Akhyan: Difference between revisions

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==Phonology==
==Orthography==
<!-- ***Phonology*** -->
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.
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Vowel inventory
===Consonants===
Consonant inventory
 
Syllable structure
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
Stress
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants
Intonation
! colspan="3" |Labial
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Dental
| rowspan="9" |
! colspan="3" |Velar
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|m
|m
|မ
|n
|n
|န
|q
|င
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|p
|p
|ပ
|t
|t
|တ
|k
|k
|က
|-
!Aspirated
|pʰ
|ph
|ဖ
|tʰ
|th
|ထ
|kʰ
|kh
|ခ
|-
!Voiced
|b
|b
|ဗ
|d
|d
|ဒ
|g
|g
|ဂ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|f
|f
|ၾ
|
|
|
|h
|x
|ဟ
|-
!Voiced
|v
|v
|ဘ
|
|
|
|' (medial)
|အ
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|w
|w
|ဝ
|l
|l
|လ
|
|
|
|}


-->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
===Orthography===
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants
===Consonants===
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Retroflex
| rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!script
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
!Tenuis
|t͡s
|c
|ၸ
|t͡ʂ
|ဋ
|t͡ɕ
|စ
|-
!Aspirated
|t͡sʰ
|ch
|ႀ
|t͡ʂʰ
|çh
|ဌ
|t͡ɕʰ
|ćh
|ဆ
|-
!Voiced
|d͡z
|ၻ
|d͡ʐ
|ဍ
|d͡ʑ
|j
|ၺ
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Tenuis
|s
|s
|သ
|ၑ
|ၔ
|-
!Voiced
|z
|z
|ဓ
|ẓ
|ၓ
|ည
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|r
|ရ
|
|
|
|j
|y
|ယ
|}


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
===Prosody===
{| class="wikitable"
====Stress====
|+
====Intonation====
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="7" |Front
| rowspan="6" |
! colspan="7" |Back
|-
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
! colspan="3" |Flat
| rowspan="5" |
! colspan="3" |Round
|-
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
!IPA
!Romanisation
!Script
|-
!Close
|i
|i
|ကိ
|y
|ကၳ
|iu
|ကၖ
|u
|u
|ကု
|-
!Middle
|e
|e
|ကဲ
|ကၲ
|eo
|ကါ
|o
|o
|ကး
|-
!Open
|ai
|ကေ
|ကႄ
|a
|က
|au
|ကီ
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics
|-
|ိ
|ၳ
|ၖ
|ု
|-
|ဲ
|ၲ
|ါ
|း
|-
|ေ
|ႄ
|
|ီ
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics
|-
|်
|္
|}
 
Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively.


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->


<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
==Nouns & Adjectives==
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings.  Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.


Nouns
{| class="wikitable"
Adjectives
|+
Verbs
!1
Adverbs
|Numbers
Particles
|Singular & Plural
Derivational morphology
|-
!2
|Cases
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental
|}


-->
Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
* Akranta (-a stems)
* Zeokçho (-o stems)
* Mitaveş (Consonant stems)
 
According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
* Łiunaing '''Intransitive Case'''
* Kaothiv '''Ergative Case'''
* Penubo '''Accusative Case'''
* Nauthang '''Genitive Case'''
* Seomar '''Dative Case'''
* Baćhi '''Ablative Case'''
* Xallei '''Locative Case'''
* Reftou '''Instrumental Case'''
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha "Storeroom"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -a
| -e
|Koşçh'''a'''
|Koşçh'''e'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ane
| -ene
|Koşçh'''ane'''
|Koşçh'''ene'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -am
| -as
|Koşçh'''am'''
|Koşçh'''as'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -arum
| -os
|Koşçh'''arum'''
|Koşçh'''os'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -avya
| -anya
|Koşçh'''avya'''
|Koşçh'''anya'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -aya
| -aye
|Koşçh'''aya'''
|Koşçh'''aye'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Koşçh'''i'''
|Koşçh'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -avi
| -avis
|Koşçh'''avi'''
|Koşçh'''avis'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo "Bed"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -o
| -ai
|Nintalp'''o'''
|Nintalp'''ai'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -one
| -ones
|Nintalp'''one'''
|Nintalp'''ones'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -um
| -ovas
|Nintalp'''um'''
|Nintalp'''ovas'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -una
| -unas
|Nintalp'''una'''
|Nintalp'''unas'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -us
| -os
|Nintalp'''us'''
|Nintalp'''os'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -au
| -om
|Nintalp'''au'''
|Nintalp'''om'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -i
| -evya
|Nintalp'''i'''
|Nintalp'''evya'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -aun
| -aus
|Nintalp'''aun'''
|Nintalp'''aus'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät "Cotton"
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
|'''Intransitive'''
| -X
| -es
|Dazkhät
|Dazkhät'''es'''
|-
|'''Ergative'''
| -ne
| -nes
|Dazkhät'''ne'''
|Dazkhät'''nes'''
|-
|'''Accusative'''
| -em
| -ya
|Dazkhät'''em'''
|Dazkhät'''ya'''
|-
|'''Genitive'''
| -ae
| -yum
|Dazkhät'''ae'''
|Dazkhät'''yum'''
|-
|'''Dative'''
| -ye
| -we
|Dazkhät'''ye'''
|Dazkhät'''we'''
|-
|'''Ablative'''
| -i
| -u
|Dazkhät'''i'''
|Dazkhät'''u'''
|-
|'''Locative'''
| -e
| -o
|Dazkhät'''e'''
|Dazkhät'''o'''
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
| -ai
| -au
|Dazkhät'''ai'''
|Dazkhät'''au'''
|}
 
