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===Orthography===
===Orthography===


Hutala is written with the Latin alphabet, excluding the letter C. Diacritics can be used to indicate stressed vowels : á, é, í, ó, ú, but they are often omitted. They will be used in this article.
Hútala is written with the Latin alphabet. Diacritics can be used to indicate stressed vowels : á, é, í, ó, ú, but they are often omitted. They will be used in this article.


<poem>
<poem>
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H h /h/
H h /h/
I i /i/
I i /i/
Dj dj /d͡ʒ/ (J, j is an alternative spelling that fell into disuse by analogy with Tx, tx).
J j /ʒ/
K k /k/
K k /k/
L l /l/
L l /l/
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===Consonants===
===Consonants===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|Bilabial
!colspan="2"|Labio-dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Glottal
|-
!colspan="2"| Nasal
|colspan="2"| m
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| n
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ŋ
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"| Plosive
|colspan="2"| p b
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t d
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| k g
|colspan="2"| ʔ
|-
!colspan="2"| Fricative
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| f v
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| s z
|colspan="2"| ʃ ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| h
|-
!colspan="2"|Approximant
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j
|colspan="2"| w
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| r
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Affricate
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| t͡s d͡z
|colspan="2"| t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| l
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|}


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|Front
! colspan="2"|Central
! colspan="2"|Back
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|o
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|a
|colspan="2"|
|}
===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Stress====
====Stress====
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===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
The syllable underlying structure is most usually (C)V, but consonant clusters can appear at the surface in morpheme boundaries as a result of derivative and especially of inflectional morphology. Consequently, such clusters only show up word-internally and are limited to two consonantal phonemes. However, there is no restriction on the consonants which can make up the cluster, or on their identity as C1 or C2. On the other hand, there are phenomena of voice assimilation : if one of the consonants is voiced and the other unvoiced, the voiced one gets devoiced, unless it is a nasal (although some level of devoicing might be observed in practice for nasals too). There is also an assimilation of place of articulation of the nasals /n/ and /ŋ/ and their homorganic counterparts.
A word or a syllable can start with any phoneme. On the other hand, coda consonants or consonants at the end of a word are rare and diachronically restricted to nasals and stridents, but in synchronic, spoken Hútala, other coda consonants have appeared as a consequence of the elision of final vowels.
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
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-->
-->
===Nouns===
Hútala has so-called noun classes. There are 12 singular noun classes and 12 corresponding plural noun classes. They are numbered as follows : CL1a to CL12a for the singular, and CL1b to CL12b for the plural. Class is marked on the noun by a prefix ; every noun belongs to one class, often following some semantic grouping. Adjectives and verbs agree in class with the noun and are marked in the same way.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Noun Class !! Singular !! Plural
|-
| CL1 : human/sentient || hu- || hi-
|-
| CL2 : land animals || ma- || me-
|-
| CL3 : sea and sky animals || ba- || be-
|-
| CL4 : bugs || za- || ze-
|-
| CL5 : sweet edible plants || su- || ʃi-
|-
| CL6 : savory edible plants || sa- || se-
|-
| CL7 : sensations/feelings || se- || sei-
|-
| CL8 : tools, useful objects || ʔu- || ʔi-
|-
| CL9 : clothes, buildings || ro- || ra-
|-
| CL10 : other artefacts, dishes || de- || d͡ʒi-
|-
| CL11 : soft, warm, light || ru- || rui-
|-
| CL12 : hard, cold, dark || t͡ʃo- || t͡ʃa-
|}
