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~~'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (<small>~~Saxuma~~:</small> [~~ˈsá.ɕy.ma])~~, also romanized '''Sasiouma''' and historically known as '''~~Saras Wima~~''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately~~ 9000 ~~speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.~~

{{Infobox language

| name = Saxuma

| altname = Sasciuma

| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma

| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)

| family = Isolate

| protoname = Saras Wima

| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti

| created = 2024

| speakers = ~9000

| date = NA

}}

~~Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Greek~~ and ~~English~~, ~~but there~~ is a ~~strong movement to protect~~ the ~~cultural heritage~~ of ~~the language~~, ~~with poetry~~, ~~novels, and music produced in Saxuma~~, ~~as well as dubbings of many foreign movies~~ and ~~television shows into the language~~.

'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (<small>Saxuma:</small> [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.

~~The folk history~~ of ~~the language states that it was~~ a ~~constructed language developed by~~ the ~~original inhabitants~~ of ~~Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on~~ the ~~island~~ and ~~decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous~~, ~~but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos~~ and ~~considered official history by~~ the ~~town government~~.

Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti]], with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.

On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

==Phonology==

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===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

|+ Consonant ~~Inventory~~

|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)

|-

|-

! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless

|-

! Nasals

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|-

! Plosives

| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ

| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g~ɣ || ʔ

|-

! Fricatives

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| (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|

|}

* /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.

* Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.

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* When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]

* Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.

* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].

* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].

* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]

An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)

|-

! colspan=2| !! Labial !! colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal

|-

! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain

|-

! colspan=2| Nasals

| m || n || ɲ || (ŋ)

|-

! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless

| p || t || ʨ || k || (ʨ) || ʔ

|-

! voiced

| b || d || ʥ || g~ɣ || (ʥ)

|-

! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless

| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s || ɕ || x || ç || (h)

|-

! voiced

| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|

|-

! colspan=2| Trill

| || r̥

|-

! colspan=2| Approximants

| w || l || ʎ || || j ||

|}

===Vowels===

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|-

! t

| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}

| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡s]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡ɕ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}

|-

! k

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|-

! b

| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[bl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}

| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}

|-

! d

| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}

| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡z]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}

|-

! g

| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[gl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}

| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}|| {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}

|-

! m

| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}

| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}

|-

! n

| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}

| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}

|-

! s

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|-

! z

| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{~~yes|[zk]~~}}|| {{~~yes|[zb]~~}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{~~yes|[zn]~~}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{~~yes|[zl]~~}} || {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}

| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}

|-

! ɕ

| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}

| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}

|-

! ʑ

| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{~~yes|[ʑk]~~}}|| {{~~yes|[ʑb]~~}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{~~yes|[ʑɲ]~~}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{~~yes|[ʑʎ]~~}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}

| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}

|-

! x

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** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].

===~~W-ablaut~~===

===Ablauts===

The '''w-ablaut''' is a ~~morpho-phonological process that appears throughout Saxuma inflections~~. It performs the following vowel transformations:

There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.

The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:

* a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed

* i → yu

* e → yo

* u → ū

* e → yo

* o → ō

The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:

* a → ay

* i → ī

* e → ē

* u, o → oy

==Orthography==

===Romanization===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:~~1000px~~"

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"

|+ Saxuma Romanization

|-

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==Morphology==

===Nominal Morphology===

===Pronouns===

====Case====

Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct and dative-allative cases require any declension — the others use the base form, and potentially a particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.

* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.

* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.

* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.

:: "biga ome"

:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}

:: ''my foot''

: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.

:: "bigaw huk"

:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken

:: ''the chicken's foot''

: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.

:: "bigaw savu huk"

:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken

:: ''the chicken's left foot''

: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.

:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"

:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer

:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''

* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is usually marked with a prefix, determined regularly by the noun's initial phoneme, as below. Adjectives do not decline for the dative-allative. Like with ''u'', the preposition ''ba'' can also be used to mark the dative-allative when it would be applied to complementary phrases.

: Before initial i- or u-, prefix ''baz-''.

:: ''ībi'' → ''bazîbi''

:: ''umex'' → ''bazúmex''

: Before other vowels and initial w- or y-, prefix ''bad-''.

:: ''aska'' → ''badáska''

:: ''emín'' → ''bademín''

:: ''oqan'' → ''badóqan''

:: ''wak'' → ''badwák''

:: ''yūsi'' → ''badyûsi''

: Before nasal consonants, prefix ''bo-''.

:: ''may'' → ''bomáy''

:: ''nir'' → ''bonír''

: Before initial plosives, prefix ''baq-''. Some speakers also devoice voiced plosives when doing this.

:: ''tek'' → ''baqték''

:: ''gijo'' → ''baqgíjo'' or ''baqkíjo''

: Before initial h- and f-, delete the initial consonant and prefix ''bat-''.

:: ''hyō'' → ''batyô''

:: ''hap'' → ''batáp''

:: ''fenyo'' → ''batényo''

: Before initial v-, delete the v- and prefix ''bab-''.

:: ''viko'' → ''babíko''

: Before initial s- and x-, prefix ''bat-'', and before initial z- or j-, prefix ''bad-''.

:: ''zen'' → ''badzén''

:: ''xek'' → ''batxék''

: Before initial l- and r-, prefix ''ba-.''

:: ''rik'' → ''barík''

:: ''lobo'' → ''balóbo''

====Number====

Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.

The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.

====Pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

|+ Saxuma ~~Pronouns~~

|+ Saxuma pronouns

|-

! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=4| 3rd Person

|-

! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}

|-

! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive

! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}

|-

! Direct

| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ~~tex~~ || dē || le || in || ca

| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}

|-

! Absolutive

| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || ~~texka~~ || ~~dēka~~ || lek || inka || ~~daqá~~

| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}

|-

! Genitive

| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || ~~uséx~~ || urê || olé || ohín || ~~urá~~

| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}

|-

! Construct

| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || leyu || inu || ~~caw~~

| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}} || {{sx-s|ginu}}

|-

! Dative-~~Superessive~~

! Dative-Allative

| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || ~~batéx~~ || bade || bose || bagín || ~~bacá~~

| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}

|}

* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.

* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.

====Gender====

: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''

~~===Nominal Morphology===~~

The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.

~~====Construct Case====~~

Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.

====~~Gender~~====

====The reflexive ''-kom''====

===Verb Morphology===

There are ~~twelve~~ verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

====Conjugation====

There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

* The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.

* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s- or -x-.

* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.

* The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.

* The '''-RA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -r-.

* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.

* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l-.

* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.

* The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.

* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s or -x.

* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.

* The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.

* The '''-R conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -r.

* The '''-H conjugation''' includes all other verbs ending in a long vowel.

* The '''-H conjugation''' includes ~~most, but not~~ all, verbs ending in a long vowel.

* The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.

* The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.

~~We will~~ detail ~~below~~ how ~~each~~ verb ~~ending inflects to~~ the ~~different conjugation patterns~~.

Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.

