Anbirese/Syntax: Difference between revisions
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The overall syntax of Anbirese resembles that of [[w:Irish|Irish]] or [[w:Biblical Hebrew|Biblical Hebrew]]. | The overall syntax of Anbirese resembles that of [[w:Irish|Irish]] or [[w:Biblical Hebrew|Biblical Hebrew]]. Anbirese is particularly rich in non-finite subordinate clause constructions, which may be used when English uses subordinate clauses with finite verbs. | ||
==Constituent order== | ==Constituent order== | ||
Anbirese is almost completely head-initial, except for compound words which are head-final. The constituent order is VSO. | Anbirese is almost completely head-initial, except for compound words which are head-final. The constituent order is VSO. Question words may be placed before the verb, after the subject, or after the direct object. However, no constituent may come between the verb and the subject, unlike in Hebrew. Like Irish and unlike Eevo, Anbirese is far from being topic-prominent, and is more focus-prominent. | ||
{{gloss | {{gloss | ||
|phrase=Þjeon ael | |phrase=Þjeon s' ael skidngeo ljeonngeo? | ||
|gloss=why love/PRES 2SG-EMPH ACC-1SG-EMPH | |gloss=why REL love/PRES 2SG-EMPH ACC-1SG-EMPH | ||
|IPA=/ | |IPA=/ɕɔ̀n s‿ɛw skìdNə jɔ̀nNə/ | ||
|translation=Why do *you* love *me*? | |translation=Why do *you* love *me*? | ||
}} | }} | ||
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Adjectives always follow their head nouns. | Adjectives always follow their head nouns. | ||
:''''' | :'''''eo skradeui flum''''' | ||
:''the black spider'' | :''the black spider'' | ||
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===Negation and other preverbs=== | ===Negation and other preverbs=== | ||
*interrogative: ''is-N'' | *interrogative: ''is-N'' | ||
*negative: '' | *negative: ''θri-L'' | ||
*prohibitive: ''ta-L'' | |||
===Infinitive absolute=== | ===Infinitive absolute=== | ||
Similar to the infinitive absolute in [[w:Biblical Hebrew|Biblical Hebrew]], [bare infinitive] + ''a'' + [finite verb] + SUBJECT [lit. it is a VERBing that SUBJECT VERBs] is an emphatic construction meaning 'surely/indeed VERBs; VERBs anyway'. The conjunct/imperative form is used for the finite verb instead of the absolute. | |||
:'''''Flis subdeor a subdeoram ljeoz djeo padleo.''''' | |||
:but send.BARE_INF A send-1PL.EXC ACC-it anyway | |||
:''But we're going to send it anyway.'' | |||
The infinitive absolute is much more common in Anbirese than in [[Skellan]], where it is a bit literary. | |||
===Circumstantial verbs=== | ===Circumstantial verbs=== | ||
djeo + VN: ''Xjerin | Circumstantial verbs are formed with djeo + VN: | ||
*''Xjerin u xjer djeo hngima eos djeo ṁoela'' = 'He entered praising and thanking' | |||
===Accusative with infinitive=== | |||
The accusative particle ''ljeo'' can be used to introduce the subject of a dependent clause. The verb of the dependent clause is preceded by the particle ''ae'' 'to'. | |||
:'''''Togni na ljeo mród ae slang aeb Inθár.''''' | |||
:think-PRES 1SG ACC apple-PL INF good to Inθar. | |||
:''I think Inθar likes apples.'' | |||
==Sentence phrase== | ==Sentence phrase== | ||
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When the subject is a definite noun, the pronoun is not mandatory with predicative adjectives: | When the subject is a definite noun, the pronoun is not mandatory with predicative adjectives: | ||
:'''''Ard hi eo | :'''''Ard (hi) eo skuil.''''' | ||
:/aɾd çi ə | :/aɾd (çi) ə skuiɴ/ | ||
:''The woman is tall.'' | :''The woman is tall.'' | ||
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:''She is tall.'' | :''She is tall.'' | ||
Predicate adjectives are negated by placing '' | Predicate adjectives are negated by placing ''θjeor(-L)'' in front of the adjective: | ||
:'' | :''Θjeor on na lu xvin θjeor bjoleoct hu.'' | ||
:/ɕɔɾ un na lü | :/ɕɔɾ un na lü xwin ɕɔɾ bjuwɔkt hü/ | ||
The construction ''lid'' + subject + ''djeo'' + adjective may also be used in literary writing. | The construction ''lid'' + subject + ''djeo'' + adjective may also be used in literary writing. | ||
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On the other hand, a predicate noun has the "logical subject" placed after the preposition ''djeo'' + pronoun. | On the other hand, a predicate noun has the "logical subject" placed after the preposition ''djeo'' + pronoun. | ||
:''''' | :'''''Sjeoθma dju xeozir.''''' | ||
:''A flower is a plant.'' | :''A flower is a plant.'' | ||
:''''' | :'''''Sjeoθma dju.''''' | ||
:''It's a plant.'' (lit. ''A plant is in it.'') | :''It's a plant.'' (lit. ''A plant is in it.'') | ||
