Luthic: Difference between revisions

|pronunciation    = ˈlu.tʰi.xɐ

|dia2              = Standard Bolognese Luthic (''Lûthica boloġnesa'')

|minority          = [[w:Italy|Italy]] (recognised by the Luthic Community of Ravenna)

[[Luthic]] ([[w:Help:IPA|/ˈluːθ.ɪk/]] [[w:Help:Pronunciation respelling key|''LOOTH-ik'']], less often [[w:Help:IPA|/ˈlʌθ.ɪk/]] [[w:Help:Pronunciation respelling key|''LUTH-ik'']], also ''Luthish''; [[w:Endonym|endonym]]: ''Lûthica'' [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈlu.tʰi.xɐ]]] or ''Rasda Lûthica'' [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈʁaz.dɐ ˈlu.tʰi.xɐ]]]) is an [[w:Italic languages|Italic language]] that is spoken by the Luths, with strong [[w:East Germanic languages|East Germanic]] influence. Unlike other [[w:Romance languages|Romance languages]], such as [[w:Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[w:Spanish language|Spanish]], [[w:Catalan language|Catalan]], [[w:Occitan language|Occitan]] and [[w:French language|French]], Luthic has a large inherited vocabulary from [[w:East Germanic languages|East Germanic]], instead of only proper names that survived in historical accounts, and [[w:Loanword|loanwords]]. About 250,000 people speak Luthic worldwide.

As a standard form of the Gotho-Romance language, Luthic has similarities with other [[w:Italo-Dalmatian languages|Italo-Dalmatian languages]], [[w:Western Romance languages|Western Romance languages]] and [[w:Sardinian language|Sardinian]]. The status of Luthic as the regional language of Ravenna and the existence there of a regulatory body have removed Luthic, at least in part, from the domain of [[w:Italian language|Standard Italian]], its traditional ''Dachsprach''e. It is also related to the [[w:Florentine dialect|Florentine dialect]] spoken by the [[w:Italians|Italians]] in the Italian city of [[w:Florence|Florence]] and its immediate surroundings.

! width="25%"|Biblical Gothic

! width="25%"|Crimean Gothic¹

! width="25%"|Luthic

! width="25%"|English

| ahtau /ˈax.tɔː/ || athe /ˈa.te/ || attau [ˈat.tɔ] || eight

| baur /bɔr/ <br >barn /barn/ || baar /bar/ <br >*ba(a)rn /barn/? || baure [ˈbɔ.ɾe] <br >barnȯ [ˈbaɾ.no] || child

| brōþar /ˈbroː.θar/ || bruder /'bru.der/ || broþar [ˈbɾo.θɐr] || brother

| wair /wɛr/ || fers /fers/ || vaere [ˈvɛ.re] || wer-

| handus /ˈhan.dus/ || handa /ˈan.da/ || hando [ˈhan.du] (archaic or obsolete) || hand

| haubiþ /ˈhɔː.βiθ/ || hoef (for *hoeft) /oft/ || hauviþȯ [ˈhɔ.vi.θo] (archaic or obsolete) || head

| qiman /ˈkʷi.man/ || kommen /'ko.men/ || qemare [kᶣeˈma.ɾe] || to come

| hlahjan /'hlax.jan/ || lachen /'la.xen/ (/'la.ɣen/?) || clahare [klɐˈha.ɾe] || to laugh

| augō /ˈɔː.ɣoː/ || oeghene /ˈo.ɣe.ne/ || augonȯ [ˈɔ.ɣ˕o.no] || eye

The Luthic [[w:Philology|philologist]] Aþalphonso Silva divided the history of Luthic into a period from 500 AD to 1740 to be “Mediaeval Luthic”, which he subdivided into “Gothic Luthic” (500–1100), “Mediaeval Luthic” (1100–1600) and “late Mediaeval Luthic” (1600–1740).

The initial trouble for the later Roman Empire came from East Germanic speakers, with various tribal groups such as the Vandals and Burgundians traversing Europe. However, it was the Goths who notably contributed to the linguistic record of the East Germanic languages. Originating from the lower [[w:Vistula|Vistula]], they migrated to present-day [[w:Ukraine|Ukraine]]. Later, facing pressure from the [[w:Huns|Huns]], they moved into the [[w:Balkans|Balkans]] and eventually into [[w:Western Europe|Western Europe]]. Among them, the Visigoths settled in [[w:Spain|Spain]], shaping its post-Roman state, while the Ostrogoths became custodians of the last Roman emperors in Italy. By the eighth century, linguistic assimilation into Romance-speaking populations had largely absorbed the Goths of Spain and Italy. Wulfila, a prominent Christian missionary and later bishop of the Visigoths, translated the Bible into Gothic while they resided in the northeast Balkans, providing a significant linguistic record of Gothic and East Germanic. A small group of Ostrogoths left in [[w:Crimea|Crimea]] resurfaced in the sixteenth century through a wordlist compiled by [[w:Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq|Ogier de Busbecq]], the [[w:Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor’s]] ambassador to the [[w:Sublime Porte|Sublime Porte]]. However, these [[w:Crimean Gothic|Crimean Gothic]] speakers disappeared linguistically shortly after Busbecq documented their vocabulary.

::It contains scattered passages from the New Testament (including parts of the gospels and the Epistles), from the Old Testament (Nehemiah), and some commentaries. The text likely had been somewhat modified by copyists. It was written using the [[w:Gothic alphabet|Gothic alphabet]], an alphabet used for writing the Gothic language. It was developed in the 4th century AD by [[w:Ulfilas|Ulfilas]] (or ''Wulfila''), a Gothic preacher of [[w:Cappadocian Greeks|Cappadocian Greek]] descent, for the purpose of [[w:Gothic Bible|translating the Bible]].

In the mediaeval period, Luthic emerged as a separate language from Gothic. The main written language was Latin, and the few Luthic-language texts preserved from this period are written in the Latin alphabet. From the 7th to the 16th centuries, Mediaeval Luthic gradually transformed through language contact with [[w:Italian language|Old Italian]], [[w:Lombardic language|Langobardic]] and [[w:Frankish language|Frankish]]. During the [[w:Carolingian Empire|Carolingian Empire]] (773–774), [[w:Charles Martel|Charles]] conquered the [[w:Lombards|Lombards]] and thus included northern Italy in his sphere of influence. He renewed the [[w:Roman Curia|Vatican]] donation and the promise to the papacy of continued Frankish protection. Frankish was very strong, until [[w:Louis the Pious|Louis’]] eldest surviving son [[w:Lothair I|Lothair I]] became Emperor in name but ''de facto only'' the ruler of the [[w:Middle Francia|Middle Frankish Kingdom]].