~~====The Negative, -NA====~~

~~'''-NA''', the '''negative''' ending, negates the verb it attaches to.~~

~~: Sigu palas.~~

~~: ''The rabbit runs.''~~

~~: Sig'''na''' palas.~~

~~: ''The rabbit does '''not''' run.''~~

~~=====How to conjugate -NA=====~~

~~Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.~~

~~: lesó → lesoná~~

~~: enjí → enjiná~~

~~: sigú → signá~~

~~-SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].~~

~~: myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]~~

~~: exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]~~

~~-FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append ná.~~

~~: safá → sawná~~

~~: ralí → rawná~~

~~-RA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel, change the remaining -r to -x and append -ná.~~

~~: kurú → kuxná~~

~~-N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.~~

~~: ekán → ekanná~~

~~: rum → rumná~~

~~: sarás → sarasná~~

~~: oxâ → oxāná~~

~~: aw → awná~~

~~: way → wayná~~

~~-R conjugation verbs replace the final -r with -x and append -ná.~~

~~: elér → elexná~~

~~-T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.~~

~~: enák → enawná~~

~~: hē → hyoná~~

~~See the summary in the table below:~~

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

|+ ~~Negative -NA conjugation~~ by ~~verb~~ class

|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection

|-

! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA

! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA

|-

! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong

| lesó || lesoná

| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá

|-

! Weak

| sigú || signá

| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá

|-

! colspan=2 -| -SA

| exí || exná

| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá

|-

! colspan=2 | -FA

| safá || sawná

| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá

|-

! colspan=2 | -RA

! colspan=2 | -JA

| ~~kurú~~ || ~~kuxná~~

| mujú || moyná || moybí|| mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá

|-

! colspan=2 | -LA

| ralí || rawná

| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá

|-

! colspan=2 | -N

| ekán || ekanná

| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá

|-

! colspan=2 | -S

| sarás|| sarasná

| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá

|-

~~! colspan=2~~ | -R

| ~~elér~~ || ~~elexná~~

|-

! colspan=2 | -T

| enák || enawná

| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá

|-

! colspan=2 | -H

| oxâ || oxāná

| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá

|-

! colspan=2 | -W

| law || lawná

| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá

|-

! colspan=2 | -Y

| way || wayná

| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá

|}

====~~The Causative, -BI~~====

====Evidentiality====

~~'''-BI''', the '''causative''' ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.~~

~~: In sig'''bi''' palas.~~

~~: ''He '''makes''' the rabbit run.''~~

~~=====How to conjugate -BI=====~~

In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.

~~-BI adds~~ the ~~suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes~~, with ~~one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē~~ to ~~short e), and then append -cú~~

~~: enák → enacú~~

~~: hē → hecú~~

~~See~~ the ~~table below for a summary.~~

~~{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"~~

~~|+ Causative -BI conjugation by~~ verb class

|-

~~! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Causative -BI~~

|-

~~! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong~~

~~| lesó || lesobí~~

|-

~~! Weak~~

~~| sigú || sigbí~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 -| -SA~~

~~| exí || exbí~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -FA~~

~~| safá || sawbí~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -RA~~

~~| kurú || kuxbí~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -LA~~

~~| ralí || rawbí~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -N~~

~~| ekán || ekanbí~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -S~~

~~| sarás || sarasbí~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -R~~

~~| gir || gixbí~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -T~~

~~| enák || enacú~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -H~~

~~| oxâ || oxābí~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -W~~

~~| law || lawbí~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -Y~~

~~| way || waybí~~

|}

~~====The Inchoative~~, -~~WAY====~~

* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.

* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.

*: torá → kantorá

*: exí → kanexí

*: gir → kangír

* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.

*: torá → lextorá

*: ryu → laryú

*: lesó → lalesó

*: uzá → laruzá

* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.

*: torá → tomtorá

*: ōná → tamōná

*: exí → tamwexí

* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial consonant.

*: bulíx → nyebulíx

*: ryu → nyeryú

*: exí → enyexí

*: yos → enyós

*: torá → entyorá

*: gir → engyír

*: liré → enlyiré

*: hanú → enhyanú

~~'''-WAY''', the '''inchoative''' ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.~~

====Imperative and Hortative====

~~: Sig'''way''' palas.~~

~~: ''The rabbit '''is starting to''' run.'' or ''The rabbit '''is about to''' run.''~~

~~=====How~~ to ~~Conjugate -WAY=====~~

The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.

: lesó → lêso

: nar → nār

: law → lâwo

: xō → xō

For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.

==Syntax==

~~: law → lawáy~~

~~: ralí → rawáy~~

~~See~~ the ~~table below~~.

Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.

~~{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"~~

The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.

~~|+ Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class~~

|-

~~! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Inchoative -WAY~~

|-

~~! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong~~

~~| lesó || lesowáy~~

|-

~~! Weak~~

~~| sigú || sigwáy~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 -| -SA~~

~~| exí || exfáy~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -FA~~

~~| safá || sawfáy~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -RA~~

~~| kurú || kuxfáy~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -LA~~

~~| ralí || rawáy~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -N~~

~~| ekán || ekanwáy~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -S~~

~~| sarás || sarasfáy~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -R~~

~~| elér || elexfáy~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -T~~

~~| enák || enawfáy~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -H~~

~~| oxâ || oxāfáy~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -W~~

~~| law || lawáy~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -Y~~

~~| way || waywáy~~

|}

~~====The Prospective~~, ~~-KUN====~~

There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.

~~'''-KUN''',~~ the ~~'''prospective ending'''~~, ~~indicates that~~ the ~~verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest~~, with a ~~strong implication that~~ the ~~speaker~~ or ~~a referent in~~ the ~~narrative is anticipating~~ the ~~fruition of the action.~~

Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.

~~: Garu le ba be ohin.~~

~~: ''She arrives at his house~~.~~'''~~

~~: Gax~~''~~'kun''' le ba be ohin.~~

===The topic marker ''sa''===

~~: ''She is/was about to arrive at his house.~~''

===~~==How to conjugate -KUN==~~===

===Complementary Phrases===

~~Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.~~

====''Ka'' as a complementizer====

~~: enjí → enjikún~~

~~: ten → tenkún~~

~~: aw → awkún~~

~~: way → waykún~~

~~Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.~~

====''U'' as a complementizer====

* Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.

~~: damá → damkún~~

~~: riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]~~

~~-SA and -RA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.~~

====The complementizer ''vin''====

~~: kosá → koqún~~

~~: exí → eqún~~

~~: kurú → kuqún~~

~~-LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append kún.~~

====The attributive====

~~: ralí → rawkún~~

~~-FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.~~

==Semantics==

~~: safá → sawqún~~

~~-S, -R, and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.~~

===Semantics of gender===

: ~~herúx → heruqún~~

: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''

~~: sarás → saraqún~~

~~: gir → giqún~~

: ~~enák → enaqún~~

-~~H verbs~~ and -~~ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún~~.

There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.

~~: oxâ → oxaqún~~

~~: pē → peqún~~

~~: xō → xoqún~~

~~See~~ the ~~summary table below:~~

Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.

{| class="wikitable~~" style="text-align:center;~~"

Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.

|+ ~~Prospective -KUN conjugations by verb class~~

{| class="wikitable"

|-

|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)

~~! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Prospective -KUN~~

|-

~~! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong~~

~~| lesó || lesokún~~

|-

~~! Weak~~

~~| sigú || sigkún~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 -| -SA~~

~~| exí || eqún~~

|-

! ~~colspan=2 | -FA~~

! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}

~~| safá || sawqún~~

|-

! ~~colspan=2 | -RA~~

~~| kurú || kuqún~~

|-

! ~~colspan=2 |~~ -LA

| ~~ralí || rawkun~~

|-

! ~~colspan=2 | -N~~

~~| ekán || ekankún~~

|-

! ~~colspan=2 |~~ -S

~~| sarás |~~| ~~saraqún~~

|-

~~! colspan=2~~ | -R

| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic

| ~~elér~~ || ~~eleqún~~

|-

~~! colspan=2~~ | -T

| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident

| ~~enák~~ || ~~enaqún~~

|-

~~! colspan=2~~ | -H

| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive

| ~~oxâ~~ || ~~oxaqún~~

|-

~~! colspan=2~~ | -W

| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny

| ~~law~~ || ~~lawkún~~

|-

~~! colspan=2~~ | -Y

| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional

| ~~way~~ || ~~waykún~~

|}

====~~The Perfective, -W~~====

===Time===

~~'''-W''', the '''perfective''' ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.~~

