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Guimin (view source)

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|-
|-
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant|Approximant]]
! colspan="2" | [[w:Approximant|Approximant]]
| || colspan="2" | || colspan="2" | || l || || j
| || colspan="2" | || colspan="2" | || [[w:Voiced alveolar lateral approximant|l]] || || [[w:Voiced palatal approximant|j]]
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Trill consonant|Trill]]
! rowspan="2" | [[w:Trill consonant|Trill]]
Line 120: Line 120:


*/ʔ, d͡z, f, fː/ only occur in loanwords.
*/ʔ, d͡z, f, fː/ only occur in loanwords.
*/n/ assimilates in place of articulation to following stops.
*Consonants except /f, fː, j/ are pharyngealized adjacent to pharyngealized vowels and other pharyngealized consonants.
*Consonants except /f, fː, j/ are pharyngealized adjacent to pharyngealized vowels and other pharyngealized consonants.
**Pharyngealization of trills is optional and varies by speaker.
**Pharyngealization of trills is optional and varies by speaker.
**Pharyngealized alveolar consonants (except lateral consonants and trills) are realized as dental
**Pharyngealized alveolar consonants (except lateral consonants and trills) are realized as dental.
**Pharyngealized /ʔ/ is realized as [ʡ~ʕ]
**Pharyngealized /ʔ/ is realized as [ʡ~ʕ].
**Pharyngealized /h/ is realized as [ħ~ʜ]
**Pharyngealized /h/ is realized as [ħ~ʜ].
*Word-initial geminated consonants may be realized as aspirated or tense.
*Voiceless and non-geminated ejective stops may be lightly aspirated and ejected.
*/w/ is in free variation with [v] except before rounded vowels
*Word-initial geminated consonants may be realized as strongly aspirated or ejected.
**/w/ and [wˤ] before rounded vowels are realized as [v].
**Word-initial /qː, qʼː/ are realized as [q, qʼ].
*/l/ is in free variation with [ɫ], especially for younger speakers.
*/w/ is in free variation with [v] except before rounded vowels.
**/w/ and [wˤ] before rounded vowels and /j/ are realized as [v].


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Line 170: Line 174:


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Stress====
Stress is phonemic, most often either stem-initial or directly after the stem (which shifts to stem-final with zero-suffixes).
Stress is phonemic, most often either stem-initial or directly after the stem (which shifts to stem-final with zero-suffixes).
====Intonation====
====Rhythm====


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Line 184: Line 183:
Guimin has ergative-absolutive morphosyntactic alignment.
Guimin has ergative-absolutive morphosyntactic alignment.


===Nouns and pronouns===
===Nouns===
Nouns inflect for case and number, and are gendered masculine, feminine, or neuter.
 
Cases are split into absolutive (including genitive 1) and oblique. Genitive 1 and 2 are used with absolutive and absolutive (not including genitive 1) head nouns respectively. Some nouns also have suppletive oblique stems.
 