After the fall of Middle Francia and the rise of [[w:Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|Holy Roman Empire]], [[w:Louis II of Italy|Louis II]] conquered [[w:Louis II's campaign against Bari (866–871)|Bari in 871]] led to poor relations with the [[w:Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]], which led to a lesser degree of the Greek influence present in Luthic.

[[File:Mediaeval luthic.png|thumb|'''The first sentence is:''' “''Luthica unsara rasda ist, e scolamos defendere unsarǫ raihtǫ di usare la rasda fremente, l’italiano nogca sarat l’unsara rasda fragca, car gli italiani non unse rispetanno.''” <br />'''English:''' “Luthic is our language, and we must defend our right to use it freely, Italian will never be our language, as the Italians don’t respect us”]]

|source= Giuseppe il Lûthico, proverbs

Following the first Bible translation, the development of Luthic as a [[w:Written language|written language]], as a language of religion, administration, and public discourse accelerated. In the second half of the 17th century, grammarians elaborated grammars of Luthic, first among them Þiudareico Bianchi’s 1657 Latin grammar ''De studio linguæ luthicæ''.

''De Studio Linguæ Luthicæ'' (English: On Study of the Luthic Language) often referred to as simply the ''Luthicæ'' ([[w:Help:IPA|/lʌˈθiˌki, lʌθˈaɪˌki/]] [[w:Help:Pronunciation respelling key|''lu-THEE-KEE'']]), is a book by Þiudareico Bianchi that expounds Luthic grammar. The Luthicæ is written in Latin and comprises two volumes, and was first published on 9 September 1657.

====Book 1, ''De grammatica''====

Book 1, subtitled ''De grammatica'' (On grammar) concerns fundamental grammar features present in Luthic. It opens a collection of examples and Luthic–Latin diglot lemmata.

====Book 2, ''De orthographia''====

Book 2, subtitled ''De orthographia'' (On orthography), is an exposition of the many vernacular orthographies Luthic had, and eventual suggestions for a universal orthography.

[[File:De studio linguae luthicae.png|thumb|Remounted cover, at Luthic Community of Ravenna]]

The name of the Luths is hugely linked to the name of the Goths, itself one of the most discussed topics in Germanic philology. The [[w:Endonym and exonym|autonym]] is attested as [[wikt:𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰|𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰]] (''gutþiuda'') (the status of this word as a Gothic autonym prior to the [[w:Ostrogoths|Ostrogothic]] period is disputed) on the Gothic calendar (in the [[w:Codices Ambrosiani|''Codex Ambrosianus A'']]): ''þize ana gutþiudai managaize marwtre jah friþareikeikeis''. However, on the basis of parallel formations in Germanic ([[wikt:Svíþjóð#Old_Norse|''svíþjóð'']]; [[wikt:Angelþeod#Old_English|''angelþēod'']]) and non-Germanic (Old Irish ''cruithen-tuath'') indicates that it means “land of the Goths, ''Gothia''”, instead of a more literal translation “Gothpeople”. The first element however may be also the same element attested on the [[w:Ring of Pietrossa|Ring of Pietrossa]] ᚷᚢᛏᚨᚾᛁ (''gutanī''). Roman authors of late antiquity did not classify the Goths as ''Germani''. While the [[w:Gutones|Gutones]], the Pomeranian precursors of the Goths, and the ''Vandili'', the Silesian ancestors of the Vandals, were still considered part of Tacitean Germania, the later Goths, Vandals, and other East Germanic tribes were differentiated from the Germans and were referred to as [[w:Scythians|Scythians]], Goths, or some other special names. The sole exception are the Burgundians, who were considered German because they came to [[w:Gaul|Gaul]] via Germania. In keeping with this classification, post-Tacitean Scandinavians were also no longer counted among the Germans, even though they were regarded as close relatives. The word for Luthic is first attested as 𐌻𐌿𐌸𐌹𐌺𐍃 (''luþiks'') on the ''Codex Luthicus'', named after so. The name was probably first recorded via [[w:Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman]] writers, as *''Luthae'', a formation similar to [[w:Getae|''Getae'']], itself derived from [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/leuhtą|*''leuhtą'']]. Ultimately meaning ''the lighters''.  𐌻𐌿𐌸𐌹𐌺𐍃 is probably a corruption *''leuhtą'', *''leuthą'', *''Luthae'', influenced by [[wikt:gothus#Latin|''gothus'']], then reborrowed via a Germanic language, where *''-th-'' > ''-þ-''.

Luthic is regulated by the '''Council for the Luthic Language''' (Luthic: ''Gafaurdo faul·la Rasda Lûthica'' [[IPA for Luthic|[ɡɐˈfɔɾ.du fɔl‿lɐ ˈʁaz.dɐ ˈlu.tʰi.xɐ]]]) and the '''Luthic Community of Ravenna''' (Luthic: ''Gamaenescape Lûthica Ravennae'' [[IPA for Luthic|[ɡɐˌmɛ.neˈska.fe ˈlu.tʰi.xɐ ʁɐˈvẽ.nɛ]]]). The existence of a regulatory body has removed Luthic, at least in part, from the domain of Standard Italian, its traditional [[w:Abstand and ausbau languages|Dachsprache]], Luthic was considered an Italian dialect like many others until about [[w:World War II|World War II]], but then it underwent [[w:Abstand and ausbau languages|ausbau]].

[[File:Mussoliniposter.jpg|thumb|Propaganda poster of Mussolini]]

* The letter c represents the sound [[w:Voiceless velar plosive|/k/]] at the end of words and before the letters a, o, and u but represents the sound [[w:Voiceless postalveolar affricate|/t͡ʃ/]] before the letters e and i.