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'''''Lid na djeon svar.''''' = 'I'm in the house.' | '''''Lid na djeon svar.''''' = 'I'm in the house.' | ||
'''''Lid eo nghéozir | '''''Lid eo nghéozir aemna.''''' = 'The flowers are mine.' | ||
===Existential sentences=== | ===Existential sentences=== | ||
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"X has" uses a similar construction to existentials: | "X has" uses a similar construction to existentials: | ||
:''''' | :'''''Lid sob ljeona.''''' | ||
:to-1SG dog | :to-1SG dog | ||
:''I have a dog.'' (lit. To me is a dog.) | :''I have a dog.'' (lit. To me is a dog.) | ||
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Who- and what-questions use cleft constructions, using the interrogative in conjunction with a relative clause describing it. | Who- and what-questions use cleft constructions, using the interrogative in conjunction with a relative clause describing it. | ||
*'' | *''Θva (n) forx eo svas?'' = Who feeds the man? (lit. Who is it that feeds...) | ||
*'' | *''Θva rjeo vforx eo svas?'' = Whom does the man feed? | ||
In the preterite: | In the preterite: | ||
*'' | *''Θva rjeo vforxin um eo svas?'' = Who fed the man? | ||
*'' | *''Θva rjeo vforxin u n svas?'' = Whom did the man feed? | ||
===Conjunctions=== | ===Conjunctions=== | ||
*{{abbtip|/ | *{{abbtip|/əs/|''eos''}}: 'and' | ||
*{{abbtip|/ | *{{abbtip|/sü/|''su''}}: 'or' | ||
*'' | *''ju'' = nor | ||
*{{abbtip|/ | *{{abbtip|/sun/|''son''}}: 'but' | ||
*{{abbtip|/ | *{{abbtip|/rjə/|''rjeo''}}: 'that (relative clause)' | ||
*{{abbtip|/ | *{{abbtip|/ˈɾinjə/|''rinjeo''}}: negative form of ''ri'' | ||
*{{abbtip|/ | *{{abbtip|/va/|''va''}}: 'that (complement clause)' | ||
*{{abbtip|/ | *{{abbtip|/xwin/|''xvin''}}: because | ||
*{{abbtip|/dʑer/|''djer''}}: when | |||
*{{abbtip|/ | *''xvart'' = then | ||
*'' | |||
===Answers to yes-no questions=== | ===Answers to yes-no questions=== | ||
Anbirese does not have a word for 'yes'; instead, the verb is repeated. The word for 'no' is ''θjeor''. | |||
===Wishes/Jussive=== | |||
Wishes can be formed by using ''θumi'' (< Tigol ''tuaḃ ṁa mít'' 'who will grant') before a verb in the non-past tense. | |||
==Dependent clauses== | ==Dependent clauses== | ||
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Anbirese makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses. | Anbirese makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses. | ||
The relativizer '' | The relativizer ''rjeo''<sup>N</sup> ''rjeon'' before vowels, negative ''rinjeo'') is used for restrictive relative clauses. A resumptive pronoun may be used when the head is not the subject of the relative clause, and is mandatory when the head is a prepositional object or a possessor. For clarity, the emphatic clitic ''-neo'' may be added to the resumptive pronoun, especially in formal registers. | ||
Verbs in relative clauses may be placed anywhere within the relative clause, subject to the constraint that the verb and (syntactic) subject may not be separated unless the head of the relative clause is the subject. If the head of the relative clause is its subject, then the appropriate participial form of the verb is mutated or inflected like an adjective. Otherwise, the relativizer '' | Verbs in relative clauses may be placed anywhere within the relative clause, subject to the constraint that the verb and (syntactic) subject may not be separated unless the head of the relative clause is the subject. If the head of the relative clause is its subject, then the appropriate participial form of the verb is mutated or inflected like an adjective. Otherwise, the relativizer ''rjeo-N'' is used. | ||
:''''' | :'''''eo ljést n tozneui kvial''''' | ||
:''the spirit that endures suffering'' (lit. the spirit enduring suffering) | :''the spirit that endures suffering'' (lit. the spirit enduring suffering) | ||
:''''' | :'''''eo ljést rjeo zlaez hi (lje(neo))''''' | ||
:''the spirit that she shows'' | :''the spirit that she shows'' | ||
:''''' | :'''''eo ljést rjeo nhrae hi di(neo)''''' | ||
:''the spirit she believes in'' (lit. the spirit that she believes in it) | :''the spirit she believes in'' (lit. the spirit that she believes in it) | ||
In the past tense, a participle modifying the head as an adjective puts the head into a ''patient'' role in the relative clause (by split ergativity). Hence, agents of a transitive verb must use the preposition '' | In the past tense, a participle modifying the head as an adjective puts the head into a ''patient'' role in the relative clause (by split ergativity). Hence, agents of a transitive verb must use the preposition ''u'' plus a resumptive pronoun. | ||