{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="3"| First declension
|-
! !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| -∅ || -әм
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -әс || -эс
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -итиъ || -әмтиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| -әш || -ә̄м
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| -э || -әмәс
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -ә̄ || -э̄с
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -әми
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -әсы
|}
| valign="top" |
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="3"| Second declension
|-
! !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| -∅ || rowspan="2"| -ә̄с
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -әс
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -әтиъ || -әгьиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| -исәс || -исә̄м
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| -исӣ || -исмәс
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -исс || -иппиъ
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -ими
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -исы
|}
| valign="top" |
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="3"| Third declension
|-
! !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| -∅ || -ыс, -м
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -с || -ис
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -тиъ || -ытиъ, -мтиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| -ис || -ә̄м
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| rowspan="2"| -ӣ || -мәс
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -биъ
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -ми
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -сы
|}
|}
{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="3"| Fourth declension
|-
! !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| -∅ || -иъм, -йм
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -иъс, -йс || -ӣс
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -иътиъ, -йтиъ || -ӣтиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| -ӣс || -ё̄м
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| rowspan="2"| -ӣъ || -иъмәс, -ймәс
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -иъбиъ, -йбиъ
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -иъми, -йми
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -иъсы, -йсы
|}
| valign="top" |
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="3"| Fifth declension
|-
! !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| -∅ || rowspan="2"| -вис
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -уъс, -вс
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -уътиъ, -втиъ || -отиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| -ос || -вә̄м
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| -вӣ || -уъмәс, -вмәс
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -ӯъ, -в || -уъбиъ, -вбиъ
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -уъми, -вми
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -уъсы, -всы
|}
| valign="top" |
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="3"| Sixth declension
|-
! !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| -∅ || rowspan="2"| -э̄с
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -э̄
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -э̄тиъ || -э̄мтиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| -э̄с || -э̄м
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| -ӣъ || -э̄мәс
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -эхъ || -э̄биъ
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -э̄ми
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -э̄сы
|}
|}
{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="3"| Seventh declension
|-
! !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| -∅ || -иныс
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -ин || -инис
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -интиъ || -инытиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| -нис || -нә̄м
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| rowspan="2"| -нӣ || -ымәс
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -ыбиъ
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -ыми
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -ысы
|}
| valign="top" |
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="3"| Eighth declension
|-
! !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| -∅ || rowspan="2"| -ә̄
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -ы, -н
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -ытиъ, -нтиъ || -ә̄тиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| colspan="2"| -инс
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| -инӣ || rowspan="2"| -нӣ
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -ӣн
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -инми
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -инсы
|}
| valign="top" |
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="3"| Ninth declension
|-
! !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| rowspan="2"| -сәр || -сәрыс
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -сәрис
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -сәртиъ || -сәрытиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| -ръис || -ръә̄м
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| rowspan="2"| -ръӣ || -сымәс
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -сыбиъ
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -сыми
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -сысы
|}
|}


====Demonstratives and pronouns====
====Demonstratives and pronouns====
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Guimin third-person masculine singular pronouns also function as demonstratives, and when used as such often absolutive ''сә'' is treated as the stem inflected as a first-declension noun.
Guimin third-person masculine singular pronouns also function as demonstratives, and when used as such often absolutive ''сә'' is treated as the stem inflected as a first-declension noun.


{| class="wikitable"
{| style="background: none"
|-
| valign="top" |
{| class="IPA wikitable"
|+ First-person pronouns
|+ First-person pronouns
|-
|-
Line 220: Line 505:
| иккы || вӣсы || нә̄ъсы
| иккы || вӣсы || нә̄ъсы
|}
|}
 
| valign="top" |
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="IPA wikitable"
|+ Second-person pronouns
|+ Second-person pronouns
|-
|-
Line 250: Line 535:
| тӏӯъсы, тӏуъсы || ю̄ъссы
| тӏӯъсы, тӏуъсы || ю̄ъссы
|}
|}
 
| valign="top" |
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="IPA wikitable"
|+ Third-person pronouns
|+ Third-person pronouns
|-
|-
Line 265: Line 550:
|-
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| тӏәш || тӏәшә̄м || тӏәшэ̄с || тӏэ̄сә̄м || тӏәш || тӏәшә̄м || rowspan="2"| сив
| сәтиъ || тӏэ̄тиъ || сэ̄тиъ || тӏэ̄ттиъ || тӏәттиъ || тӏэ̄тиъ || rowspan="2"| сив
|-
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| сәтиъ || тӏэ̄тиъ || сэ̄тиъ || тӏэ̄ттиъ || тӏәттиъ || тӏэ̄тиъ
| тӏәш || тӏәшә̄м || тӏәшэ̄с || тӏэ̄сә̄м || тӏәш || тӏәшә̄м
|-
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
! {{gcl|DAT}}
Line 281: Line 566:
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| тӏәсы || тӏәссы || тӏә̄сы || тӏэ̄ссы || тӏәсы || тӏәссы
| тӏәсы || тӏәссы || тӏә̄сы || тӏэ̄ссы || тӏәсы || тӏәссы
|}
|}
|}
====Locative cases====
A number of locative cases can be applied to nouns (including demonstratives and pronouns).
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Locative case suffixes
|-
! !! {{gcl|LOC}} !! {{gcl|LAT}} !! {{gcl|ABL}} !! {{gcl|TRANS|translative}} !! {{gcl|TERM|terminative}}
|-
!
| -э || -дэ || -әд || -игъ || -быд
|-
! in-
| -инэ || -индэ || -инәд || -инигъ || -имбыд
|-
! super-
| -ыънэ || -ыъндэ || -ыънәд || -ыънигъ || -ыъмбыд
|-
! sub-
| -уъпӏэ || -уъпӏтӏэ || -уъпӏәд || -уъпӏигъ || -уъппыд
|-
! pre-
| -рэ̄ || -рэ̄дэ || -рэ̄д || -рэ̄игъ || -рэ̄быд
|-
! post-
| -ппӏэ || -ппӏтӏэ || -ппӏәд || -ппӏигъ || -ппӏыд
|}
Locative suffixes are applied to the ergative stem of the noun, and in plural nouns follows ergative plural marking.