* The letter g represents the sound [[w:Voiced velar plosive|/ɡ/]] at the end of words and before the letters a, o, and u but represents the sound [[w:Voiced postalveolar affricate|/d͡ʒ/]] before the letters e and i. It also represents the sound [[w:Voiced velar nasal|/ŋ/]] before c, q or g.

** Velar plosives after /ŋ/ are not further palatalised to /t͡ʃ/ or /d͡ʒ/.

** [[IPA for Luthic|/ɡʷ/]] only happens before a nasal and is spelled as ggu [[w:Labialization|/ŋɡʷ/]], or inherited from Gothic ''-ggw-'' as a regular outcome of [[w:Proto-Germanic language|Germanic]] ''*ww'': [[wikt:𐍄𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍅𐍃|𐍄𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍅𐍃]] [[wikt:AP:pron:got|[triɡʷːs]]], ''tregguo'' [ˈtɾɛɡ.ɡʷu].

* The letter r represents the sound [[w:Voiced uvular fricative|/ʁ/]] onset or stressed intervocalic, [[w:Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps|/ɾ/]] when intervocalic or nearby another consonant or at the end of words and [[w:Voiced uvular trill|/ʀ/]] if doubled.

* The cluster sc /sk/ before the letters e and i represents the sound [[w:Voiceless postalveolar fricative|/ʃ/]], [[w:Gemination|geminate]] if intervocalic.

* The spellings ci and gi before another vowel represent only /t͡ʃ/ or /d͡ʒ/ with no [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|/i/]] ~ [[w:Voiced palatal approximant|/j/]] sound.

** Unless ''c'' or ''g'' precede stressed /i/ (''pharmacia'' /pʰɐɾ.mɐˈtʃi.ɐ/ ‘pharmacy’, ''biologia'' /bjo.loˈdʒi.ɐ/ ‘biology’), these may be optionally spelt as ''cï'' and ''gï' (''pharmacïa'', ''biologïa'').

* The spelling qu and gu always represent the sounds /k/ and /ɡ/.

* The spelling ġl and ġn represent the palatals [[w:Voiced palatal lateral approximant|/ʎ/]] and [[w:Voiced palatal nasal|/ɲ/]] retrospectively; always geminate if intervocalic.

The Luthic alphabet is considered to consist of 22 letters; j, k, w, x, y are excluded, and often avoided in loanwords, as ''tassi'' vs ''taxi'', ''cċenophobo'' vs ''xenofobo'', ''geins'' vs ''jeans'', ''Giorque'' vs ''York'', ''Valsar'' vs ''Walsar'':

** The digraphs ⟨ae, au, ei⟩ are used to indicate stressed /ɛ ɔ i/ retrospectively.

* The [[w:Dot (diacritic)|overdot accent]] is used to over ⟨a, o⟩ to indicate coda /a o/.

** The letter o always represents the sound /u/ in coda.

** The overdot is also used over ⟨c, g⟩ to indicate [[w:Palatalization (sound change)|palatalisation]].

** Similarly, the letter ⟨z⟩ can symbolise voiced or voiceless consonants. ⟨z⟩ symbolises [[w:Voiceless alveolar affricate|/t͡s/]] onset before a vowel, when clustered with a voiceless consonant (⟨p, f, c, q⟩), and when doubled (geminate); it symbolises [[w:Voiced alveolar affricate|/d͡z/]] when between vowels and when clustered with voiced consonants.

| [[w:A|A]], a || a [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈa]]] || asga [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈaz.ɡɐ]]] || [[w:Near-open central vowel|/ɐ/]] or [[w:Open central unrounded vowel|/a/]] || â, ȧ

| [[w:B|B]], b || bi [[IPA for Luthic|[bi]]] || baerca [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈbɛɾ.kɐ]]] || [[w:Voiced bilabial plosive|/b/]] or [[w:Voiced labiodental approximant|/ʋ/]] || —

| [[w:C|C]], c || ci [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈt͡ʃi]]] || caunȯ [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈkɔ.no]]] || [[w:Voiceless velar plosive|/k/]], [[w:Voiceless postalveolar affricate|/t͡ʃ/]] or [[w:Voiceless velar fricative|/x/]] || ċ

| [[w:D|D]], d || di [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈdi]]] ||dago [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈda.ɣ˕u]]] || [[w:Voiced dental plosive|/d/]] or [[w:Voiced dental approximant|/ð̞/]] || —

| [[w:E|E]], e || e [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈɛ]]] || aeqqo [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈɛk.kʷu]]] || [[w:Close-mid front unrounded vowel|/e/]] or [[w:Open-mid front unrounded vowel|/ɛ/]] || ê

| [[w:F|F]], f || effe [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈɛf.fe]]] || faeho [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈfɛ.hu]]] || [[w:Voiceless labiodental fricative|/f/]] or [[w:Voiceless labiodental affricate|/p͡f/]] || —

| [[w:G|G]], g || gi [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈd͡ʒi]]] || geva [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈd͡ʒe.vɐ]]] || [[w:Voiced velar plosive|/ɡ/]], [[w:Voiced postalveolar affricate|/d͡ʒ/]], [[w:Voiced velar approximant|/ɣ˕/]] or [[w:Voiced velar nasal|/ŋ/]] || ġ

| [[w:H|H]], h || acca [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈak.kɐ]]] || haġlo [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈhaʎ.ʎu]]] || [[w:Voiceless glottal fricative|/h/]] or [[w:Voiceless palatal fricative|/ç/]] || —

| [[w:I|I]], i || i [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈi]]] || eisso [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈis.su]]] || [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|/i/]] or [[w:Voiced palatal approximant|/j/]] || ï

| [[w:L|L]], l || elle [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈɛl.le]]] || lago [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈla.ɣ˕u]]] || [[w:Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|/l/]] || —

| [[w:M|M]], m || emme [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈẽ.me]]] || manno [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈmɐ̃.nu]]] || [[w:Voiced bilabial nasal|/m/]] || —

| [[w:N|N]], n || enne [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈẽ.ne]]] || nauþo [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈnɔ.θu]]] || [[w:Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals|/n/]] || —

| [[w:O|O]], o || o [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈɔ]]] || oþalȯ [[IPA for Luthic|[oˈθa.lo]]] || [[w:Close-mid back rounded vowel|/o/]], [[w:Close back rounded vowel|/u/]] or [[w:Open-mid back rounded vowel|/ɔ/]] || ô, ȯ