~~: Sila kajip.~~

~~: ''The guest leaves.''~~

~~: Sila'''w''' kajip.~~

~~: ''The guest '''has left'''.''~~

~~=====How to conjugate -W=====~~

~~All regular, -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.~~

~~: lesó → lesô~~

~~: sigú → sigû~~

~~: exí → exyú~~

~~: safá → safáw~~

~~: kurú → kurû~~

~~: ralí → ralyú~~

~~-N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.~~

~~: ekán → ekánla~~

~~: rum → rúmla~~

~~-S and -R verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.~~

~~: elér → elyósa~~

~~: yos → yôsa~~

~~: bulíx → bulyúsa~~

~~-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.~~

~~: enák → enatáw~~

~~: hē → hetáw~~

~~-H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.~~

~~: oxâ → oxáwsa~~

~~: orî → oryúsa~~

~~: xō → xôsa~~

~~-W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.~~

~~: aw → ála~~

~~: ryuláw → ryulála~~

~~-Y verbs append -ú.~~

~~: way → wayú~~

~~See the summary table below.~~

~~{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"~~

~~|+ Perfective -W conjugation by verb class~~

|-

~~! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Perfective -W~~

|-

~~! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong~~

~~| lesó || lesô~~

|-

~~! Weak~~

~~| sigú || sigû~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 -| -SA~~

~~| exí || exyú~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -FA~~

~~| safá || safáw~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -RA~~

~~| kurú || kûsa~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -LA~~

~~| ralí || ralyú~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -N~~

~~| ekán || ekánla~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -S~~

~~| sarás || saráwsa~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -R~~

~~| elér || elyósa~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -T~~

~~| enák || enatáw~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -H~~

~~| oxâ || oxáwsa~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -W~~

~~| law || lála~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -Y~~

~~| way ||wayú~~

|}

~~====The Habitual, -AX====~~

~~'''-AX''', the '''habitual''' ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.~~

~~: Me lesó lyu don.~~

~~: ''I read many books.''~~

~~: Me leso'''wáx''' lyu don.~~

~~: ''I '''have been reading''' many books.''~~

~~: Mujú aska.~~

~~: ''The fish swims.''~~

~~: Muj'''wáx''' aska.~~

~~: ''Fish swim '''[in general]'''.''~~

~~=====How to conjugate -AX=====~~

~~Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:~~

* Verbs with final -a append -x.

* Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.

* Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.

* Verbs with final consonants append -áx.

~~This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, -R, and -Y verbs.~~

~~: enjí → enjiyáx~~

~~: lesó → lesowáx~~

~~: lewá → lewáx~~

~~: ekán → ekanáx~~

~~: way → wayáx~~

~~: gir → giráx~~

~~: saras → sarasáx~~

~~Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.~~

~~: ralí → ralyáx~~

~~: kurú → kurwáx~~

~~: wakí → wakyáx~~

~~-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.~~

~~: enák → enatáx~~

~~: hē → hetáx~~

~~-H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.~~

~~: oxâ → oxaháx~~

~~: mosē → moseháx~~

~~-W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.~~

~~: maw → maláx~~

~~See the summary table below.~~

~~{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"~~

~~|+ Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class~~

|-

~~! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Habitual -AX~~

|-

~~! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong~~

~~| lesó || lesowáx~~

|-

~~! Weak~~

~~| sigú || sigwáx~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 -| -SA~~

~~| exí || exyáx~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -FA~~

~~| safá || safáx~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -RA~~

~~| kurú || kurwáx~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -LA~~

~~| ralí || ralyáx~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -N~~

~~| ekán || ekanáx~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -S~~

~~| sarás || sarasáx~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -R~~

~~| elér || eleráx~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -T~~

~~| enák|| enatáx~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -H~~

~~| oxâ || oxaháx~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -W~~

~~| law || laláx~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -Y~~

~~| way || wayáx~~

|}

~~====The Attributive, -LA====~~

'''-LA''', the '''attributive''' ending, is the only verbal ending that does not indicate a change in semantic meaning. Rather, it changes the syntactic function of the verb into an adjective, indicating that the modified noun performs the action in the verb. This can function similarly to English gerunds or complementary phrases.

~~: Mujná aska.~~

~~: ''The fish does not swim.''~~

~~: Aska mujna'''lá''' sa taláw.~~

~~: "The fish '''that''' swims is dead.''~~

~~More advanced usage of -LA is explained at [[Saxuma#-LA]].~~

~~=====How to conjugate -LA=====~~

~~Regular strong, -N, and -Y verbs append -lá. Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -lá.~~

~~: leso → lesolá~~

~~: sigú → siglá~~

~~: ekán → ekanlá~~

~~: way → waylá~~

~~-LA verbs replace the final vowel with -á.~~

~~: ralí → ralá~~

~~: silá → silá~~

~~: gelú → gelá~~

~~-W verbs replace the final -aw with -alá.~~

~~: ryuláw → ryulalá~~

~~: maw → malá~~

~~-T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē, and then append -xá.~~

~~: enák → enaxá~~

~~: hē → hexá~~

~~-SA, -FA, and -RA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.~~

~~: exí → yosá~~

~~: safá → sawsá~~

~~: kurú → kūsá~~

~~-H verbs shorten the final long vowel, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.~~

~~: oxâ → oxawsá~~

~~: orî → oryusá~~

~~See the summary table below.~~

~~{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"~~

~~|+ Attributive -LA conjugation by verb class~~

|-

~~! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Attributive -LA~~

|-

~~! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong~~

~~| lesó || lesolá~~

|-

~~! Weak~~

~~| sigú || siglá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 -| -SA~~

~~| exí ||yosá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -FA~~

~~| safá || sawsá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -RA~~

~~| kurú || kūsá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -LA~~

~~| ralí || ralá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -N~~

~~| ekán || ekanlá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -S~~

~~| sarás || sarawsá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -R~~

~~| elér || elyosá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -T~~

~~| enák || enaxá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -H~~

~~| oxâ || oxawsá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -W~~

~~| law || lalá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -Y~~

~~| way || waylá~~

|}

~~===Summary===~~

~~{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"~~

~~|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection~~

|-

~~! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA~~

|-

~~! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong~~

~~| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá~~

|-

~~! Weak~~

~~| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 -| -SA~~

~~| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -FA~~

~~| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -RA~~

~~| kurú || kuxná || kuxbí || kuxfáy || kuqún || kûsa || kurwáx || kūsá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -LA~~

~~| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -N~~

~~| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -S~~

~~| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -R~~

~~| elér || elexná || elexbí || elexfáy || eleqún || elyósa || eleráx || elyosá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -T~~

~~| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -H~~

~~| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx || oxawsá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -W~~

~~| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá~~

|-

~~! colspan=2 | -Y~~

~~| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá~~

|}

==Sample Texts==

Line 846:

Line 480:

! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss

|-

| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights~~. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood~~.

| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.

| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay~~. Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem~~.

| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.

| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ~~ˈzɛ́~~.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj ~~ǁ ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm~~

| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj

| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal. ~~Have~~ {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.

| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.

|-

| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.

| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm

| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.

|}

==See Also==

* [[:Category:Saxuma words]]

* [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/11JLg5e7buMcLStyzS1hMONiVVdzuHEtbVSuS8SmvndU/edit?usp=sharing Saxuma Dictionary]

[[Category:Saxuma]]

[[Category:Languages]]

