnaktabti
|-
|-
|1cs
!1cs
|lūkūtabtī
|lūkūtabtī
|1cs
|lūkīttabtī
|lūkīttabtī
|1cs
|lūhīktabtī
|lūhīktabtī
|1cs
|lūnaktabtī
|lūnaktabtī
|-
|-
|3cp
!3cp
|lūkūtbū
|lūkūtbū
|3cp
|lūkīttibū
|lūkīttibū
|3cp
|lūhīktībū
|lūhīktībū
|3cp
|lūnaktibū
|lūnaktibū
|-
|-
|2mp
!2mp
|lūkūtabti
|lūkūtabti
|2mp
|lūkīttabti
|lūkīttabti
|2mp
|lūhīktabti
|lūhīktabti
|2mp
|lūnaktabti
|lūnaktabti
|-
|-
|2fp
!2fp
|lūkūtabtin
|lūkūtabtin
|2fp
|lūkīttabtin
|lūkīttabtin
|2fp
|lūhīktabtin
|lūhīktabtin
|2fp
|lūnaktabtin
|lūnaktabtin
|-
|-
|1cp
!1cp
|lūkūtabnū
|lūkūtabnū
|1cp
|lūkīttabnū
|lūkīttabnū
|1cp
|lūhīktabnū
|lūhīktabnū
|1cp
|lūnaktabtinū
|lūnaktabtinū
|-
|-
! colspan="8" |''Subjunctive''
! colspan="5" |''Subjunctive''
|-
|-
|3ms
!3ms
|yīktūb
|yīktūb
|3ms
|yikattib
|yikattib
|3ms
|yaktīb
|yaktīb
|3ms
|yakūtib
|yakūtib
|-
|-
|3fs
!3fs
|tīktūb
|tīktūb
|3fs
|tikattib
|tikattib
|3fs
|taktīb
|taktīb
|3fs
|takūtib
|takūtib
|-
|-
|2ms
!2ms
|tīktūb
|tīktūb
|2ms
|tikattib
|tikattib
|2ms
|taktīb
|taktīb
|2ms
|takūtib
|takūtib
|-
|-
|2fs
!2fs
|tīktibi
|tīktibi
|2fs
|tikattibī
|tikattibī
|2fs
|taktībī
|taktībī
|2fs
|takūtbī
|takūtbī
|-
|-
|1cs
!1cs
|ʔaktūb
|ʔaktūb
|1cs
|ʔikattib
|ʔikattib
|1cs
|ʔaktīb
|ʔaktīb
|1cs
|ʔikūtib
|ʔikūtib
|-
|-
|3cp
!3cp
|yīktibū
|yīktibū
|3cp
|yikattibū
|yikattibū
|3cp
|yaktībū
|yaktībū
|3cp
|yakūtbū
|yakūtbū
|-
|-
|2mp
!2mp
|tīktibū
|tīktibū
|2mp
|tikattibū
|tikattibū
|2mp
|taktībū
|taktībū
|2mp
|takūtbū
|takūtbū
|-
|-
|2fp
!2fp
|tīktūbinū
|tīktūbinū
|2fp
|tikattabnū
|tikattabnū
|2fp
|taktibinū
|taktibinū
|2fp
|takūtabnū
|takūtabnū
|-
|-
|1cp
!1cp
|nīktūb
|nīktūb
|1cp
|nikattib
|nikattib
|1cp
|naktīb
|naktīb
|1cp
|nakūtib
|nakūtib
|-
|-
! colspan="8" |''Imperative''
! colspan="5" |''Imperative''
|-
|-
|2s
!2s
|katab
|katab
|2s
|kattib
|kattib
|2s
|haktib
|haktib
|2s
|hakūtib
|hakūtib
|-
|-
|2p
!2p
|kītbū
|kītbū
|2p
|kattibū
|kattibū
|2p
|haktībū
|haktībū
|2p
|hakūtbū
|hakūtbū
|}
|}
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Reflexive Construction
|+Reflexive Construction
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
Line 1,223: Line 1,336:
! colspan="3" |Plural
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
|-
!1p
!1st
!2p
!2nd
!3p
!3rd
!1p
!1st
!2p
!2nd
!3p
!3rd
|-
|-
!Preterite
!Preterite
Line 1,261: Line 1,374:
| --
| --
|}
|}
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]
Godisawoman
174

edits

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/286083...325361"