:''''' | :'''''Goli n slán (rjeon) éorngin una stang.''''' | ||
:''The number I got was 6.'' | :''The number I got was 6.'' | ||
In poetry, verbs in '' | In poetry, verbs in ''rjeo''-clauses may appear in any position after the ''rjeo''. | ||
A non-restrictive relative clause is marked with a pause (rendered as a dash "–") before the relative clause. | A non-restrictive relative clause is marked with a pause (rendered as a dash "–") before the relative clause -- no conjunction is used. | ||
Nominalized relative clauses use '' | Nominalized relative clauses use ''kvar'' 'those': | ||
:''''' | :'''''kvar eo mimó jeo''''' | ||
:''those who misuse it'' | :''those who misuse it'' | ||
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There are two ways of forming time clauses. | There are two ways of forming time clauses. | ||
The first construction is a clause introduced with a time conjunction such as ('' | The first construction is a clause introduced with a time conjunction such as (''djer'' = 'when') and using a finite verb form (i.e. the verb form is used with a subject). | ||
The second construction is a clause introduced with a preposition (such as ''ar'' = 'upon') followed by the verbal noun which may take a possessive prefix for the subject. Thus the non-finite time clause marks aspect or tense relative to the tense of the main clause rather than absolute tense. Non-finite time clauses are considered a little more literary than finite time clauses. | The second construction is a clause introduced with a preposition (such as ''ar'' = 'upon') followed by the verbal noun which may take a possessive prefix for the subject. Thus the non-finite time clause marks aspect or tense relative to the tense of the main clause rather than absolute tense. Non-finite time clauses are considered a little more literary than finite time clauses. | ||
An example with ''djeo'' 'at': | |||
:'''''djeo argjeoran na ar eo lóegu'm''''' | |||
:at keep_watch.IPFV-1SG 1SG on DEF stuff-3SG.M 3SG.M | |||
:''when I was keeping watch on his things'' | |||
===Infinitive clauses=== | ===Infinitive clauses=== | ||
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For emphasizing the object, "want/need/etc. an X to Y", a resumptive pronoun can be used after the verbal noun. (Alternatively the emphatic clitic -nna can be used on X.) | For emphasizing the object, "want/need/etc. an X to Y", a resumptive pronoun can be used after the verbal noun. (Alternatively the emphatic clitic -nna can be used on X.) | ||
:''''' | :'''''Gjelna tanneo eo djeosk ljeoz!''''' | ||
: | :want-1SG something to eat.VN 3SG.N-DEP | ||
:''I want something to eat!'' | :''I want something to eat!'' | ||
:''''' | :'''''Tri harngin aemna, ljeoz eo aegir.''''' | ||
:''I didn't succeed in finding it.'' | :''I didn't succeed in finding it.'' | ||
The infinitive-final order arose from constructions corresponding to modal verbs in English: originally the order was something similar to {{recon|'' | The infinitive-final order arose from constructions corresponding to modal verbs in English: originally the order was something similar to {{recon|''Areon gnúi enŋ''}} ("on-1SG drink.VN water"), then ''Areon jeoneong ljeo gnui'' (originally "I want water to drink") became more common, eventually to the exclusion of the original construction, which is archaic or high-register today for common modal expressions. | ||
===Passive constructions=== | ===Passive constructions=== | ||
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===Syntactic pivots=== | ===Syntactic pivots=== | ||
In normal registers, syntactic pivoting (the practice of omitting a subject entirely in a clause when the previous clause has it as a subject | In normal registers, syntactic pivoting (the practice of omitting a subject entirely in a clause when the previous clause has it as a subject) is disallowed for verbs: a pronoun can be used as a subject in the following clause if the previous clause has its antecedent as its subject. E.g. ''He will take my gift and go'' would be translated as ''Tobθjeo hu ljeo neo mid, eos θeorθjeo hu''. However, it is used for adjectives: "Dark am I yet beautiful" can be translated as ''Moct na, a sumeon''. | ||
[[Category:Anbirese]] | [[Category:Anbirese]] |
Latest revision as of 04:10, 9 March 2022
The overall syntax of Anbirese resembles that of Irish or Biblical Hebrew. Anbirese is particularly rich in non-finite subordinate clause constructions, which may be used when English uses subordinate clauses with finite verbs.