[[Category:Conlangs]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (<small>Saxuma:</small> [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasiouma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.
+{{Infobox language
+| name = Saxuma
+| altname = Sasciuma
+| pronunciation = ˈsá.ɕy.ma
+| states = Sasajos (autonomous zone of Italian Republic)
+| family = Isolate
+| protoname = Saras Wima
+| creator = User:Anisette Biscotti
+| created = 2024
+| speakers = ~9000
+| date = NA
+}}
-Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.
+'''Saxuma''' /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (<small>Saxuma:</small> [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized '''Sasciuma''' and historically known as '''Saras Wima''' ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 9000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasajos, and an autonomous zone of Italy. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, highly irregular construct declensions, and dynamic semantic gender.
-The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the town government.
+Almost all residents of Sasajos speak Italian, as well as Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.
-On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti]], with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.
+The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasajos - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Another version of the story says that the colonists were not shipwrecked, but rather a proto-New Age group attempting to create an intentional community. Most scholars find either version of this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasajos and considered official history by the municipal government. Official sources are agnostic to the nature of the original colonists.
+On a meta-level, this language was created by [[User:Anisette Biscotti|Anisette Biscotti]] in 2024, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.
 ==Phonology==
@@ Line 11: / Line 24: @@
 ===Consonants===
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
-|+ Consonant Inventory
+|+ Consonant inventory (Marina et. al, 2013)
 |-
 ! rowspan=2| !! colspan=2| Labial !!  colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Palatal !!  colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
 |-
-!                                                 Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
+! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless !! Voiced !! Voiceless
 |-
 ! Nasals
@@ Line 21: / Line 34: @@
 |-
 ! Plosives
-| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g ||ʔ
+| p || b || t || d || c || || k || g~ɣ || ʔ
 |-
 ! Fricatives
@@ Line 32: / Line 45: @@
 | (ʍ) || w || colspan=3| || j || colspan=3|
 |}
 * /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when '''adjacent''' to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when '''preceding''' a velar plosive.
 * Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
@@ Line 41: / Line 55: @@
 * When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
 * Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.
-* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [h].
+* Sometimes, in particularly casual speech, unstressed, final /s/ and /ɕ/ are debuccalized to [ç].
+* Final /r/ is often realized as [ʃ], and in these cases lowers preceding /i/ and /u/ to [ɛ] and [o]
+An alternate analysis of the consonants of Saxuma is proposed by some linguists, such as that by Varda below.
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
+|+ Consonant inventory (Varda et. al, 2022)
+|-
+! colspan=2| !!  Labial !!  colspan=2| Alveolar !! colspan=2| Velar !! Glottal
+|-
+! colspan=2| !! plain !! plain !! palatal !! plain !! palatal !! plain
+|-
+! colspan=2| Nasals
+| m || n ||  ɲ || (ŋ)
+|-
+! rowspan=2| Plosives !! voiceless
+| p || t || ʨ || k  || (ʨ) || ʔ
+|-
+! voiced
+| b || d || ʥ || g~ɣ || (ʥ)
+|-
+! rowspan=2| Fricatives !! voiceless
+| ɸʷ⁓hʷ || s  || ɕ || x || ç || (h)
+|-
+! voiced
+| β || z || ʑ || colspan=3|
+|-
+! colspan=2| Trill
+| || r̥
+|-
+! colspan=2| Approximants
+| w || l || ʎ || ||  j ||
+|}
 ===Vowels===
@@ Line 94: / Line 140: @@
 |-
 ! t
-| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
+| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[tm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{yes|[tɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡s]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[t͡ɕ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[tw]}} || {{yes|[c]}}
 |-
 ! k
@@ Line 100: / Line 146: @@
 |-
 ! b
-| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[bl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
+| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[ʔm]}} || {{yes|[bn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[bw]}} || {{yes|[bj]}}
 |-
 ! d
-| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
+| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[dm]}} || {{yes|[ʔn]}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡z]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}  ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}} || {{yes|[dw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
 |-
 ! g
-| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[gl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
+| {{yes|[ʔp]}}|| {{yes|[ʔt]}} || {{yes|[ʔk]}}||  {{yes|[ʔb]}} || {{yes|[ʔd]}} || {{yes|[ʔg]}} || {{yes|[gm]}} || {{yes|[gn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʔl]}}|| {{yes|[gw]}} || {{yes|[d͡ʑ]}}
 |-
 ! m
-| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
+| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mt]}} || {{yes|[mk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[mg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[mt͡s]}} || {{yes|[md͡z]}} || {{yes|[mɕ]}} || {{yes|[md͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[mbr]}} || {{yes|[ml]}} || {{yes|[mw]}} || {{yes|[mj]}}
 |-
 ! n
-| {{no}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
+| {{yes|[mp]}} || {{yes|[nt]}} || {{yes|[ŋk]}} || {{yes|[mb]}} || {{yes|[nd]}} || {{yes|[ŋg]}} || {{yes|[mm]}} || {{yes|[mn]}} || {{yes|[mɸ]}} || {{yes|[mv]}} || {{yes|[nt͡s]}} || {{yes|[nd͡z]}} || {{yes|[ɲɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɲd͡ʑ]}} || {{yes|[nr]}} || {{yes|[nl]}} || {{yes|[nw]}} || {{yes|[ɲ]}}
 |-
 ! s
@@ Line 118: / Line 164: @@
 |-
 ! z
-| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{yes|[zk]}}||  {{yes|[zb]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[zn]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[zl]}} || {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
+| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{no}}||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}}|| {{yes|[zw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
 |-
 ! ɕ
-| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
+| {{yes|[ɕp]}} || {{yes|[ɕt]}} || {{yes|[ɕk]}} || {{yes|[ɕb]}} || {{yes|[ɕd]}} || {{yes|[ɕg]}} || {{yes|[ɕm]}} || {{yes|[ɕɲ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɸ]}} || {{yes|[ɕv]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{yes|[ɕɕ]}} || {{yes|[ɕʑ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ɕw]}} || {{yes|[ɕ]}}
 |-
 ! ʑ
-| {{no}}|| {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑk]}}||  {{yes|[ʑb]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑɲ]}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑʎ]}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
+| {{no}}|| {{no}} ||{{no}}||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||  {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|[ʑw]}} || {{yes|[ʑ]}}
 |-
 ! x
@@ Line 145: / Line 191: @@
 ** When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, ''enâ'' would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and ''bābá'' as [ba.àˈbá].
-===W-ablaut===
+===Ablauts===
-The '''w-ablaut''' is a morpho-phonological process that appears throughout Saxuma inflections. It performs the following vowel transformations:
+There are two ablauts that appear through a number of Saxuma inflections.
+The '''w-ablaut''' is the more common of the two, appearing in a number of verbal conjugations and in many nouns construct form. It performs the following vowel transformations:
 * a → aw, or → o if word-final and unstressed
 * i → yu
+* e → yo
 * u → ū
-* e → yo
 * o → ō
+The '''y-ablaut''' primarily only appears in the -JA verbal conjugation. It performs the following transformations:
+* a → ay