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Guimin has 22 light verbs from which all others are derived. They inflect for tense, aspect, mood, voice, patient number and gender, and other optional categories.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ "to do"
|-
! colspan="3" rowspan="2"| !! colspan="2" | {{gcl|M}} !! colspan="2" | {{gcl|F}} !! colspan="2" | {{gcl|N}}
|-
! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}} !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}} !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! colspan="3" | {{gcl|INF}}
| colspan="6" | тӣ
|-
! rowspan="9" | {{gcl|PFV}}
! rowspan="5" | {{gcl|IND}}
! {{gcl|PRES}}
| тӣтӏ || тӣнтӏ || тә̄тӏ || тэнтӏ || тыътӏ || ттинтӏ
|-
! {{gcl|PST}}
| тӣнтӏ || тӣнинтӏ || тә̄нтӏ || тә̄нинтӏ || ттытӏ || тыънинтӏ
|-
! {{gcl|PRF}}
| тита̄тӏ || титнэнтӏ || тита̄тӏ || титнэнтӏ || тита̄тӏ || титнэнтӏ
|-
! {{gcl|FUT}}
| тӣтӏиъ || тӣнтӏиъ || тэтӏиъ || тә̄нтӏиъ || ттитӏиъ || ттәнтӏиъ
|-
! {{gcl|PASS}}
| тӣтӏә || тӣрә || тә̄тӏә || тә̄рә || тыътӏә || тыърә
|-
! colspan="2" | {{gcl|IMP}}
| тӣтӏуъ || тӣнтӏуъ || тә̄тӏуъ || тэнтӏуъ || тыътӏуъ || ттинтӏуъ
|-
! rowspan="3" | {{gcl|PTCP}}
! {{gcl|NPST}}
| colspan="6" | ттәнцӏ
|-
! {{gcl|PST}}
| colspan="6" | тыънәнцӏ
|-
! {{gcl|PASS}}
| colspan="6" | тты̄нәс
|-
! rowspan="7" | {{gcl|IPFV}}
! rowspan="3" | {{gcl|IND}}
! {{gcl|NPST}}
| тэ̄нтӏ || тинэнтӏ || та̄нтӏ || тәнэнтӏ || та̄тӏ || тынэнтӏ
|-
! {{gcl|PST}}
| итэ̄нтӏ || итинэнтӏ || ита̄нтӏ || итәнэнтӏ || ита̄тӏ || итнэнтӏ
|-
! {{gcl|PASS}}
| тэ̄нтӏә || тэ̄нрә || та̄нтӏә || та̄нрә || та̄тӏә || та̄рә
|-
! rowspan="3" | {{gcl|PTCP}}
! {{gcl|NPST}}
| colspan="6" | тынанцӏ
|-
! {{gcl|PST}}
| colspan="6" | та̄нәнцӏ
|-
! {{gcl|PASS}}
| colspan="6" | та̄мынәс
|}
Verbs are most often derived by pairing a light verb with either a following adjective or a preceding absolutive noun. When an absolutive noun is part of a complex verb, the clause's patient is instead marked as dative.
====Other verb markers====
=====Tense, aspect, and mood=====
A number of tense-aspect combinations are formed by compounding verbs.
{| class="wikitable"
! imperfective infinitive
| verb.{{gcl|IPFV}} || rowspan="5" | + || be.{{gcl|INF}}
|-
! pluperfect
| verb.{{gcl|PRF}} || be.{{gcl|IPFV}}.{{gcl|NPST}}
|-
! discontinuous
| verb.{{gcl|PRF}} || become.{{gcl|PFV}}
|-
! habitual
| verb.{{gcl|IPFV}} || do.{{gcl|IPFV}}
|-
! iterative
| verb.{{gcl|IPFV}} || verb.{{gcl|IPFV}}
|}
Four mood suffixes can be applied to indicative verbs: subjunctive ''-кьи'', conditional ''-ссә'', counterfactual ''-(й)ә̄й'', and abilitative ''-ыъ''.
=====Converbs=====
There are two converbs: relative/attributive ''-ды'' which puts no restriction on its verb's inflection, and simultaneous ''-цы'' which can only be applied to imperfective verbs.
=====Valency modifiers=====
Verb valency can be increased and decreased with suffixes ''-гьэ'' and ''-ухъ'' respectively. These suffixes are also mostly used to derive new verbs, for example ''диркӏ, диркӏгьэ'' "to see, to look" and ''вӣд, вӣдухъ'' "to know, to think."
=====Causatives=====
Causative verbs are marked with particles preceding the causee. These particles agree with the causer's gender: masculine ''вит'', feminine ''вәт'', neuter ''уът''.
If present in the clause, the causer is marked as the agent of the verb, and the causee is put in the absolutive.
=====Reflexives and reciprocals=====
For reflexives see [[Guimin#Demonstratives and pronouns|Demonstratives and pronouns]]. Reciprocals are marked with a verb suffix ''-зәм''.