| [[w:P|P]], p || pi [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈpi]]] || paerþa [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈpɛɾ.t͡θɐ]]] || [[w:Voiceless bilabial plosive|/p/]] or [[w:Voiceless labiodental fricative|/f/]] || —

| [[w:Q|Q]], q || qoppa [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈkʷɔp.pɐ]]] || qaerþa [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈkᶣɛɾ.t͡θɐ]]] || [[w:Labialization|/kʷ/]] || —

| [[w:R|R]], r || erre [[IPA for Luthic|[ɛˈʀe]]] || raeda [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈʁɛ.ð̞ɐ]]] || [[w:Voiced uvular trill|/ʀ/]], [[w:Voiced uvular fricative|/ʁ/]] or [[w:Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps|/ɾ/]] || —

| [[w:S|S]], s || esse [[IPA for Luthic|[ɛsˈse]]] || sauila [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈsɔj.lɐ]]] || [[w:Voiceless alveolar fricative|/s/]], [[w:Voiceless alveolar affricate|/t͡s/]] or [[w:Voiced alveolar fricative|/z/]] || —

| [[w:T|T]], t || ti [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈti]]] || teivo [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈti.vu]]] || [[w:Voiceless dental plosive|/t/]] or [[w:Voiceless dental fricative|/θ/]] || —

| [[w:Thorn (letter)|Þ]], þ || eþþe [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈɛθ.θe]]] || þaurno [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈθɔɾ.nu]]] || [[w:Voiceless dental fricative|/θ/]] or [[w:Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate|/t͡θ/]] || —

| [[w:U|U]], u || u [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈu]]] || uro [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈu.ɾu]]] || [[w:Close back rounded vowel|/u/]] or [[w:Voiced labial–velar approximant|/w/]] || û, ü

| [[w:V|V]], v || vi [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈvi]]] || viġna [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈviɲ.ɲɐ]]] || [[w:Voiced labiodental fricative|/v/]] || —

[[File:Luthic keyboard.png|thumb|A Luthic computer keyboard layout.]]

Luthic has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by [[w:Length (phonetics)|length]] and intensity. Length is distinctive for all consonants except for [[w:Voiced alveolar affricate|/d͡z/]], [[w:Voiced palatal lateral approximant|/ʎ/]], [[w:Voiced palatal nasal|/ɲ/]] , which are always geminate when between vowels, and [[w:Voiced alveolar fricative|/z/]], which is always single. Geminate plosive and affricates are realised as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and [[w:Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants|/l/]] are realised as lengthened continuants. When triggered by [[w:Tuscan gorgia|Gorgia Toscana]], voiceless fricatives are always constrictive, but voiced fricatives are not very constrictive and often closer to approximants.

There is a maximum of 8 oral vowels, 5 nasal vowels, 2 semivowels and 41 consonants; though some varieties of the language have fewer phonemes. Gothic, Frankish, [[w:Suebi|northern Suebi]], Langobardic, [[w:Lepontic language|Lepontic]] and [[w:Cisalpine Gaulish|Cisalpine Gaulish]] ([[w:Roman Gaul|Roman Gaul]]) influences were highly absorbed into the local Vulgar Latin dialect. An early form of Luthic was already spoken in the Ostrogothic Kingdom during Theodoric’s reign and by the year 600 Luthic had already become the [[w:Vernacular|vernacular]] of Ravenna. Luthic developed in the region of the former Ostrogothic capital of Ravenna, from Late Latin dialects and Vulgar Latin. As Theodoric emerged as the new ruler of Italy, he upheld a Roman legal administration and scholarly culture while promoting a major building program across Italy, his cultural and architectural attention to Ravenna led to a most conserved dialect, resulting in modern Luthic.

* /i/ is close front unrounded [[w:Close front unrounded vowel|[i]]].

* /u/ is close back rounded [[w:Close back rounded vowel|[u]]].

* /e/ is close-mid front unrounded [[w:Close-mid front unrounded vowel|[e]]].

* /o/ is close-mid back rounded [[w:Close-mid back rounded vowel|[o]]].

* /ɛ/ has been variously described as mid front unrounded [[w:Open-mid front unrounded vowel|[ɛ̝]]] and open-mid front unrounded [[w:Open-mid front unrounded vowel|[ɛ]]].

* /ɔ/ is somewhat fronted open-mid back rounded [[w:Open-mid back rounded vowel|[ɔ̟]]].

* /ɐ/ is near-open central unrounded [[w:Near-open central vowel|[ɐ]]].

* /a/ has been variously described as open front unrounded [[w:Open central unrounded vowel|[a]]] and open central unrounded [[w:Open central unrounded vowel|[ä]]].

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 350px; "style="width: 350px; "

! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; "|Rising

| style="text-align: center;"|je

| style="text-align: center;"|jo

| style="text-align: center;"|jɔ

| style="text-align: center;"|wɛ

| style="text-align: center;"|wo

| style="text-align: center;"|wɔ

|}

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 350px; "

|+ '''Falling diphthongs of Standard Luthic'''

! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; "|Falling

| style="text-align: center;"|ɛj

| style="text-align: center;"|oj

| style="text-align: center;"|ow

| style="text-align: center;"|ɔw

|+ '''Rising triphthongs of Standard Luthic'''

! style="text-align: center; "|Rising

| style="text-align: center;"|jwo

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 350px; "

|+ '''Falling triphthongs of Standard Luthic'''

! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; "|Falling

| style="text-align: center;"|jɛj

| style="text-align: center;"|jɔj

| style="text-align: center;"|jɐj

| style="text-align: center;"|wɛj

| style="text-align: center;"|wɔj

| style="text-align: center;"|wɐj

| [[w:Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]], [[w:Aspirated consonant|pʰ]]

| [[w:Voiceless dental plosive|t]], [[w:Aspirated consonant|tʰ]]

| [[w:Voiceless velar plosive|k]], [[w:Aspirated consonant|kʰ]]

| [[w:Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]]

| [[w:Voiceless palatal fricative|ç]]

| [[w:Voiced labiodental fricative|v]]

| [[w:Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]

| [[w:Voiced uvular fricative|ʁ]]

| [[w:Voiceless labiodental affricate|(p͡f)]]

| [[w:Voiceless alveolar affricate|t͡s]] [[w:Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate|(t͡θ)]]

|

|

|

|

!rowspan=3| [[w:Approximant consonant|Approximant]]

| [[w:Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps|ɾ]]