+* i → ī
+* e → ē
+* u, o → oy
 ==Orthography==
 ===Romanization===
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width:1000px"
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 80%"
 |+ Saxuma Romanization
 |-
@@ Line 173: / Line 227: @@
 ==Morphology==
+===Nominal Morphology===
-===Pronouns===
+====Case====
+Nominals - including nouns, pronouns, and adjectives - in Saxuma take one of five cases. For nouns and adjectives, only the construct and dative-allative cases require any declension — the others use the base form, and potentially a particle. Pronouns, however, have irregular declensions for all five cases.
+* The '''direct''' case is the plain form of a nominal. It is used by default in any context where another marking is not required.
+* The '''absolutive''' case marks the sole argument of intransitive verbs, and the patient of transitive verbs (see [[Saxuma#Syntax|Syntax]]). It is marked in non-pronouns by placing the particle ''ka'' after the noun phrase.
+* The '''genitive''' and '''construct''' cases are closely related. The genitive marks the possessor in a genitive phrase, and the construct the possessed. For the most part, the genitive is only used by pronouns, in which instances the possessed noun simply uses the direct form.
+:: "biga ome"
+:: foot I.{{sc|gen}}
+:: ''my foot''
+: In most other situations, the construct case is used exclusively. The construct forms of singular nominals is highly irregular, and must be learned individually, though some trends exist, such as many construct cases suffixing -u, -o, -yu, -vu, or -su, or performing w-ablaut on the final vowel. Plural nominals formed by suffixing ''-sí'' replace it with ''-xú'', and those ending with ''-míx'' or ''-kóm'' form it by additionally suffixing ''-u''.
+:: "bigaw huk"
+:: foot.{{sc|cons}} chicken
+:: ''the chicken's foot''
+: Any adjectives modifying a construct noun also take the construct case.
+:: "bigaw savu huk"
+:: foot.{{sc|cons}} left.{{sc|cons}} chicken
+:: ''the chicken's left foot''
+: However, the construct case may be omitted and the preposition ''u'' ("of") may be used instead in cases where it would aid in clarity, particularly when there is nested possession.
+:: "huko vivyu injeni" → "huk u vivyu injeni"
+:: chicken.{{sc|cons}} child.{{sc|cons}} farmer → chicken of child.{{sc|cons}} farmer
+:: ''the farmer's child's chicken'' → ''the chicken of the farmer's child''
+* The '''dative-allative''' case is used both to mark the oblique argument of verbs, as well as to convey the motion of coming upon or landing on the motion's target, but not other forms of motion (which usually use the preposition ''eke'', meaning "towards"). Outside of pronouns, this is usually marked with a prefix, determined regularly by the noun's initial phoneme, as below. Adjectives do not decline for the dative-allative. Like with ''u'', the preposition ''ba'' can also be used to mark the dative-allative when it would be applied to complementary phrases.
+: Before initial i- or u-, prefix ''baz-''.
+:: ''ībi'' → ''bazîbi''
+:: ''umex'' → ''bazúmex''
+: Before other vowels and initial w- or y-, prefix ''bad-''.
+:: ''aska'' → ''badáska''
+:: ''emín'' → ''bademín''
+:: ''oqan'' → ''badóqan''
+:: ''wak'' → ''badwák''
+:: ''yūsi'' → ''badyûsi''
+: Before nasal consonants, prefix ''bo-''.
+:: ''may'' → ''bomáy''
+:: ''nir'' → ''bonír''
+: Before initial plosives, prefix ''baq-''. Some speakers also devoice voiced plosives when doing this.
+:: ''tek'' → ''baqték''
+:: ''gijo'' → ''baqgíjo'' or ''baqkíjo''
+: Before initial h- and f-, delete the initial consonant and prefix ''bat-''.
+:: ''hyō'' → ''batyô''
+:: ''hap'' → ''batáp''
+:: ''fenyo'' → ''batényo''
+: Before initial v-, delete the v- and prefix ''bab-''.
+:: ''viko'' → ''babíko''
+: Before initial s- and x-, prefix ''bat-'', and before initial z- or j-, prefix ''bad-''.
+:: ''zen'' → ''badzén''
+:: ''xek'' → ''batxék''
+: Before initial l- and r-, prefix ''ba-.''
+:: ''rik'' → ''barík''
+:: ''lobo'' → ''balóbo''
+====Number====
+Number is not required to be marked, but plurality can be explicitly indicated with the suffix ''-sí'' (or ''-xú'' in the construct form). Words ending in a nasal instead suffix ''-zí/-jú'', and those ending in any other consonant delete that final consonant before appending ''-sí/-xú''.
+The dual can be indicated by suffixing ''-míx'' (construct ''-míxu'') to any nominal, including pronouns. ''-míx'' is attached to the plural forms of non-gendered pronouns, and the singular form of gendered pronouns.
+====Pronouns====
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
-|+ Saxuma Pronouns
+|+ Saxuma pronouns
 |-
-! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=4| 3rd Person
+! rowspan=3| !! colspan=4| 1st Person !! colspan=2| 2nd Person !! colspan=2| 3rd Person !! colspan=4 | Gendered
 |-
-! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| neuter singular !! rowspan=2| feminine singular !! rowspan=2| masculine singular !! rowspan=2| plural
+! rowspan=2| singular !! colspan=3| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! rowspan=2| singular !! rowspan=2| plural !! colspan=2| {{sx-m|lunar}} !! colspan=2| {{sx-s|solar}}
 |-
-! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive
+! generic !! inclusive !! exclusive !! {{sx-m|singular}} !! {{sx-m|plural}} !! {{sx-s|singular}} !! {{sx-s|plural}}
 |-
 ! Direct
-| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || tex || dē || le || in || ca
+| me || ma || mazén || mawís || zu || ter || dē || ca || {{sx-m|le}} || {{sx-m|lele}} || {{sx-s|in}} || {{sx-s|igin}}
 |-
 ! Absolutive
-| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || texka || dēka || lek || inka || daqá
+| mek || colspan=3| maká || zuká || terak || dēk || daqá || {{sx-m|lek}} || {{sx-m|eleká}} || {{sx-s|inka}} || {{sx-s|ginka}}
 |-
 ! Genitive
-| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || uséx || urê || olé || ohín || urá
+| omé || colspan=3| wimá || unú || usér || urê || urá || {{sx-m|olé}} || {{sx-m|olelé}} || {{sx-s|ohín}} || {{sx-s|ohigín}}
 |-
 ! Construct
-| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || leyu || inu || caw
+| myo || colspan=3| maw || zū || tero || desu || caw || {{sx-m|leyu}} || {{sx-m|lelyo}} || {{sx-s|inu}}  || {{sx-s|ginu}}
 |-
-! Dative-Superessive
+! Dative-Allative
-| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batéx || bade || bose || bagín || bacá
+| bome || colspan=3| bemá || bay || batér || bade || bacá || {{sx-m|bose}} || {{sx-m|baselé}} || {{sx-s|bagín}} || {{sx-s|baynin}}
 |}
+* ''mazén'' and ''mawís'' do not decline, and instead use prepositions and particles to mark nouns like true nominals.
+* The gendered pronouns do not have a fixed person. In narrative contexts, they generally function as third person, but in conversation they can also be used for first or second person, similar to East Asian kinship terms.
+====Gender====
+: ''See: [[Saxuma#Semantics of gender|Semantics of gender]]''
-===Nominal Morphology===
+The {{sx-m|lunar}} suffix is {{sx-m|''-(i)lé''}}, epenthesizing -i- whenever a noun ends in a consonant that is not permitted before /l/ (see [[Saxuma#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]]). The {{sx-s|solar}} suffix is {{sx-s|''-(k)ín''}}, epenthesizing -k- whenever a noun ends in any vowel or nasal.
-====Construct Case====
+Some nouns bear the agentivizing prefixes {{sx-m|''lo-/lew-''}} and {{sx-s|''in(w)-''}}, which function similarly to Latinate "-tor" and "-trix" in conveying gender, with the neutral agentivizer being ''zi-''.
-====Gender====
+====The reflexive ''-kom''====
 ===Verb Morphology===
-There are twelve verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.
+====Conjugation====
+There are eleven verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.
 * The '''regular conjugation''' includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
-* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s- or -x-.
+* The '''-SA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -s-, -x-, or -r-.
 * The '''-FA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -f- or -h-.
-* The '''-RA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -r-.
+* The '''-JA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -j- or -z-.
-* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l-.
+* The '''-LA conjugation''' includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is -l- or -v-.
 * The '''-N conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
-* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s or -x.
