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When it comes to adding the definite suffix -e, -i or -a, some words ending in vowel have two possible pronunciations. The word ''inere'' (girl), if attached the suffix (inere'''-i''') can be pronounced either /ɪˈne.ɾeɪ/ or /ɪˈne.ɾeˌi/. The same thing happens with masculine words ending in -u (maiddu / maiddu'''-e''': /ˈmaiʔ.ɟwe/ or /ˈmaiʔ.ɟuˌe/ 'beaver') or in -i (koddi / koddi'''-e''': /ˈkɔʔ.ɟje/ or /ˈkɔʔ.ɟiˌe/ 'dog').
When it comes to adding the definite suffix -e, -i or -a, some words ending in vowel have two possible pronunciations. The word ''inere'' (girl), if attached the suffix (inere'''-i''') can be pronounced either /ɪˈne.ɾeɪ/ or /ɪˈne.ɾeˌi/. The same thing happens with masculine words ending in -u (maiddu / maiddu'''-e''': /ˈmaiʔ.ɟwe/ or /ˈmaiʔ.ɟuˌe/ 'beaver') or in -i (koddi / koddi'''-e''': /ˈkɔʔ.ɟje/ or /ˈkɔʔ.ɟiˌe/ 'dog').
====Intonation====


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===


* Onset (can be null): /b/, /d/, /f/, /g/, /k/, /c/, /ɟ/, /ʝ/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /ɲ/, /p/, /r/, /s̺/, /s̻/, /ʃ/, /t͡ʃ/, /t/, /β/ (only after a vowel), /l/, /ɾ/, /s̺/ or /s̻/.
* Onset (can be null): /b/, /d/, /f/, /g/, /k/, /c/, /ɟ/, /ʝ/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /ɲ/, /p/, /r/, /s̺/, /s̻/, /ʃ/, /t͡ʃ/, /t/, /β/ (only after a vowel), /l/, /ɾ/, /s̺/ or /s̻/.
** Consonant clusters allowed in onset are: /tɾ/, /dɾ/, /kɾ/, /gɾ/, /pɾ/, /bɾ/, /kl/, /gl/, /pl/, /bl/, /fr/, /fl/
** Consonant clusters allowed in onset are: /tɾ/, /dɾ/, /kɾ/, /gɾ/, /pɾ/, /bɾ/, /kl/, /gl/, /pl/, /bl/, /fr/, /fl/. /kn/. /tn/ and /pn/ are also possible but some speakers substitute them with /n/ or /m/, and then the following vowel becomes a diphthong (kneta - neita; pnaxko - maixko).
* Nucleus: vowels and diphthongs.
* Nucleus: vowels and diphthongs.
* Coda (can be null): /k/, /t/, /p/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /ʔ/, /f/, /s̺/, /s̻/, /ʃ/, /l/, /ɫ/, /r/, /ɾ/
* Coda (can be null): /k/, /t/, /p/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /ʔ/, /f/, /s̺/, /s̻/, /ʃ/, /l/, /ɫ/, /r/, /ɾ/
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===Nominal morphology===
===Nominal morphology===


Nouns in Naibas have a suffix in almost any possible sentence, unless, for instance, there is a numeral. The definite article is realized as an affix that changes depending on the gender of the word. Words can be masculine, feminine or neuter.
Nouns in Naibas have a suffix in almost any possible sentence, except if, for instance, there is a numeral. The definite article is realized as an affix that changes depending on the gender of the word. Words can be masculine, feminine or neuter.


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
Line 283: Line 281:
! case !! masculine !! feminine !! neuter
! case !! masculine !! feminine !! neuter
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|abs}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'' 'cloud' || ''delas(i/o)'' 'sea'  || ''nutu(a/ia)'' 'law'
| {{Smallcaps|abs}} || zutta(e/ie) 'cloud' || delas(i/o) 'sea'  || nutu(a/ia) 'law'
|-
| {{Smallcaps|erg}} || zutta(e/ie)'''s'''  || delas(i/o)'''s''' || nutu(a/ia)'''s'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|dat}} || zutta(e/ie)'''ne'''  || delas(i/o)'''ne''' || nutu(a/ia)'''ne'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|gen}} || zutta(e/ie)'''k'''  || delas(i/o)'''k''' || nutu(a/ia)'''k'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|com}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''ko'''  || delas(i/o)'''ko''' || nutu(a/ia)'''ko'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|abess}} || zutta(e/ie)'''ta'''  || delas(i/o)'''ta''' || nutu(a/ia)'''ta'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|caus}} || zutta(e/ie)'''kai'''  || delas(i/o)'''kai''' || nutu(a/ia)'''kai'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|ben}} || zutta(e/ie)'''tu'''  || delas(i/o)'''tu''' || nutu(a/ia)'''tu'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|instr}} || zutta(e/ie)'''kes'''  || delas(i/o)'''kes''' || nutu(a/ia)'''kes'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|ine}} || zutta(e/ie)'''na'''  || delas(i/o)'''na''' || nutu(a/ia)'''na'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|loc}} || zutta(e/ie)'''tez'''  || delas(i/o)'''tez''' || nutu(a/ia)'''kez'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|all}} || zutta(e/ie)'''ro'''  || delas(i/o)'''to''' || nutu(a/ia)'''to'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|term}} || zutta(e/ie)'''dan'''  || delas(i/o)'''dan''' || nutu(a/ia)'''dan'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|abl}} || zutta(e/ie)'''to'''  || delas(i/o)'''to''' || nutu(a/ia)'''to'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|ptv}} || zutta(-/ie)'''ku'''  || delas(-/o)'''ku''' || nutu(-/ia)'''ku'''
|-
| {{Smallcaps|prol}} || zutta(e/ie)'''tuk'''  || delas(i/o)'''tuk''' || nutu(a/ia)'''tuk'''
|}
 