** /p/, /pʰ/ and /b/ are purely labial.

** /t/, /tʰ/ and /d/ are laminal dentialveolar [[w:Laminal consonant|[t̻, t̻ʰ, d̻]]].

** /k/ and /ɡ/ are pre-velar [[w:Voiceless_velar_plosive#cite_note-1|[k̟, ɡ̟]]] before /i, e, ɛ, j/.

** /kʷ/ and /ɡʷ/ are palato-labialised [kᶣ, ɡᶣ] before /i, e, ɛ, j/.

** /f/ and /v/ are labiodental.

** /θ/ is dental.

** /x/ is velar, and only found when triggered by Gorgia Toscana.

** /h/ is glottal, but is in free variation with [x ~ ʁ], /h/ is palatal [ç] nearby /i, e, ɛ, j/. Word initial /h/ is often dropped off.

* '''Approximants, flap, trill and laterals:'''

** /ɾ/ is alveolar [ɾ].

** /ʀ/ is uvular [ʀ], but is in free variation with alveolar [[w:Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills|[r]]].

The most sonorous elements of the [[w:Syllable|syllable]] are [[w:Vowel|vowels]], which occupy the [[w:Nucleus (syllable)|nuclear]] position. They are prototypical [[w:Mora (linguistics)|mora]]-bearing elements, with simple vowels monomoraic, and long vowels bimoraic. Latin vowels occurred with one of five qualities and one of two weights, that is short and long /i e a o u/. At first, weight was realised by means of longer or shorter duration, and any articulatory differences were negligible, with the short:long opposition stable. Subtle articulatory differences eventually grow and lead to the abandonment of length, and reanalysis of vocal contrast is shifted solely to quality rather than both quality and quantity; specifically, the manifestation of weight as length came to include differences in tongue [[w:Vowel height|height]] and tenseness, and quite early on, /ī, ū/ began to differ from /ĭ, ŭ/ articulatorily, as did /ē, ō/ from /ĕ, ŏ/. The long vowels were stable, but the short vowels came to be realised lower and laxer, with the result that /ĭ, ŭ/ opened to [ɪ, ʊ], and /ĕ, ŏ/ opened to [ε, ɔ]. The result is the merger of Latin /ĭ, ŭ/ and /ē, ō/, since their contrast is now realised sufficiently be their distinct vowel quality, which would be easier to articulate and perceive than vowel duration.

| i iː ĩː

| u uː ũː

| e eː ẽː

| o oː õː

| ä äː ä̃ː

| ɪ iː ĩː

| ʊ uː ũː

| ε eː ẽː

| ɔ oː õː

| ä äː ä̃ː

Unstressed a resulted in a slightly raised a [ɐ]. In hiatus, unstressed front vowels become /j/, while unstressed back vowels become /w/.

In addition to monophthongs, Luthic has diphthongs, which, however, are both phonemically and phonetically simply combinations of the other vowels. None of the diphthongs are, however, considered to have distinct phonemic status since their constituents do not behave differently from how they occur in isolation, unlike the diphthongs in other languages like English and German. Grammatical tradition distinguishes “falling” from “rising” diphthongs, but since rising diphthongs are composed of one semiconsonantal sound [j] or [w] and one vowel sound, they are not actually diphthongs. The practice of referring to them as “diphthongs” has been criticised by phoneticians like Alareico Villavolfo.

* Latin ''aptus'' [ˈäp.t̪us̠ ~ ˈäp.t̪ʊs̠] > Luthic ''atto'' [ˈat.tu]

* Latin ''āctuālis'' [äːk.t̪uˈäː.lʲis̠ ~ äːk.t̪uˈäː.lʲɪs̠] > Luthic ''attuale'' [ɐtˈtwa.le]

* Gothic ''ahtau'' [ˈax.tɔː] > Luthic ''attau'' [ˈat.tɔ]

* Gothic ''nahts'' [naxts] > Luthic ''natto'' [ˈnat.tu]

This is the source of such alterations as modern Standard Luthic ''fimfe'' [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈfĩ.(p͡)fe]]] “five”, ''monþo'' [[IPA for Luthic|[ˈmõ.(t͡)θu]]] “mouth” versus Gothic [[wikt:𐍆𐌹𐌼𐍆|𐍆𐌹𐌼𐍆]] [[wikt:AP:pron:got|[ˈɸimɸ]]] “''id.''”, [[wikt:𐌼𐌿𐌽𐌸𐍃|𐌼𐌿𐌽𐌸𐍃]] [[wikt:AP:pron:got|[ˈmunθs]]] “''id.''” and German [[wikt:fünf|fünf]] [[wikt:AP:pron:de|[fʏnf]]] “''id.''”, [[wikt:Mund|Mund]] [[wikt:AP:pron:de|[mʊnt]]] “''id.''”.