+* The '''-S conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -s, -x, or -r.
 * The '''-T conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
-* The '''-R conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -r.
+* The '''-H conjugation''' includes all other verbs ending in a long vowel.
-* The '''-H conjugation''' includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
 * The '''-W conjugation''' includes all verbs ending in -aw.
 * The '''-Y conjugation''' includes all of verbs ending in -ay and -oy.
-We will detail below how each verb ending inflects to the different conjugation patterns.
+Besides the stem, there are seven primary verb forms expressed through suffixes: the negative, causative, inchoative, prospective, perfective, habitual, and attributive forms. For more detail on them, see [[Saxuma/Verb Conjugation]]. For a summary of how the different endings conjugate for the different verb classes, see the table below.
-====The Negative, -NA====
-'''-NA''', the '''negative''' ending, negates the verb it attaches to.
-: Sigu palas.
-: ''The rabbit runs.''
-: Sig'''na''' palas.
-: ''The rabbit does '''not''' run.''
-=====How to conjugate -NA=====
-Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.
-: lesó → lesoná
-: enjí → enjiná
-: sigú → signá
--SA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is -x, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].
-: myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
-: exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]
--FA and -LA conjugation verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining stem, and append ná.
-: safá → sawná
-: ralí → rawná
--RA conjugation verbs delete the final vowel, change the remaining -r to -x and append -ná.
-: kurú → kuxná
--N, -S, -H, -W, and -Y conjugation verbs simply append -ná.
-: ekán → ekanná
-: rum → rumná
-: sarás → sarasná
-: oxâ → oxāná
-: aw → awná
-: way → wayná
--R conjugation verbs replace the final -r with -x and append -ná.
-: elér → elexná
--T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply w-ablaut, and finally append ná.
-: enák → enawná
-: hē → hyoná
-See the summary in the table below:
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
-|+ Negative -NA conjugation by verb class
+|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
 |-
-! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA
+! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
 |-
 ! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
-| lesó || lesoná
+| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
 |-
 ! Weak
-| sigú || signá
+| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
 |-
 ! colspan=2 -| -SA
-| exí || exná
+| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
 |-
 ! colspan=2 | -FA
-| safá || sawná
+| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
 |-
-! colspan=2 | -RA
+! colspan=2 | -JA
-| kurú || kuxná
+| mujú || moyná || moybí||  mujwáy || moykún || mujû || mujwáx || moylá
 |-
 ! colspan=2 | -LA
-| ralí || rawná
+| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
 |-
 ! colspan=2 | -N
-| ekán || ekanná
+| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
 |-
 ! colspan=2 | -S
-| sarás|| sarasná
+| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -R
-| elér || elexná
 |-
 ! colspan=2 | -T
-| enák || enawná
+| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
 |-
 ! colspan=2  | -H
-| oxâ || oxāná
+| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx  || oxawsá
 |-
 ! colspan=2 | -W
-| law || lawná
+| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
 |-
 ! colspan=2 | -Y
-| way || wayná
+| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
 |}
-====The Causative, -BI====
+====Evidentiality====
-'''-BI''', the '''causative''' ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.
-: In sig'''bi''' palas.
-: ''He '''makes''' the rabbit run.''
-=====How to conjugate -BI=====
+In Saxuma, evidentiality can be expressed through verbal prefixes. Their morphology is much simpler than the various ending forms, and act with no regard to the verb class of the stem.
--BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception: -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú
-: enák → enacú
-: hē → hecú
-See the table below for a summary.
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
-|+ Causative -BI conjugation by verb class
-|-
-! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Causative -BI
-|-
-! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
-| lesó || lesobí
-|-
-! Weak
-| sigú || sigbí
-|-
-! colspan=2 -| -SA
-| exí || exbí
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -FA
-| safá || sawbí
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -RA
-| kurú || kuxbí
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -LA
-| ralí || rawbí
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -N
-| ekán || ekanbí
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -S
-| sarás || sarasbí
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -R
-| gir || gixbí
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -T
-| enák || enacú
-|-
-! colspan=2  | -H
-| oxâ || oxābí
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -W
-| law || lawbí
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -Y
-| way || waybí
-|}
-====The Inchoative, -WAY====
+* '''Unmarked''' evidentiality indicates something that the speaker feels they can reasonably report as true, with no particular implication one way or another. It is also used for stating things considered to be general truths or common sense.
+* '''Inferential''' information that seems to be the case based on some evidence, but which the speaker is not necessarily certain of, is expressed by the prefix ''kan-'' on all verbs.
+*: torá → kantorá
+*: exí → kanexí
+*: gir → kangír
+* '''Hearsay''', information that the speaker has learned from another person but which they do not necessarily personally vouch for, is expressed by the prefix ''la-'' before r- and l-initial verbs, ''lex-'' before other consonant-initial verbs, and ''lar-'' before vowel-initial verbs.
+*: torá → lextorá
+*: ryu → laryú
+*: lesó → lalesó
+*: uzá → laruzá
+* '''Definitive''' information that the speaker wants to emphasize that they know for certain to be factual is expressed with the prefix ''tom-'' on verbs beginning with consonants, ''tam-'' on verbs beginning with round vowels, and ''tamw-'' on verbs beginning with other vowels.
+*: torá → tomtorá
+*: ōná → tamōná
+*: exí → tamwexí
+* '''Intuitive''' information is that which the speaker believes or feels confidently, but based primarily on instinctual leanings rather than any clear evidence or reasoning. It is indicated with the prefix ''eny-'' before vowel-initial verbs, ''nye-'' before initial labial consonants or /r/, and ''en-'' before initial palatal consonants. Before other consonants, the prefix ''en-'' is used, and also a palatalizing mutation occurs on the initial consonant.
+*: bulíx → nyebulíx
+*: ryu → nyeryú
+*: exí → enyexí
+*: yos → enyós
+*: torá → entyorá
+*: gir → engyír
+*: liré → enlyiré
+*: hanú → enhyanú
-'''-WAY''', the '''inchoative''' ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.
+====Imperative and Hortative====
-: Sig'''way''' palas.
-: ''The rabbit '''is starting to''' run.'' or ''The rabbit '''is about to''' run.''
-=====How to Conjugate -WAY=====
+The imperative is formed simply using the stem form of a verb, optionally followed by ''zu/ter/[name] ya''. The hortative - indicating meanings such as "let us X," "may X happen," etc., is formed by moving the stress to the initial syllable, and elongating the vowel it falls on. Diphthongs elongate the first vowel only. This leads to some verbs seeing no real change.
+: lesó → lêso
+: nar → nār
+: law → lâwo
+: xō → xō
-For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA, with one exception: -W and -LA verbs delete the final -lV or -w and append -wáy.
+==Syntax==
-: law → lawáy
-: ralí → rawáy
-See the table below.
+Saxuma sentence order is primarily aligned along ergative-absolutive distinctions, so below, instead of S and O for subject and object, we will use E to mark the ergative argument and A to mark the absolutive argument.
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+The basic unmarked sentence structure of Saxuma is (E)VA for transitive statements. In this unmarked structure, the absolutive case is not explicitly marked, and instead the direct case form of the A is used. Word order is flexible though, allowing for AV, AVE, VAE, and AEV orderings. Generally, any ordering in which A appears before V requires that the A be explicitly marked with the absolutive case. It is also frequently used with VAE to clearly mark the boundary of the A and E, but it is not strictly required. However, intransitive sentences where the A has a particularly agentic semantic role, is a pronoun, or is a name, can also omit the absolutive marking.