Thus, nouns are marked for class, and consequently for number, but also for definiteness. As has already been mentioned above, class is marked by a prefix ; definiteness, however, is marked by a suffix : CL-noun-DEF. There are four definiteness suffixes to choose from ; historically, they correspond to the fusion of two "sorts" of definiteness for which the noun had to be marked. The first kind of definiteness, DEF1, corresponds to whether the referent is known or has been mentioned, or if on the contrary it is unknown or new in the conversation. The second kind of definiteness, DEF2, corresponds to whether the referent is a specific one, or instead a typical, unspecified one. Morphosyntactically, the noun inflectional structure would be : CL-noun-DEF1-DEF2. In the pair "specified vs typical", typicality was unmarked, so that eventually the morphemes DEF1 and DEF2 fusionned into 4 definiteness morphemes such that DEF1 would be either unmarked or marked for specificity.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Definiteness !! Suffix
|-
| known/mentioned ; typical || -nde
|-
| known/mentioned ; specific || -nd͡ʒi
|-
| unknown/new ; typical || -t͡sa
|-
| unknown/new ; specific || -t͡se
|}
===Verbs===
Verbs are marked for class, polarity, evidentiality, volition, frequency, tense, aspect and mode : CL-POL-EVD-verb stem-VOL-FRQ-TAM
====Class====
Class is a mark of agreement with the subject noun. However, there is no marking for class in the case of the passive voice. The prefixes are the same as for nouns, but there is some degree of fusion with the following affixes.
====Polarity====
Polarity has three values : affirmative, negative, and neutral, which is unmarked and used for questions and irrealis modality.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Value !! Affix
|-
| affirmative || ʃi-
|-
| negative || no-
|-
| neutral || -
|}
====Evidentiality====
Evidentiality also has three values : whether someone knows something from perceiving it with their own senses, or instead from a source of authority (this typically includes professors, scientists, books...) or from simple hearsay. Verbs are also not marked for evidentiality in the case of questions or irrealis.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Source of evidence !! Affix
|-
| senses, perception || tu-
|-
| authority || kit-
|-
| hearsay || ded-
|}
====Volition====
Volition has only two values : an action is voluntary/controlled, or it is unvoluntary/out of one's control.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Value !! Affix
|-
| controlled, voluntary || -wi
|-
| uncontrolled, unvoluntary || -t͡sa
|}
====Frequency====
Frequency also has only two values : occasional vs repetitive.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Value !! Affix
|-
| occasional || -ŋa
|-
| repetitive, recurrent || -ses
|}
====Tense and Aspect====
There are four values for the past tense ; two values for the present, one of which corresponds rather to the progressive aspect ; and three values for the future, one of which corresponds rather to the inchoative aspect.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Value !! Affix
|-
| immemorial past || -suʃ
|-
| further past || -fa
|-
| recent past || -te
|-
| earlier in the day || -kate ; -kaʔ
|-
| going on / progressive || kiŋa ; -ŋa
|-
| present, habitual present || -
|-
| about to start / inchoative || -koa
|-
| near future || -re
|-
| far future || -sar
|}
====Allomorphy and surface form====
In practice, there is a lot of boundaries fusion going on between the affixes, so that the surface forms are different from the mere agglutination of the inflectional affixes.
Before the verb root : CL-POL-EVD
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Class !! POL:aff, EVD:sense !! POL:neg, EVD:sense !! POL:aff, EVD:auth !! POL:neg, EVD:auth !! POL:aff, EVD:hearsay !! POL:neg, EVD:hearsay
|-
| CL1a || 'huʃtu || 'huntu || hu'ʃ:it || 'huŋkit || 'huʒded || 'hunded
|-
| CL1b || 'ʃ:itu || 'hintu || hi'ʃ:it || 'hiŋkit || 'ʃ:ided || 'hinded
|-
| CL2a || 'maʃtu || 'mantu || ma'ʃ:it || 'maŋkit || 'maʒded || 'manded
|-
| CL2b || 'meʃtu || 'mentu || me'ʃ:it || 'meŋkit || 'meʒded || 'mended
|-
| CL3a || 'baʃtu || 'bantu || ba'ʃ:it || 'baŋkit || 'baʒded || 'banded
|-
| CL3b || 'beʃtu || 'bentu || be'ʃ:it || 'beŋkit || 'beʒded || 'bended
|-
| CL4a || 'zaʃtu || 'zantu || za'ʃ:it || 'zaŋkit || 'zaʒded || 'zanded
|-
| CL4b || 'zeʃtu || 'zentu || ze'ʃ:it || 'zeŋkit || 'zeʒded || 'zended
|-
| CL5a || 'suʃtu || 'suntu || su'ʃ:it || 'suŋkit || 'suʒded || 'sunded
|-
| CL5b || 'ʃiʃtu || 'ʃintu || ʃ:it || 'ʃiŋ̍kit || 'ʒided || 'ʃinded
|-
| CL6a || 'saʃtu || 'santu || sa'ʃ:it || 'saŋ̍kit || 'saʒded || 'sanded
