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Ckul: Difference between revisions
→Grammar
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== Grammar == | == Grammar == | ||
Ckul has singular, dual, plural. All are formed by prefix | Particles that cause lenition when they immediately precede their head are written with a + sign. Verbal affixes are written with angles brackets. | ||
* '''du+''' (from ''duo'') makes the dual | === Affixes === | ||
* '''flu+''' (from ''plūrēs'') makes the plural | Ckul has singular, dual, plural. All are formed by prefix: | ||
* The lexical form is the singular, in almost every case. | |||
* '''{{C|du+}}''' (from ''duo'') makes the dual. | |||
* '''{{C|flu+}}''' (from ''plūrēs'') makes the plural. | |||
The case system is highly regular, all suffixing: | |||
* The lexical form is the absolutive. This is the subject of an intransitive verb or the patient of a transitive verb. | |||
* '''-i''' for the dative. This is the collapse of the old genitive, dative, and ablative. | |||
* '''-(u)n''' for the ergative. This is the actor in a transitive clause. | |||
Apart from these few forms and the prenouns, almost every other affix in the language is able to precede or follow its head. When it is not ambiguous, heads and their modifiers may be some distance apart. This means the language is moderately to heavily non-configurational. When attributive, adjectives agree with their noun-head. When predicative, they use the lexical form. There is no gender. | |||
The vocative is accomplished through intonation or the particle '''{{C|ma}}'''. | |||
=== Nouns === | === Nouns === | ||
Ckul nouns show three case endings (absolutive, ergative, and dative), and two case-like structures (genitive and topical). There are three numbers: singular, dual, and plural. | Ckul nouns show three case endings (absolutive, ergative, and dative), and two case-like structures (genitive and topical). There are three numbers: singular, dual, and plural. | ||
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|} | |} | ||
The mutating prenoun '''{{C|ly+}}''' can mean "this" or "the". Similarly, '''{{C|cy+}}''' can mean "that" or "this". Other determiners include possessive pronouns, and quantifiers | The mutating prenoun '''{{C|ly+}}''' can mean "this" or "the". Similarly, '''{{C|cy+}}''' can mean "that" or "this". Other determiners include possessive pronouns, and quantifiers. The prenoun '''{{C|cwi+}}''' makes the sentence into a non-polar question. (The particle '''{{C|srag}}''' makes the sentence a polar question.) | ||
{| class="wikitable style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Deixis 1 !! Distr. !! Number !! Genus !! <head> !! Deixis 2 | |||
|- | |||
| ly+ <br/> cy+ <br/> cwi+ | |||
| 'om(ñ)- <br/> kæd | |||
| du+ <br/> flu+ | |||
| genr(r)- | |||
| | |||
| ly+ <br/> cy+ <br/> cwi+ | |||
|} | |||
=== Pronoun === | === Pronoun === | ||
Pronouns inflect as noun do, but also have a dedicated genitive adjective. [[Contionary:≪he≫|≪he≫]] is the infix of honor/humility for pronouns, and always appear just before the case ending (or at the end for the absolutive). | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
! | ! | ||
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=== Adjectives === | === Adjectives === | ||
=== Verbs === | === Verbs === | ||
Lexical entries for verbs look different from other words because the contain middle dots where the second and third infix locations are. | Lexical entries for verbs look different from other words because the contain middle dots where the second and third infix locations are. TAM particles are typically infixes in the verb, though some are exclusively suffixes and other exclusively prefixing. There is a slight tendency to put the verb last, but it is not a majority of utterances. Verbs are strictly transitive or intransitive, and may not delete an argument unless it is very clear from context (e.g. imperatives, or after a topic has been set). | ||
==== Slot 1 ==== | |||
In almost all verbs, the position for the valency-altering affixes is before the beginning, i.e. prefixing. It is still marked with a middle dot in the lexicon, making verbs easy to spot. | |||
Only one or one of the following may occur: | |||
* '''{{Infix|fæ}}''' - causative | |||
* '''{{Infix|se}}''' - reflexive/middle | |||
* '''{{Infix|hi}}''' - passive | |||
In the same slot, the subjunctive affixes may co-occur with the previous (or not): | |||
* '''{{Infix|sì}}''' - positive irrealis | |||
* '''{{Infix|ne}}''' - negative irrealis | |||
Subjunctives are considered the polite imperative. | |||
=== Slot 2 === | |||
Typically coming after the first vowel of the verb, slot 2 conveys tense and aspect. ≪null≫ is present imperfective. | |||
* '''{{Infix|wy}}''' - simple past (preterite) | |||
* '''{{Infix|wa}}''' - imperfective past (imperfect) | |||
* '''{{Infix|re}}''' - perfective past (pluperfect) | |||
* '''{{Infix|sdi}}''' - present perfect (perfect) | |||
* '''{{Infix|wi}}''' - future imperfective (future) | |||
* '''{{Infix|weri}}''' - future perfective (future perfect) | |||
=== Slot 3 === | |||
Almost always simply suffixing, slot 3 conveys mirativity, honor, and/or evidentiality. | |||
* '''{{Infix|an}}''' - positive mirativity | |||
* '''{{Infix|im}}''' - positive mirativity and indirect evidentiality | |||
* '''{{Infix|i}}''' - formal register | |||
* '''{{Infix|id}}''' - formal register and indirect evidentiality | |||
* '''{{Infix|ur}}''' - negative mirativity | |||
* '''{{Infix|uñ}}''' - negative mirativity and indirect evidentiality | |||
Notice that this means ≪null≫ here is neutral mirativity, informal register, and direct evidentiality. | |||
== Sample Texts == | == Sample Texts == | ||