-|+ Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class
-|-
-! colspan =2 | Class !! Example Stem !! Inchoative -WAY
-|-
-! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
-| lesó || lesowáy
-|-
-! Weak
-| sigú || sigwáy
-|-
-! colspan=2 -| -SA
-| exí || exfáy
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -FA
-| safá || sawfáy
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -RA
-| kurú || kuxfáy
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -LA
-| ralí || rawáy
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -N
-| ekán || ekanwáy
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -S
-| sarás || sarasfáy
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -R
-| elér || elexfáy
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -T
-| enák || enawfáy
-|-
-! colspan=2  | -H
-| oxâ || oxāfáy
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -W
-| law || lawáy
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -Y
-| way || waywáy
-|}
-====The Prospective, -KUN====
+There is no copula, and so copular phrases function similar to VA/AV statements, where the V is replaced with the predicate noun or adjective. These follow the same rules of absolutive marking as sentences with intransitive verbs.
-'''-KUN''', the '''prospective ending''', indicates that the verb is nearing completion or about to begin in earnest, with a strong implication that the speaker or a referent in the narrative is anticipating the fruition of the action.
+Determiners precede the nouns that they modify, and adjectives and prepositional phrases follow them. Adverbs may be placed anywhere in the sentence, with a preference towards placing them at the beginning or adjacent to the verb. Adverbs modifying adjectives are placed before the adjective.
-: Garu le ba be ohin.
-: ''She arrives at his house.'''
-: Gax'''kun''' le ba be ohin.
+===The topic marker ''sa''===
-: ''She is/was about to arrive at his house.''
-=====How to conjugate -KUN=====
+===Complementary Phrases===
-Regular strong verbs, -N verbs, -W verbs, and -Y verbs simply append -kún.
+====''Ka'' as a complementizer====
-: enjí → enjikún
-: ten → tenkún
-: aw → awkún
-: way → waykún
-Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -kún.
+====''U'' as a complementizer====
-* Note that plosives become [ʔ] before another plosive, and that high vowels are lowered before [ʔ]. This can cause lowering of the vowel in the stem.
-: damá → damkún
-: riká → rikkún [rɛˈqun]
--SA and -RA verbs delete the final -CV and append -qún.
+====The complementizer ''vin''====
-: kosá → koqún
-: exí → eqún
-: kurú → kuqún
--LA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append kún.
+====The attributive====
-: ralí → rawkún
--FA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut to the remaining vowel, and append -qún.
+==Semantics==
-: safá → sawqún
--S, -R, and t-, k-, or p-final -T verbs delete the final -C, and append -qún.
+===Semantics of gender===
-: herúx → heruqún
+: ''See also: [[Saxuma#Gender|Gender]]''
-: sarás → saraqún
-: gir → giqún
-: enák → enaqún
--H verbs and -ē final -T verbs shorten the final vowel and append qún.
+There is substantial debate over how to categorize and describe gender in Saxuma. It is not a grammatical gender system, but rather semantic. It is largely agreed that historically, the two genders mapped to a traditional masculine-feminine split (evidenced by words such as "man," "woman," and sexed animal terms being derived from the gendered suffixes), but now is used to describe the speaker's attitude toward the referent or their role in a narrative, with the potential to shift mid-discourse.
-: oxâ → oxaqún
-: pē → peqún
-: xō → xoqún
-See the summary table below:
+Because of the history of the gender system, as well as the fact that most of the associations of the two genders line up well with existing stereotypes of men and women, some argue it is most appropriate to describe the Saxuma genders as masculine and feminine. Indeed, direct translations of European languages with gendered pronouns frequently use {{sx-s|''in''}} to translate "he" and {{sx-m|''le''}} for "she." However, others opt against this in an attempt to make it clear that there is only a tenuous link between the semantic gender and a referent's gender identity. Many alternative sets of terms have been proposed, such as yin-yang, passive-active, orange-blue, etc. Classrooms on Sasajos generally use the terms {{sx-m|lunar}} and {{sx-s|solar}}, which are also featured in municipally-sponsored textbooks. For this reason, this page will use these as well.
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
+Gendered terms are frequently used in narrative. In conversation, though, they are generally reserved for people the speaker is familiar with, as they can carry an intimate, playful, or rude connotation. Using gendered pronouns with strangers is generally considered mocking, hostile, or openly flirtatious. The implication of each gender varies based on the context and tone. Below is a table summarizing common connotations.
-|+ Prospective -KUN conjugations by verb class
+{| class="wikitable"
-|-
+|+ Common gender connotations in Saxuma (del Aglio, 2017)
-! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Prospective -KUN
-|-
-! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
-| lesó || lesokún
-|-
-! Weak
-| sigú || sigkún
-|-
-! colspan=2 -| -SA
-| exí || eqún
 |-
-! colspan=2 | -FA
+! Tone or Context !! {{sx-m|Lunar}} !! {{sx-s|Solar}}
-| safá || sawqún
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -RA
-| kurú || kuqún
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -LA
-| ralí ||  rawkun
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -N
-| ekán || ekankún
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -S
-| sarás || saraqún
 |-
-! colspan=2 | -R
+| Praising || Smart, beautiful, wise, insightful, learned || Funny, strong, impressive, handy, energetic
-| elér || eleqún
 |-
-! colspan=2 | -T
+| Flirtatious || Beautiful, cute, enticing, following, shy || Fit, dominant, seductive, leading, sexy, confident
-| enák || enaqún
 |-
-! colspan=2  | -H
+| Teasing || Sleepy, low energy, lazy, spacy, callous, pathetic || Silly, worked up, easily teased, frazzled, hyperactive
-| oxâ || oxaqún
 |-
-! colspan=2 | -W
+| Aggressive || Airheaded, lazy, inconsiderate || Buffoonish, obnoxious, whiny
-| law || lawkún
 |-
-! colspan=2 | -Y
+| Narrative || Passive, introverted, strange, deceitful, sagacious, nurturing, aloof, anxious, depressed, narcissistic, cold, logical || Active, extroverted, bold, heroic, protective, impressive, foolish, unaware, cruel, angry, brash, hysterical, emotional
-| way || waykún
 |}
-====The Perfective, -W====
+===Time===
-'''-W''', the '''perfective''' ending, indicates that the action in the verb is completed.
-: Sila kajip.
-: ''The guest leaves.''
-: Sila'''w''' kajip.
-: ''The guest '''has left'''.''
-=====How to conjugate -W=====
-All regular, -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs apply w-ablaut to the final vowel.
-: lesó → lesô
-: sigú → sigû
-: exí → exyú
-: safá → safáw
-: kurú → kurû
-: ralí → ralyú
--N verbs append -la. This does not draw stress from where it would be in the stem.
-: ekán → ekánla
-: rum → rúmla
--S and -R verbs delete the final consonant, apply w-ablaut to the remaining final vowel, and append -sa. This does not draw stress.
-: elér → elyósa
-: yos → yôsa
-: bulíx → bulyúsa
--T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē and append -táw.
-: enák → enatáw
-: hē → hetáw
--H verbs shorten the final vowel, apply w-ablaut, and then append -sa. This does not draw stress.
-: oxâ → oxáwsa
-: orî → oryúsa
-: xō → xôsa
--W verbs delete the final -aw and append -ála.
-: aw → ála
-: ryuláw → ryulála
--Y verbs append -ú.
-: way → wayú
-See the summary table below.
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
-|+ Perfective -W conjugation by verb class
-|-
-! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Perfective -W
-|-
-! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
-| lesó || lesô
-|-
-! Weak
-| sigú || sigû
-|-
-! colspan=2 -| -SA
-| exí || exyú
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -FA
-| safá || safáw