|-
| CL6b || 'seʃtu || 'sentu || se'ʃ:it || 'seŋkit || 'seʒded || 'sended
|-
| CL7a || 'seʃtu || 'sentu || se'ʃ:it || 'seŋkit || 'seʒded || 'sended
|-
| CL7b || 'seiʃtu || 'seintu || 'seiʃit || 'seiŋkit || 'seiʒded || 'seinded
|-
| CL8a || 'ʔuʃtu || 'ʔuntu || ʔu'ʃ:it || 'ʔuŋkit || 'ʔuʒded || 'ʔunded
|-
| CL8b || 'ʔiʃtu || 'ʔintu || ʔi'ʃ:it || 'ʔiŋkit || 'ʔiʒded || 'ʔinded
|-
| CL9a || 'roʃtu || 'rontu || ro'ʃ:it || 'roŋkit || 'roʒded || 'ronded
|-
| CL9b || 'raʃtu || 'rantu || ra'ʃ:it || 'raŋkit || 'raʒded || 'randed
|-
| CL10a || 'deʃtu || 'dentu || de'ʃ:it || 'deŋkit || 'deʒded || 'dended
|-
| CL10b || 't͡ʃi:tu || 'd͡ʒintu || 't͡ʃi:ʃit || 'd͡ʒiŋkit || 'd͡ʒiʒded || 'd͡ʒinded
|-
| CL11a || 'ruʃtu || 'runtu || ru'ʃ:it || 'ruŋkit || 'ruʒded || 'runded
|-
| CL11b || 'ruiʃtu || 'ruindu || 'ruiʃit || 'ruiŋkit || 'ruiʒded || ruinded
|-
| CL12a || 't͡ʃ:oitu || 't͡ʃontu || 't͡ʃ:oikit || 't͡ʃoŋkit || 't͡ʃ:oided || 't͡ʃonded
|-
| CL12b || 't͡ʃ:etu || 't͡ʃantu || 't͡ʃ:ekit || 't͡ʃaŋkit || 't͡ʃ:eded || 't͡ʃanded
|}
After the verb root : VOL-FRQ-TAM
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! FRQ/TAM !! VOL: voluntary, controlled !! VOL: involuntary, uncontrolled
|-
| FRQ:occ, TAM:immemorial || 'winsuʃ || 't͡sansuʃ
|-
| FRQ:occ, TAM:far past || 'wimfa || 't͡samfa
|-
| FRQ:occ, TAM:recent past || 'winte || 't͡sante
|-
| FRQ:occ, TAM:earlier || 'wiŋkate ; wiŋ'kaʔ || 't͡saŋkate ; t͡saŋ'kaʔ
|-
| FRQ:occ, TAM:progressive || wi'ŋ:iŋa ; 'wiŋ:a || t͡sa'ŋ:iŋa ; t͡sa'iŋ:a
|-
| FRQ:occ, TAM:present || 'wiŋa ; wiŋ || 't͡saŋa ; t͡saŋ
|-
| FRQ:occ, TAM:inchoative || 'wiŋkoa ; 'wiŋka || 't͡saŋkoa ; 't͡saŋka
|-
| FRQ:occ, TAM:near future || 'wiŋgre || 't͡saŋgre
|-
| FRQ:occ, TAM:far future || 'winsar || 't͡sansar
|-
| FRQ:rep, TAM:immemorial || 'wis:uʃ || 't͡sas:uʃ
|-
| FRQ:rep, TAM:far past || 'wis:fa || 't͡sas:fa
|-
| FRQ:rep, TAM:recent past || 'wis:te || 't͡sas:te
|-
| FRQ:rep, TAM:earlier || 'wis:kate ; wis'kaʔ || 't͡sas:kate ; t͡sas'kaʔ
|-
| FRQ:rep, TAM:progressive || wi's:iŋa || t͡sa's:iŋa ; 't͡s:iŋa
|-
| FRQ:rep, TAM:present || 'wises ; wis: || 't͡sases ; t͡sas:
|-
| FRQ:rep, TAM:inchoative || 'wis:koa ; 'wis:ka || 't͡sas:koa ; 't͡sas:ka
|-
| FRQ:rep, TAM:near future || 'wis:re || 't͡sas:re
|-
| FRQ:rep, TAM:far future || 'wis:ar || 't͡sas:ar
|}
Also, while the root form of a verb usually follows a CVCV pattern, if there is more than one syllable, the last vowel is dropped.
===Adjectives===
Adjectives qualify nouns. As such, they agree with the noun they qualify in class and, depending on the syntax, in definiteness : while usually placed immediately before the noun and not marked for definiteness, for emphatic or poetic purposes it can be placed after the noun and is then marked for definiteness, in agreement with the noun.
===Adverbs===
Adverbs qualify verbs or adjectives. They are usually placed before the verb or adjective they qualify. Adverbs and adjectives are usually formed on the same lexical base and differ formally only by which inflectional marks of agreement they take. When an adverb qualifies a verb, then it agrees with the verb in polarity and tense : POL-root-TAM. When an adverb qualifies an adjective, then it agrees with the adjective in class, and with the verb of the sentence in polarity, if applicable : CL-POL-root.


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
The basic constituent order for transitive phrases is SVO, while for intransitive phrases it is VS. It is also VS for expressions in the passive voice.
Constituent order changes in the case of questions : they are verb-final, so that we get SOV and SV.
===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
Most usually, the adjective precedes the noun. In this case, the adjective is not marked for definiteness. For emphatic or poetic effects, the adjective will follow the noun, in which case it will be marked for definiteness, in agreement with the noun. If an adverb qualifies an adjective, then it will be placed between the noun and the adjective.
NP : (Adj) (Adv) N or N (Adv) (Adj)
===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
If an adverb qualifies a verb, it usually precedes it.
===Sentence phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
===Questions===
SYntactically, questions are formed by placing the verb in final position : SV, SOV. Verbs are not marked for polarity or evidentiality : CL-root-VOL-FRQ-TAM
===Passive voice===
The passive voice is formed by placing the "patient" in a subject position and not marking the verb for class.


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
Uvie
103

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