The diphthongs au, ae and oe [[wikt:AP:pron:la|[au̯, ae̯, oe̯]]] were monophthongized (smoothed) to [ɔ, ɛ, e] by Gothic influence, as the Germanic diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ appear as digraphs written ⟨ai⟩ and ⟨au⟩ in Gothic. Researchers have disagreed over whether they were still pronounced as diphthongs /ai̯/ and /au̯/ in Ulfilas' time (4th century) or had become long open-mid vowels: /ɛː/ and /ɔː/: [[wikt:𐌰𐌹𐌽𐍃|𐌰𐌹𐌽𐍃]] (''ains'') [[wikt:AP:pron:got|[ains]]] / [[wikt:AP:pron:got|[ɛːns]]] “one” (German [[wikt:eins|''eins'']], Icelandic [[wikt:einn|''einn'']]), [[wikt:𐌰𐌿𐌲𐍉|𐌰𐌿𐌲𐍉]] (''augō'') [[wikt:AP:pron:got|[auɣoː]]] / [[wikt:AP:pron:got|[ɔːɣoː]]] “eye” (German [[wikt:Auge|''Auge'']], Icelandic [[wikt:auga|''auga'']]). It is most likely that the latter view is correct, as it is indisputable that the digraphs ⟨ai⟩ and ⟨au⟩ represent the sounds /ɛː/ and /ɔː/ in some circumstances (see below), and ⟨aj⟩ and ⟨aw⟩ were available to unambiguously represent the sounds /ai̯/ and /au̯/. The digraph ⟨aw⟩ is in fact used to represent /au/ in foreign words (such as [[wikt:𐍀𐌰𐍅𐌻𐌿𐍃|𐍀𐌰𐍅𐌻𐌿𐍃]] (''Pawlus'') “Paul”), and alternations between ⟨ai⟩/⟨aj⟩ and ⟨au⟩/⟨aw⟩ are scrupulously maintained in paradigms where both variants occur (e.g. [[wikt:𐍄𐌰𐌿𐌾𐌰𐌽|𐍄𐌰𐌿𐌾𐌰𐌽]] (''taujan'') “to do” vs. [[w:Past tense|past tense]] [[wikt:𐍄𐌰𐍅𐌹𐌳𐌰|𐍄𐌰𐍅𐌹𐌳𐌰]] (''tawida'') “did”). Evidence from transcriptions of Gothic names into Latin suggests that the sound change had occurred very recently when Gothic spelling was standardised: Gothic names with Germanic au are rendered with au in Latin until the 4th century and o later on (''Austrogoti'' > ''Ostrogoti'').

Early evidence of palatalized pronunciations of /tj kj/ appears as early as the 2nd–3rd centuries AD in the form of spelling mistakes interchanging ⟨ti⟩ and ⟨ci⟩ before a following vowel, as in ⟨tribunitiae⟩ for tribuniciae. This is assumed to reflect the fronting of Latin /k/ in this environment to [c ~ t͡sʲ]. Palatalisation of the velar consonants /k/ and /ɡ/ occurred in certain environments, mostly involving front vowels; additional palatalisation is also found in dental consonants /t/, /d/, /l/ and /n/, however, these are often not palatalised in word initial environment.

* Latin ''amīcus'' [äˈmiː.kus̠ ~ äˈmiː.kʊs̠], ''amīcī'' [äˈmiː.kiː] > Luthic ''amico'' [ɐˈmi.xu], ''amici'' [ɐˈmi.t͡ʃi].

* Gothic ''giba'' [ˈɡiβa] > Luthic ''geva'' [ˈd͡ʒe.vɐ].

* Latin ''ratiō'' [ˈrä.t̪i.oː] > Luthic ''razione'' [ʁɐˈd͡zjo.ne]

* Latin ''fīlius'' [ˈfiː.li.us̠ ~ ˈfiː.lʲi.ʊs̠] > Luthic ''fiġlo'' [ˈfiʎ.ʎu].

* Latin ''līnea'' [ˈliː.ne.ä ~ ˈlʲiː.ne.ä] , ''pugnus'' [ˈpuŋ.nus̠ ~ ˈpʊŋ.nʊs̠], ''ācrimōnia'' [äː.kriˈmoː.ni.ä ~ äː.krɪˈmoː.ni.ä] > Luthic ''liġna'' [ˈliɲ.ɲɐ], ''poġno'' [ˈpoɲ.ɲu], ''acremoġna'' [ɐ.kɾeˈmoɲ.ɲɐ].

* Latin ''quis'' [kʷis̠ ~ kʷɪs̠] > Luthic ''ce'' [t͡ʃe].

* Gothic ''qiman'' [ˈkʷiman] > Luthic ''qemare'' [kʷeˈma.ɾe ~ kᶣeˈma.ɾe].

In some cases, palatalisation occurs word initially, mainly if /kn/ is the initial cluster:

* Gothic ''knōþs'' [knoːθs] > Luthic ''ġnode'' [ˈɲo.ð̞e].

* Gothic ''kunnan'' [ˈkunːan], influenced by Latin ''(co)gnōscere'' [koŋˈnoːs̠.ke.re ~ kɔŋˈnoːs̠.kɛ.rɛ] and later Langobardic ''*knājan'' */ˈknaːjan/ > Luthic ''ġnoscere'' [ɲoʃˈʃe.ɾe]

* Langobardic ''*knohha'' /ˈknoxːa ~ ˈknɔxːa/ > Luthic ''ġnocco'' [ˈɲɔk.ku].

* Gothic ''kēlikn'' [ˈkeːlikn] > Luthic ''celecna'' [t͡ʃeˈlek.nɐ].

* Gothic ''auknan'' [ˈɔːknan] > Luthic ''aucnare'' [ɔkˈna.ɾe].

The Gotho-Romance family suffered very few lenitions, but in most cases the stops /p t k/ are lenited to /b d ɡ/ if not in onset position, before or after a sonorant or in intervocalic position as a geminate. A similar process happens with /b/ that is lenited to /v/ in the same conditions. The non-geminate rhotic present in Latin is simplified to /ɾ ʁ/. The unstressed labio-velar /kʷ/ delabialises before hard vowels, as in:

* Gothic ''ƕan'' [ʍan] > *[kʷɐn] > Luthic ''can'' [kɐn].

* Latin ''nunquam'' [ˈnuŋ.kʷä̃ː ~ ˈnʊŋ.kʷä̃ː] > Luthic ''nogca'' [ˈnoŋ.kɐ].

In every case, /j/ and /w/ are fortified to /d͡ʒ/ and /v/, except when triggered by hiatus collapse. The Germanic /ð/ and /xʷ ~ hʷ ~ ʍ/ are also fortified to /d/ and /kʷ/ in every position; which can be further lenited to /d͡z/ and /k ~ t͡ʃ/ in the environments given above. The Germanic /h ~ x/ is fortified to /k/ before a rhotic or a lateral, as in:

* Gothic ''hlaifs'' [ˈhlɛːɸs] > Luthic ''claefo'' [ˈklɛ.fu].

* Gothic ''hriggs'' [ˈhriŋɡs ~ ˈhriŋks] > Luthic ''creggo'' [ˈkɾeŋ.ɡu].

* ''Ed þû, ce taugis?'' [e‿θˈθu | t͡ʃe ˈtɔ.d͡ʒis].

* ''La cittâ stâþ sporca'' [lɐ t͡ʃitˈta‿sˈsta‿sˈspoɾ.kɐ].