We walked '''through''' the market and '''from''' there we went '''to''' the town hall square.
 
Zuroki'''tuk''' untuzipaxas tui naru'''to''' kurekiroxik uddua'''ro''' tuna.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| zuroki
| -'''tuk'''
| untu-
| zipaxa
| -s
| tui
| naru
| -'''to'''
| kurekiroxi-k
| uddua
| -'''ro'''
| tuna
|-
| the market
| -{{Smallcaps|prol}}
| -{{Smallcaps|1pl.pst}}
| walk
| -{{Smallcaps|prf}}
| and
| there
| -{{Smallcaps|abl}}
| town.hall-{{Smallcaps|gen}}
| the plaza
| -{{Smallcaps|all}}
| we.went
|}
 
===Adjectival morphology===
Adjectives agree in gender with the noun but not in number. This said, ''nivi inerei'' (the tall girl) would have the plural ''nivi inereixo'' (the tall girls) but not *''nivixo inereixo''. Predicative adjectives do agree in both gender and number: inere'''ixo''' niv'''ixo''' irun (the girls are tall).
 
====Comparative====
The base noun on which we base the comparison is not suffixed but followed by ''kain/kan''.
 
Superlative forms adding ''-um-'' between the adjective and the gender and number mark.<br>
-''Ibaldaie ixolie '''kan''' test'''um'''ie irun.'' (Horses are fast'''er than''' men.)
 
For equal or lower degree adjectives, Naibas only uses ''kain/kan'' and/or a negative nominal sentence.<br>
-'''''Ki''' nozur nue '''kain''' nive.'' (You are '''not as''' tall '''as''' me.)<br>
 
-''Nue '''kain''' nive nozur.'' (You are '''as''' tall '''as''' me.)
 
====Superlative====
The superlative forms by adding ''-ain-'' between the adjective and the gender mark (nivi - niv'''ain'''i 'the tallest'). To mean "the least", ''-uin-'' is placed in said position (nivi - niv'''uin'''i 'the least tall'). Superlative adjectives need the partitive case for the noun they describe, so "the tallest building" would be ''nivaini getox'''ku''''' where ''getox'' (building) has the partitive case mark ''-ku''. Adjectives in Naibas use plural marks if the noun is absent: ''nivixo'' (the tall ones).
 
===Verbal morphology===
Verbs use plenty of affixes to express person, number, tense, aspect and object. Depending on the position of the verb inside the phrase and also on the type of verb, affixes may be located in one place or another. For instance, [[w:Labile verb|ergative]] and [[w:Unergative verb|unergative verbs]] mark the subject at the end of the word, whereas [[w:Unaccusative verb|unaccusative verbs]] mark it at the beginning.
 
Naibas tenses are two: '''present''' tense (or '''no-past''' tense) and '''past''' tense.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Person
! Object marker
! Subject marker (no-past)
! Subject marker (past)
|-
! nue(s) (1SG)
| ma-
| -e-
| -(e)te-
|-
! zue(s) (2SG.M)
| ze-
| -aze-
| -azte-
|-
! azue(s) (2SG.F)
| zi-
| -eze-
| -ezte-
|-
! ana(s) (3SG.M)
| a-
| -a-
| -(a)ta-
|-
! iana(s) (3SG.F)
| i(x)a-
| -i(x)a-
| -(i)tia-
|-
! nun (nus) (1PL)
| nu-
| -un(u)-
| -untu-
|-
! bi(s) (2PL)
| bi(e)-
| -i-
| -(e)ti-
|-
! bie(s) (2DU)
| bi(x)e-
| -i-
| -(e)ti-
|-
! iu(s) (3PL)
| u-
| -u-
| -(e)tu-
|-
|
| ane-
|
|
|}
 