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -RA
-| kurú || kûsa
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -LA
-| ralí || ralyú
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -N
-| ekán || ekánla
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -S
-| sarás || saráwsa
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -R
-| elér || elyósa
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -T
-| enák || enatáw
-|-
-! colspan=2  | -H
-| oxâ || oxáwsa
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -W
-| law || lála
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -Y
-| way ||wayú
-|}
-====The Habitual, -AX====
-'''-AX''', the '''habitual''' ending, indicates that the agent of the verb performs it frequently, or that the verb expresses some general truth about the agent's behavior.
-: Me lesó lyu don.
-: ''I read many books.''
-: Me leso'''wáx''' lyu don.
-: ''I '''have been reading''' many books.''
-: Mujú aska.
-: ''The fish swims.''
-: Muj'''wáx''' aska.
-: ''Fish swim '''[in general]'''.''
-=====How to conjugate -AX=====
-Conjugation of -AX generally follows the following pattern:
-* Verbs with final -a append -x.
-* Verbs with final -i or -e append -yáx.
-* Verbs with final -u or -o append -wáx.
-* Verbs with final consonants append -áx.
-This simple pattern applies to all verbs ending in -a, regular strong verbs, and -N, -S, -R, and -Y verbs.
-: enjí → enjiyáx
-: lesó → lesowáx
-: lewá → lewáx
-: ekán → ekanáx
-: way → wayáx
-: gir → giráx
-: saras → sarasáx
-Regular weak verbs and -SA, -FA, -RA, and -LA verbs that end in -i or -u follow this pattern, with the one exception of eliding the final vowel.
-: ralí → ralyáx
-: kurú → kurwáx
-: wakí → wakyáx
--T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten -ē and append -táx.
-: enák → enatáx
-: hē → hetáx
--H verbs shorten the final vowel and append -háx.
-: oxâ → oxaháx
-: mosē → moseháx
--W verbs delete the final -aw, and append -aláx.
-: maw → maláx
-See the summary table below.
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
-|+ Habitual -AX conjugation by verb class
-|-
-! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Habitual -AX
-|-
-! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
-| lesó || lesowáx
-|-
-! Weak
-| sigú ||  sigwáx
-|-
-! colspan=2 -| -SA
-| exí || exyáx
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -FA
-| safá || safáx
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -RA
-| kurú || kurwáx
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -LA
-| ralí || ralyáx
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -N
-| ekán || ekanáx
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -S
-| sarás || sarasáx
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -R
-| elér || eleráx
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -T
-| enák|| enatáx
-|-
-! colspan=2  | -H
-| oxâ || oxaháx
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -W
-| law || laláx
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -Y
-| way || wayáx
-|}
-====The Attributive, -LA====
-'''-LA''', the '''attributive''' ending, is the only verbal ending that does not indicate a change in semantic meaning. Rather, it changes the syntactic function of the verb into an adjective, indicating that the modified noun performs the action in the verb. This can function similarly to English gerunds or complementary phrases.
-: Mujná aska.
-: ''The fish does not swim.''
-: Aska mujna'''lá''' sa taláw.
-: "The fish '''that''' swims is dead.''
-More advanced usage of -LA is explained at [[Saxuma#-LA]].
-=====How to conjugate -LA=====
-Regular strong, -N, and -Y verbs append -lá. Regular weak verbs delete the final vowel and append -lá.
-: leso → lesolá
-: sigú → siglá
-: ekán → ekanlá
-: way → waylá
--LA verbs replace the final vowel with -á.
-: ralí → ralá
-: silá → silá
-: gelú → gelá
--W verbs replace the final -aw with -alá.
-: ryuláw → ryulalá
-: maw → malá
--T verbs delete the final consonant or shorten final -ē, and then append -xá.
-: enák → enaxá
-: hē → hexá
--SA, -FA, and -RA verbs delete the final -CV, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
-: exí → yosá
-: safá → sawsá
-: kurú → kūsá
--H verbs shorten the final long vowel, apply w-ablaut, and append -sá.
-: oxâ → oxawsá
-: orî → oryusá
-See the summary table below.
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
-|+ Attributive -LA conjugation by verb class
-|-
-! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Attributive -LA
-|-
-! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
-| lesó || lesolá
-|-
-! Weak
-| sigú || siglá
-|-
-! colspan=2 -| -SA
-| exí ||yosá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -FA
-| safá || sawsá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -RA
-| kurú || kūsá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -LA
-| ralí || ralá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -N
-| ekán || ekanlá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -S
-| sarás || sarawsá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -R
-| elér || elyosá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -T
-| enák || enaxá
-|-
-! colspan=2  | -H
-| oxâ ||  oxawsá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -W
-| law || lalá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -Y
-| way ||  waylá
-|}
-===Summary===
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
-|+ Verb conjugations by class and inflection
-|-
-! colspan=2| Class !! Example Stem !! Negative -NA !! Causative -BI !! Inchoative -WAY !! Prospective -KUN !! Perfective -W !! Habitual -AX !! Attributive -LA
-|-
-! rowspan=2 | Regular !! Strong
-| lesó || lesoná || lesobí || lesowáy || lesokún || lesô || lesowáx || lesolá
-|-
-! Weak
-| sigú || signá || sigbí || sigwáy || sigkún || sigû || sigwáx || siglá
-|-
-! colspan=2 -| -SA
-| exí || exná || exbí || exfáy || eqún || exyú || exyáx || yosá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -FA
-| safá || sawná || sawbí || sawfáy || sawqún || safáw || safáx || sawsá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -RA
-| kurú || kuxná || kuxbí ||  kuxfáy || kuqún || kûsa || kurwáx || kūsá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -LA
-| ralí || rawná || rawbí || rawáy || rawkún || ralyú || ralyáx || ralá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -N
-| ekán || ekanná || ekanbí || ekanwáy || ekankún || ekánla || ekanáx || ekanlá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -S
-| sarás || sarasná || sarasbí || sarasfáy || saraqún || saráwsa || sarasáx || sarawsá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -R
-| elér || elexná || elexbí || elexfáy || eleqún || elyósa || eleráx || elyosá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -T
-| enák || enawná || enacú || enasfáy || enaqún || enatáw || enatáx || enaxá
-|-
-! colspan=2  | -H
-| oxâ || oxāná || oxābí || oxafáy || oxaqún || oxáwsa || oxaháx  || oxawsá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -W
-| law || lawná || lawbí || lawáy || lawkún || lála || laláx || lalá
-|-
-! colspan=2 | -Y
-| way || wayná || waybí || waywáy || waykún || wayú || wayáx || waylá
-|}
 ==Sample Texts==
@@ Line 846: / Line 480: @@
 ! English !! Saxuma !! IPA !! Gloss
 |-
-| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
+| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
-| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay. Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
+| Damáx zénu hip úmano vin gíjo i alá díni i rus nay.
-| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈzɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj ǁ ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
+| dɑ̀ˈmáɕ ˈd͡zɛ́.nu ˈxipʰ ˈú.mɑ.no βin ˈgí.ʑo i ɑ̀ˈlá ˈdí.ni i ˈr̥uh ˈnaj
-| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal. Have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
+| are-born.{{sc|hab}} all.{{sc|cons}} person human as free and have.{{sc|attr}} dignity and right equal.
+|-
+| They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
+| Aw bacá románu i korásu êma, i sū sirú bacakóm to korásu yúnem.
+| ˈɑw bɑ̀ˈcá r̥òˈmá.nu i kòˈrá.su ˈe᷉ː.ma ǀ i ˈsuː sìˈr̥ú bɑ.càˈkóm to kòˈrá.su jú.nɛm
+| have {{sc|3p.dat}} reason.{{sc|cons}} and heart.{{sc|cons}} ethics, and should behave {{sc|3p.dat-ref}} with heart.{{sc|cons}} fraternity.
 |}
 ==See Also==
 * [[:Category:Saxuma words]]
+* [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/11JLg5e7buMcLStyzS1hMONiVVdzuHEtbVSuS8SmvndU/edit?usp=sharing Saxuma Dictionary]
 [[Category:Saxuma]]
 [[Category:Languages]]
 [[Category:Conlangs]]