 

 

* ''Il monþo'' [i‿mˈmõ.t͡θu].

* ''La salsa'' [lɐ ˈsal.t͡sɐ].

* ''L’arsenale'' [l‿ɐɾ.t͡seˈna.le].

In some rare cases, the consonants are fully deleted ([[w:Elision|elision]]), as in the verb ''havere'', akin to Italian ''avere'', which followed a very similar paradigm and evolution:

* 1st person indicative present: Latin ''habeō'', Gothic ''haba'', Luthic ''hô'', Italian ''ho''.

* 2nd person indicative present: Latin ''habēs'', Gothic ''habais'', Luthic ''hais'', Italian ''hai''.

* 3rd person indicative present: Latin ''habet'', Gothic ''habaiþ'', Luthic ''hâþ'', Italian ''ha''.

Vowels other than /a/ are often syncopated in unstressed word-internal syllables, especially when in contact with liquid consonants:

* Latin ''angulus'' [ˈäŋ.ɡu.ɫ̪us̠ ~ ˈäŋ.ɡʊ.ɫ̪ʊs̠] > Luthic ''agglo'' [ˈaŋ.ɡlu].

* Latin ''speculum'' [ˈs̠pɛ.ku.ɫ̪ũː ~ ˈs̠pɛ.kʊ.ɫ̪ũː] ~ Luthic ''speclȯ'' [ˈspɛ.klo].

* Latin ''avunculus'' [äˈu̯uŋ.ku.ɫ̪us̠ ~ äˈu̯ʊŋ.kʊ.ɫ̪ʊs̠] > Luthic ''avogclo'' [ɐˈvoŋ.klu].

Luthic allows up to three consonants in syllable-initial position, though there are limitations. The syllable structure of Luthic is (C)(C)(C)(G)V(G)(C)(C). As with English, there exist many words that begin with three consonants. Luthic lacks bimoraic (diphthongs and long vowels), as the so-called diphthongs are composed of one semiconsonantal (glide) sound [j] or [w].

| f v p b t d k ɡ || ɾ || j w

| s || p k || ɾ l

| s || f t || ɾ

| z || b || l

| z || d ɡ || ɾ

| z || m n v d͡ʒ ɾ l || —

| p b f v k ɡ || ɾ l || —

| ɡ || n l || —

| pʰ t tʰ kʰ d || ɾ || —

| θ || v ɾ || —

|kʷ ɡʷ t͡s t͡ʃ d͡ʒ ʃ h ð ʁ ɲ l ʎ || — || —  

* /s/ + any voiceless stop or /f/;

* /z/ + any voiced stop, /v d͡ʒ m n l ɾ/;

* /f v/, or any stop + /ɾ/;

* /f v/, or any stop except /t d/ + /l/;

* /f v s z/, or any stop or nasal + /j w/;

* In Graeco-Roman words origin which are only partially assimilated, other combinations such as /pn/ (e.g. ''pneumatico''), /mn/ (e.g. ''mnemonico''), /tm/ (e.g. ''tmesi''), and /ps/ (e.g. ''pseudo-'') occur.

As an onset, the cluster /s/ + voiceless consonant is inherently unstable. Phonetically, word-internal s+C normally syllabifies as [s.C]. A competing analysis accepts that while the syllabification /s.C/ is accurate historically, modern retreat of i-[[w:Prothesis (linguistics)|prosthesis]] before word initial /s/+C (e.g. ''miþ isforza'' “with effort” has generally given way to ''miþ sforzȧ'') suggests that the structure is now underdetermined, with occurrence of /s.C/ or /.sC/ variable “according to the context and the idiosyncratic behaviour of the speakers.”

* /s/ + voiceless stop or /f/ + /ɾ/;

* /z/ + voiced stop + /ɾ/;

* /s/ + /p k/ + /l/;

* /z/ + /b/ + /l/;

* /f v/ or any stop + /ɾ/ + /j w/.

| a ɐ e ɛ || i [j] u [w] || —

| o ɔ || i [j]|| —

| i [j] || e o || —

| i [j] || ɐ ɛ ɔ || i [j]

| i [j] || u [w] || o

| u [w] || ɐ ɛ ɔ || i [j]

| u [w] || e o || —

| u [w] || i || —

The nucleus is the only mandatory part of a syllable and must be a vowel or a diphthong. In a falling diphthong the most common second elements are /i̯/ or /u̯/. Combinations of /j w/ with vowels are often labelled diphthongs, allowing for combinations of /j w/ with falling diphthongs to be called triphthongs. One view holds that it is more accurate to label /j w/ as consonants and /jV wV/ as consonant-vowel sequences rather than rising diphthongs. In that interpretation, Luthic has only falling diphthongs (phonemically at least, cf. [[w:Synaeresis|Synaeresis]]) and no triphthongs.

| m n l ɾ || Cₓ

* A nasal consonant that is either /n/ (word-finally) or one that is homorganic to a following consonant.

* /ɾ/ and /l/.

* /s/ (though not before fricatives).

* ''rasda'' (ʀᴀ-sda ~ ʀᴀs-da) /ˈʁa.zdɐ ~ ˈʁaz.dɐ/;

* ''Italia'' (i-ᴛᴀ-lia) /iˈta.ljɐ];

* ''approssimativamente'' (ap-pros-si-ma-ti-va-ᴍᴇɴ-te) /ɐp.pɾos.si.mɐ.θi.vɐˈmen.te/.

* ''panzar'' + ''campo'' + ''vaġno'' > ''panzarcampovaġno'' (ᴘᴀɴ-zar-ᴄᴀᴍ-po-ᴠᴀ-ġno) /ˌpan.t͡sɐɾˌkam.poˈvaɲ.ɲu/;

* ''broþar'' + ''-scape'' > ''broþarscape'' (ʙʀᴏ-þar-sᴄᴀ-pe) /ˌbɾo.θɐɾˈska.fe/.