===Adjectives and adverbs===
=====Questions=====
Questions are marked either with interrogative proforms or an interrogative verb suffix: ''-ма'' for polar questions, and ''-май'' for mediative questions.
 
====Verb affix order====
{| class="wikitable"
! negation !! пӏә- "un-"/<br>двиъ- "re-"
| verb<br>stem
! valency<br>modifier !! reciprocal !! mood !! converb !! question !! gerund/<br>agentivizer
|}
 
===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree with their head noun in case, number, and gender.
 
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="7"| First declension
|-
! rowspan="2"| !! colspan="2"| {{gcl|M}} !! colspan="2"| {{gcl|F}} !! colspan="2"| {{gcl|N}}
|-
! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}} !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}} !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| тӏ(ә)- || -әм || ццӏ(а)- || rowspan="2"| -э̄с || с(ә)- || rowspan="2"| -ә̄с
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -әс || -эс || -э̄ || -әс
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -итиъ || -әмтиъ || -э̄тиъ || -э̄мтиъ || -әтиъ || -әгьиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| -әш || -ә̄м || -э̄с || -э̄м || -исәс || -исә̄м
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| -э || -әмәс || -ӣъ || -э̄мәс || -исӣ || -исмәс
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -ә̄ || -э̄с || -эхъ || -э̄биъ || -исс || -иппиъ
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -әми || colspan="2"| -э̄ми || colspan="2"| -ими
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -әсы || colspan="2"| -э̄сы || colspan="2"| -исы
|}
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="7"| Second declension
|-
! rowspan="2"| !! colspan="2"| {{gcl|M}} !! colspan="2"| {{gcl|F}} !! colspan="2"| {{gcl|N}}
|-
! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}} !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}} !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| тӏ(ә)- || -иъм, -йм || ццӏ(а)- || rowspan="2"| -е̄с || с(ә)- || rowspan="2"| -йә̄с
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -иъс, -йс || -ӣс || -е̄ || -йәс
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -иътиъ, -йтиъ || -е̄тиъ || -е̄мтиъ || -ӣтиъ || -йәтиъ || -йәгьиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| -ӣс || -ё̄м || -е̄с || -е̄м || -исәс || -исә̄м
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| rowspan="2"| -ӣъ || -иъмәс, -ймәс || -ӣъ || -е̄мәс || -исӣ || -исмәс
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -иъбиъ, -йбиъ || -е̄хъ || -е̄биъ || -исс || -иппиъ
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -иъми, -йми || colspan="2"| -е̄ми || colspan="2"| -ими
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -иъсы, -йсы || colspan="2"| -е̄сы || colspan="2"| -исы
|}
{| class="IPA wikitable"
! colspan="7"| Third declension
|-
! rowspan="2"| !! colspan="2"| {{gcl|M}} !! colspan="2"| {{gcl|F}} !! colspan="2"| {{gcl|N}}
|-
! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}} !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}} !! {{gcl|SG}} !! {{gcl|PL}}
|-
! {{gcl|ABS}}
| тӏ(ә)- || rowspan="2"| -вис || ццӏ(а)- || rowspan="2"| -вэ̄с || с(ә)- || rowspan="2"| -вә̄с
|-
! {{gcl|ERG}}
| -уъс, -вс || -вэ̄ || -вәс
|-
! {{gcl|GEN1|genitive 1}}
| -уътиъ, -втиъ || -отиъ || -вэ̄тиъ || -вэ̄мтиъ || -вәтиъ || -вәгьиъ
|-
! {{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}}
| -ос || -вә̄м || -вэ̄с || -вэ̄м || -висәс || -висә̄м
|-
! {{gcl|DAT}}
| -вӣ || -уъмәс, -вмәс || -вӣъ || -вэ̄мәс || -висӣ || -висмәс
|-
! {{gcl|INSTR}}
| -ӯъ, -в || -уъбиъ, -вбиъ || -вэхъ || -вэ̄биъ || -висс || -виппиъ
|-
! {{gcl|COM}}
| colspan="2"| -уъми, -вми || colspan="2"| -вэ̄ми || colspan="2"| -вими
|-
! {{gcl|EQ|equative}}
| colspan="2"| -уъсы, -всы || colspan="2"| -вэ̄сы || colspan="2"| -висы
|}
 