Constituent order
Anbirese is almost completely head-initial, except for compound words which are head-final. The constituent order is VSO. Question words may be placed before the verb, after the subject, or after the direct object. However, no constituent may come between the verb and the subject, unlike in Hebrew. Like Irish and unlike Eevo, Anbirese is far from being topic-prominent, and is more focus-prominent.
- Þjeon s' ael skidngeo ljeonngeo?
/ɕɔ̀n s‿ɛw skìdNə jɔ̀nNə/
why REL love/PRES 2SG-EMPH ACC-1SG-EMPH
Why do *you* love *me*?
Noun phrase
Adjectives
Adjectives always follow their head nouns.
- eo skradeui flum
- the black spider
Possessive noun phrases
In possessive noun phrases the possessed noun uses the construct form, and the possessor (indefinite or definite) is placed after it. For pronominal possessors, the disjunctive pronoun is used.
Verb phrase
Negation and other preverbs
- interrogative: is-N
- negative: θri-L
- prohibitive: ta-L
Infinitive absolute
Similar to the infinitive absolute in Biblical Hebrew, [bare infinitive] + a + [finite verb] + SUBJECT [lit. it is a VERBing that SUBJECT VERBs] is an emphatic construction meaning 'surely/indeed VERBs; VERBs anyway'. The conjunct/imperative form is used for the finite verb instead of the absolute.
- Flis subdeor a subdeoram ljeoz djeo padleo.
- but send.BARE_INF A send-1PL.EXC ACC-it anyway
- But we're going to send it anyway.
The infinitive absolute is much more common in Anbirese than in Skellan, where it is a bit literary.
Circumstantial verbs
Circumstantial verbs are formed with djeo + VN:
- Xjerin u xjer djeo hngima eos djeo ṁoela = 'He entered praising and thanking'
Accusative with infinitive
The accusative particle ljeo can be used to introduce the subject of a dependent clause. The verb of the dependent clause is preceded by the particle ae 'to'.
- Togni na ljeo mród ae slang aeb Inθár.
- think-PRES 1SG ACC apple-PL INF good to Inθar.
- I think Inθar likes apples.
Sentence phrase
Predicate adjectives
Anbirese is zero-copula, like Hebrew. A predicate adjective is placed before the subject, and the copula pronoun is used.
When the subject is a definite noun, the pronoun is not mandatory with predicative adjectives:
- Ard (hi) eo skuil.
- /aɾd (çi) ə skuiɴ/
- The woman is tall.
- Ard hi.
- /aɾd çi/
- She is tall.
Predicate adjectives are negated by placing θjeor(-L) in front of the adjective:
- Θjeor on na lu xvin θjeor bjoleoct hu.
- /ɕɔɾ un na lü xwin ɕɔɾ bjuwɔkt hü/
The construction lid + subject + djeo + adjective may also be used in literary writing.
Predicative nouns
On the other hand, a predicate noun has the "logical subject" placed after the preposition djeo + pronoun.
- Sjeoθma dju xeozir.
- A flower is a plant.
- Sjeoθma dju.
- It's a plant. (lit. A plant is in it.)
Predicate nouns are negated by placing djer 'there is no' in front of the predicate noun.
Predicative locatives
Predicative locatives use the copula lid, which is negated to jeol.
Lid na djeon svar. = 'I'm in the house.'
Lid eo nghéozir aemna. = 'The flowers are mine.'
Existential sentences
Existential sentences also use laidh:
- Lid mrót.
- be-PRES.ANA apple
- There's an apple.
(There's an apple there = Lid mrót dju.)
"X has" uses a similar construction to existentials:
- Lid sob ljeona.
- to-1SG dog
- I have a dog. (lit. To me is a dog.)
Modal constructions
- eor + X = "X must/has to" (lit. it is on X)
- oez go + X = "X may"/"it is permissible for X" (lit. it goes through with X)
- kjel + X = "X wants" (lit. it is away from X)
- aeb + X + sjéorn = "X needs" (lit. X has a need)
Wh-questions
Who- and what-questions use cleft constructions, using the interrogative in conjunction with a relative clause describing it.