Luthic is a well-studied language, and multiple universities in Italy have departments devoted to Luthic or linguistics with active research projects on the language, mainly in Ravenna, such as the '''Linguistic Circle of Ravenna''' (Luthic: ''Creizzo Rasdavitascapetico Ravennai''; Italian: ''Circolo Linguistico di Ravenna'') at '''Ravenna University''', and there are many dictionaries and technological resources on the language. The language council ''Gafaurdo faul·la Rasda Lûthica'' also publishes research on the language both nationally and internationally. Academic descriptions of the language are published both in Luthic, Italian and English. The most complete grammar is the ''Grammatica ġli Lûthicae Rasdae'' (Grammar of the Luthic Language) by Alessandro Fiscar & Luca Vaġnar, and it is written in Luthic and contains over 800 pages. Multiple corpora of Luthic language data are available. The ''Luthic Online Dictionary project'' provides a curated corpus of 35,000 words.

The Ravenna School of Linguistics evolved around Giovanni Laggobardi and his developing theory of language in [[w:Structural linguistics|linguistic structuralism]]. Together with Soġnafreþo Rossi he founded the Circle of Linguistics of Ravenna in 1964, a group of linguists based on the model of the [[w:Prague Linguistic Circle|Prague Linguistic Circle]]. From 1970, Ravenna University offered courses in languages and philosophy but the students were unable to finish their studies without going to [[w:Accademia della Crusca|Accademia della Crusca]] for their final examinations.

* '''Ravenna University Circle of [[w:Phonological Development|Phonological Development]]''' (Luthic: ''Creizzo Sviluppi Phonologici giȧ Accademiȧ Ravennȧ'') was developed in 1990, however very little research has been done on the earliest stages of phonological development in Luthic.

* '''Ravenna University Circle of [[w:Theology|Theology]]''' (Luthic: ''Creizzo Theologiae giȧ Accademiȧ Ravennȧ'') was developed in 2000 in association with the [[w:Ravenna Cathedral|Ravenna Cathedral or Metropolitan Cathedral of the Resurrection of Our Lord Jesus Christ]] (Luthic: ''Cathedrale metropolitana deï Osstassi Unsari Siġnori Gesosi Christi''; Italian: ''Cattedrale metropolitana della Risurrezione di Nostro Signore Gesù Cristo; Duomo di Ravenna'').

Fricatives may appear: /f ~ v/ and /s/ (who can be further palatalised to /ʃ/), primarily at intervocalic position. Voice may become a distinctive feature at this stage. Onomatopoeiae are also produced, such as /aw aw/ for [[w:Bark|dog’s barking]]; /ow/, or preferably /aj/ for denoting pain. Production of trisyllabic words begins, such as C₁VC₂VC₃V. Consonant clusters are now present and are often subject to [[w:Consonant harmony|consonant harmony]], such as ''-mb-'', ''-nd-'' and ''-dɾ-''; however voiced-voiceless clusters are still rare, such as ''-mp-'' and ''-tɾ-''.

Approximately equal numbers of phones are now produced in word-initial and intervocalic position. Additions to the phonetic inventory are the voiced stop /ɡ/ and a few consonant clusters. Co-articulations are perceived, such as labio-velar plosives and the aspirated plosive series. Alveolars and bilabials are the two most common places of articulation. Labiodental and postalveolar production increases throughout development, while velar production decreases. Luthic lenitions also become evident, as more fricatives and approximants are produced. Children develop syllabic segmentation awareness earlier than phonemic segmentation awareness.

* ''Coda deletion:'' omission of general coda consonant and the final consonant in the word [kɐɾ] > [kɐ], [ˈbɾo.θɐɾ] > [ˈbɾo.θɐ] ([ˈbɾo]);

* ''Coalescence:'' adjacent consonants are merged into one with similar features [ˈzbaf.fu] > [ˈvaf.fu];

* ''Cluster reduction:'' consonant clusters are often simplifed into a single consonant [oˈʁek.klɐ] > [oˈʁel.lɐ] ([ˈʁel.lɐ]);

* ''Gliding:'' taps and liquids are replaced by a glide [ˈka.ɾu] > [ˈka.wu], [ˈaʎ.ʎo] > [ˈaj.jo].

|quote=''Aena lettura essenziale summȧ importanzȧ, inu andarogiugga.'' <br /> “An essential lecture, of the highest importance, without equivalents.”

: buono: veġlȯ vessare

: buonȯ: veġlȯ stare

: ac e buonȯ? veġlȯ mangiare!

Luthic grammar is almost typical of the grammar of Romance languages in general. Cases exist for personal pronouns (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive), and unlike other Romance languages (except Romanian), they also exist for nouns, but are often ignored in common speech, mainly because of the Italian influence, a language who lacks noun cases. There are three basic classes of nouns in Luthic, referred to as genders, masculine, feminine and neuter. Masculine nouns typically end in -o, with plural marked by -i, feminine nouns typically end in -a, with plural marked by -ae, and neuter nouns typically end in -ȯ, with plural marked by -a. A fourth category of nouns is [[w:Marker (linguistics)|unmarked]] for gender, ending in -e in the singular and -i in the plural; a variant of the unmarked declension is found ending in -r in the singular and -i in the plural, it lacks neuter nouns:

| Son || Masculine || Fiġlo || Fiġli

| Flower || Feminine || Bloma || Blomae

| Fruit || Neuter || Acranȯ || Acrana

| King || Masculine || Regġe || Regġi

| Father || Masculine || Fadar || Fadari

| Mother || Feminine || Modar || Modari

| dago

| hauviþȯ

| dagȯ

| hauviþȯ

| dagȧ

| gevȧ

| hauviþȧ

A small class of quasi-irregular nouns is found, itself being a variant of the unmarked class. The nominative forms always are [[w:Oxytone|oxytones]] and hide their consonant stem ''-d-''. These are often called d-stem:

! d-stem ^unm

! d-stem ^unm

! d-stem ^unm

! rowspan=2| 1^st person

! rowspan=2| 2^st person

!colspan=3| 3^rd person

| iȧ

| iȧ

| iȧ

! rowspan=2| 1^st person

! rowspan=2| 2^st person

!colspan=3| 3^rd person

| lȯ

| lȯ

| ġli

| ġle

| ġli

: ¹ before voiceless fricatives or sonorants

! rowspan=2| 1^st person

! rowspan=2| 2^st person

!colspan=3| 3^rd person

| inȯ

| iȧ

| iȧ

| iȧ

!colspan=3| 1^st person singular

!colspan=3| 2^st person singular