The verb stem, which is always stressed, is located between the object mark and the subject mark in ergative or unergative verbs ('''a'''nur'''e''' - '''I''' pay '''it'''). The final slot of a conjugated verb is occupied by the aspect marker, which can be '''null''' (-Ø) or '''-r(e)''', which marks an unfinished action (imperfective aspect). There are many other affixes that can add information to the verb:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|erg}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''s'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''s''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''s'''''
| unfinished action
| -r(e)-
| ''agulere'' 'I'm drinking it'
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|dat}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''ne'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''ne''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''ne'''''
| habitual action
| -Ø-
| ''agule'' 'I (usually) drink it'
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|gen}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''k'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''k''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''k'''''
| finished action
| -k/-i/-s
| ''agulek'' 'I've just drunk it'
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|com}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''ko'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''ko''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''ko'''''
| condition
| -du-
| ''aguledu'' 'I would drink it'
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|abess}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''ta'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''ta''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''ta'''''
| possibility
| -gu-
| ''agulegu'' 'I might drink it'
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|caus}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''kai'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''kai''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''kai'''''
| remote future<br />(barely used)
| -ke-
| ''aguleke'' 'I will drink it (I don't know when)
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|ben}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''tu'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''tu''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''tu'''''
| present obligation<br />(very informal)
| -pa-
| ''agulepa'' 'I gotta drink it'
|}
 
===Transitive verbs===
These verbs require the subject to be in [[w:Ergative case|ergative case]] (-s), and place the subject mark at the end of the verb and the object mark at the beginning. There are two types:
*Verbs ending in ''-lk, -nk'' or ''-rk'', which mark the perfective aspect with -k (gulk, polk, xank, tark).
*Verbs ending in ''-i'', which mark the perfective aspect with -i (tidosi, libi, koni, tturti). These verbs are always stressed in the penultimate syllable.
 
===Intransitive verbs===
These verbs require the absolutive case in the subject (-e, -i, -a, -Ø and plurals). They always end in vowel, mostly -a or -e, and are stressed in the penultimate syllable. They place the subject at the beginning of the word. Intransitive verbs mark the perfective aspect by adding -s at the end of the verb.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|instr}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''kes'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''kes''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''kes'''''
!
! colspan="2" | Transitive
! Intransitive
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|ine}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''na'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''na''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''na'''''
|  
| -k
| -i
| -V
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|loc}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''tez'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''tez''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''kez'''''
|  
| gulk
| koni
| kurku
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|all}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''ro'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''to''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''to'''''
! Subject mark 1SG
| gul'''e'''
| kon'''e'''
| '''e'''kurku
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|term}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''dan'''''  || ''delas(i/o)'''dan''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''dan'''''
| Translation
| I drink
| I love
| I live
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|abl}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''to''''' || ''delas(i/o)'''to''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''to'''''
! Subject (1SG) and<br />object (3SG) marks
| '''a'''gul'''e'''
| '''a'''kon'''e'''
|
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|ptv}} || ''zutta(-/ie)'''ku'''''  || ''delas(-/o)'''ku''''' || ''nutu(-/ia)'''ku'''''
| Translation
| I drink it
| I love it
|  
|-
|-
| {{Smallcaps|prol}} || ''zutta(e/ie)'''tuk''''' || ''delas(i/o)'''tuk''''' || ''nutu(a/ia)'''tuk'''''
! Perfective aspect
| agule'''k'''
| akone'''i'''
| ekurku'''s'''
|-
| Translation
| I have drunk it
| I have loved it
| I have lived
|}
|}
===Mood===
There are three moods in Naibas: indicative, imperative and [[w:Jussive mood|jussive]]. The '''imperative''' is formed by not modifying the verb at all (nurk - to pay; nurk! - pay!). The second person plural imperative is formed by adding the personal pronoun after the verb (nurk bi! - y'all pay!).
The '''jussive''' case is slowly disappearing from Naibas speakers' everyday use, but it is still required in formal contexts and an alive element in the most standard varieties of Naibas. It has three functions: negative imperative, formal imperative and third person imperative. It forms adding ''-xe'' after the subject mark in transitive verbs, and after the verb in intransitive verbs (ki gulazexe! - don't drink!; gulaxe! - let him drink!). The jussive case can be used in 1PL verbs to form structures similar to "let's do something!" (gulunuxe! - let's drink!), but most speakers use the indicative mood (gulun! - let's drink! (lit.: we drink!)). It is also important to note that some people form the negative imperative by adding ''ki'' (not) before the verb (ki gulk! - don't drink!).


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
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