- Θva (n) forx eo svas? = Who feeds the man? (lit. Who is it that feeds...)
- Θva rjeo vforx eo svas? = Whom does the man feed?
In the preterite:
- Θva rjeo vforxin um eo svas? = Who fed the man?
- Θva rjeo vforxin u n svas? = Whom did the man feed?
Conjunctions
- eos: 'and'
- su: 'or'
- ju = nor
- son: 'but'
- rjeo: 'that (relative clause)'
- rinjeo: negative form of ri
- va: 'that (complement clause)'
- xvin: because
- djer: when
- xvart = then
Answers to yes-no questions
Anbirese does not have a word for 'yes'; instead, the verb is repeated. The word for 'no' is θjeor.
Wishes/Jussive
Wishes can be formed by using θumi (< Tigol tuaḃ ṁa mít 'who will grant') before a verb in the non-past tense.
Dependent clauses
Relative clauses
Anbirese makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses.
The relativizer rjeoN rjeon before vowels, negative rinjeo) is used for restrictive relative clauses. A resumptive pronoun may be used when the head is not the subject of the relative clause, and is mandatory when the head is a prepositional object or a possessor. For clarity, the emphatic clitic -neo may be added to the resumptive pronoun, especially in formal registers.
Verbs in relative clauses may be placed anywhere within the relative clause, subject to the constraint that the verb and (syntactic) subject may not be separated unless the head of the relative clause is the subject. If the head of the relative clause is its subject, then the appropriate participial form of the verb is mutated or inflected like an adjective. Otherwise, the relativizer rjeo-N is used.
- eo ljést n tozneui kvial
- the spirit that endures suffering (lit. the spirit enduring suffering)
- eo ljést rjeo zlaez hi (lje(neo))
- the spirit that she shows
- eo ljést rjeo nhrae hi di(neo)
- the spirit she believes in (lit. the spirit that she believes in it)
In the past tense, a participle modifying the head as an adjective puts the head into a patient role in the relative clause (by split ergativity). Hence, agents of a transitive verb must use the preposition u plus a resumptive pronoun.
- Goli n slán (rjeon) éorngin una stang.
- The number I got was 6.
In poetry, verbs in rjeo-clauses may appear in any position after the rjeo.
A non-restrictive relative clause is marked with a pause (rendered as a dash "–") before the relative clause -- no conjunction is used.
Nominalized relative clauses use kvar 'those':
- kvar eo mimó jeo
- those who misuse it
Time clauses
There are two ways of forming time clauses.
The first construction is a clause introduced with a time conjunction such as (djer = 'when') and using a finite verb form (i.e. the verb form is used with a subject).
The second construction is a clause introduced with a preposition (such as ar = 'upon') followed by the verbal noun which may take a possessive prefix for the subject. Thus the non-finite time clause marks aspect or tense relative to the tense of the main clause rather than absolute tense. Non-finite time clauses are considered a little more literary than finite time clauses.
An example with djeo 'at':
- djeo argjeoran na ar eo lóegu'm
- at keep_watch.IPFV-1SG 1SG on DEF stuff-3SG.M 3SG.M
- when I was keeping watch on his things
Infinitive clauses
In Modern Anbirese, infinitives or verbal nouns go to the end of the clause for common constructions, like modal constructions (e.g. want, need, must, may).
For emphasizing the object, "want/need/etc. an X to Y", a resumptive pronoun can be used after the verbal noun. (Alternatively the emphatic clitic -nna can be used on X.)
- Gjelna tanneo eo djeosk ljeoz!
- want-1SG something to eat.VN 3SG.N-DEP
- I want something to eat!
- Tri harngin aemna, ljeoz eo aegir.
- I didn't succeed in finding it.
The infinitive-final order arose from constructions corresponding to modal verbs in English: originally the order was something similar to *Areon gnúi enŋ ("on-1SG drink.VN water"), then Areon jeoneong ljeo gnui (originally "I want water to drink") became more common, eventually to the exclusion of the original construction, which is archaic or high-register today for common modal expressions.
Passive constructions
Use 'take' or 'get' + VN
Syntactic pivots
In normal registers, syntactic pivoting (the practice of omitting a subject entirely in a clause when the previous clause has it as a subject) is disallowed for verbs: a pronoun can be used as a subject in the following clause if the previous clause has its antecedent as its subject. E.g. He will take my gift and go would be translated as Tobθjeo hu ljeo neo mid, eos θeorθjeo hu. However, it is used for adjectives: "Dark am I yet beautiful" can be translated as Moct na, a sumeon.