The absolutive singular prefixes ''тӏ(ә)-, ццӏ(а)-, с(ә)-'' are optional and most often used for disambiguation.
 
Comparative and superlative adjectives are preceded by particles ''е'' and ''бәч'' respectively, and compared nouns use the equative case.
 
===Evidentiality===
Witness and nonwitness evidence are marked with clause-initial particles ''ыг'' and ''гӯ'' respectively. Gnomic clauses use neither particle.
 
Reportative clauses use a separate particle that agrees in gender with the reportee: masculine ''кӏу'', feminine ''кӏо'', neuter ''ккӏа''. If the reportee is included in or near the clause the reportative particle follows the reportee, otherwise it is clause-initial.
 
===Negation and prohibitives===
Clauses are negated with a verb clitic ''ни-'', or an emphatic equivalent ''вэ̄-''. These clitics can also function as preceding particles to negate individual words, and as negative interjections.
 
Prohibitive verbs are marked with a preceding particle ''мӣ'' plus imperative inflection.


===Postpositions===
===Postpositions===
Line 315: Line 851:
| кӏытӏ || гьәзә̄р || бә̄вр || дикӏы бә̄вр || милён
| кӏытӏ || гьәзә̄р || бә̄вр || дикӏы бә̄вр || милён
|}
|}
*All numerals above 1,000,000 are Russian loans.
*Numeral places above 1,000,000 are Russian loans.


Numerals 1-4 have irregular ordinal forms ''пӏӯв, двиъчӏ, тӏыриътӏ, кӏтӏвытӏ'', other ordinals are marked by ''-(ы)тӏ''. Distributive and collective numerals are marked by ''-ар'' and ''-ла'' respectively.
Numerals 1-4 have irregular ordinal forms ''пӏӯв, двиъчӏ, тӏыриътӏ, кӏтӏвытӏ'', other ordinals are marked by ''-(ы)тӏ''. Distributive and collective numerals are marked by ''-ар'' and ''-ла'' respectively.
===Derivational morphology===
====Part-of-speech modifiers====


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 327: Line 860:


===Noun and verb phrases===
===Noun and verb phrases===
Numerals precede their head. Genitives, possessives, and adjectives may either precede or follow their head. Adverbs follow their head.


===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
Line 337: Line 871:
{{interlinear
{{interlinear
|Гӯ мәнвис виъсәм муъкӏтӏмими гьу вэ̄кьӏмими карә̄мэ̄с гьу гьуъкъӯкъә̄м упӏрә.
|Гӯ мәнвис виъсәм муъкӏтӏмими гьу вэ̄кьӏмими карә̄мэ̄с гьу гьуъкъӯкъә̄м упӏрә.
|{{gcl|NWIT|non-witness}} human.ABS-PL.ABS all-M.PL.ABS free-ADJ.NZ-COM and equal-ADJ.NZ-COM dignity-SG.{{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}} and right.PL-PL.{{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}} make.PFV.PASS.M.PL
|{{gcl|NWIT|non-witness}} human.ABS-PL.ABS all-M.PL.ABS free-ADJ.NZ-COM and equal-ADJ.NZ-COM dignity-SG.{{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}} and rights-PL.{{gcl|GEN2|genitive 2}} make.PFV.PASS.M.PL
||display-messages=no|italics2=no|italics3=no}}
||display-messages=no|italics2=no|italics3=no}}
<br>
<br>
Dillon
40,539

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