== Verbs ==
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.
 
Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' “to carry”, require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' “to sleep” function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.
 
==== Building Verbs ====
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- functions as the base for the verb Girtan, meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.
 
=== Non-Finite Forms ===
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.
 
==== Infinitives ====
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''n''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''n''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan''', leaving '''Niuta''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs
 
==== Participles ====
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.
 
The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''', serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' "to tell" (root: '''√thiź-''')
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Present
| -ens
| -onc
|Thiź'''ens'''
|Thiź'''onc'''
|-
!Aorist
|
| -tyo
|
|Thiźa'''tyo'''
|-
!Perfect
| -yana
|
|Thiź'''yana'''
|
|-
!Future
| -śya
| -ndo
|Thiźa'''śya'''
|Thiźa'''ndo'''
|}
 
==== Gerunds ====
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific suffixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice, but cannot decline for number.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Layout
! colspan="2" |Example
|-
!Active
!Passive
!Active
!Passive
|-
!Accusative
| -ime
| -ibe
|kalt'''ime'''
|kalt'''ibe'''
|-
!Genitive
| -ae
| -ao
|kalt'''ae'''
|kalt'''ao'''
|-
!Dative
| -ixar
| -iqar
|kalt'''ixar'''
|kalt'''iqar'''
|-
!Ablative
| -u
| -um
|kalt'''u'''
|kalt'''um'''
|-
!Instrumental
| -upi
| -ubi
|kalt'''upi'''
|kalt'''ubi'''
|}
 
===Verb Conjugation===
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.
 
==== Primary System ====
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Primary System Personal Endings
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| -am
| -as
| -a
| -ami
| -asi
| -ati
|-
!Passive
| -arya
| -arus
| -are
| -arahe
| -ade
| -anta
|-
!Reflexive
| -arm
| -ars
| -art
| -ana
| -asva
| -adya
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| -em
| -es
| -e
| -emi
| -esi
| -eti
|-
!Passive
| -erya
| -erus
| -era
| -erahe
| -eda
| -enti
|-
!Reflexive
| -erm
| -ers
| -ert
| -ena
| -esva
| -edya
|}
 
The Present Tense of verbs are simply formed via affixing the various endings into the verb stem, connected by the thematic vowel. For instance the verb Naśan (verb root: √naś-) "to disappear" conjugated in the 3rd Person Plural Active Indicative becomes Naśati.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Present Tense of Pathan "to read"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| Path'''·a·m'''
| Path'''·a·s'''
| Path'''·a'''
| Path'''·a·mi'''
| Path'''·a·si'''
| Path'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Path'''·a·rya'''
| Path'''·a·rus'''
| Path'''·a·re'''
| Path'''·a·rahe'''
| Path'''·a·de'''
| Path'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Path'''·a·rm'''
| Path'''·a·rs'''
| Path'''·a·rt'''
| Path'''·a·na'''
| Path'''·a·sva'''
| Path'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| Path'''·e·m'''
| Path'''·e·s'''
| Path'''·e'''
| Path'''·e·mi'''
| Path'''·e·si'''
| Path'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Path'''·e·rya'''
| Path'''·e·rus'''
| Path'''·e·ra'''
| Path'''·e·rahe'''
| Path'''·e·da'''
| Path'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Path'''·e·rm'''
| Path'''·e·rs'''
| Path'''·e·rt'''
| Path'''·e·na'''
| Path'''·e·sva'''
| Path'''·e·dya'''
|}
The perfect tense is formed through the perfect stem, which is created by modifying the verb root. This is usually done by reduplicating the first consonant of the root and placing it at the beginning of the word, followed by '''-e-'''. However, if the verb root already begins with a vowel, the prefix '''in-''' is added.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Perfect Tense of Kapatan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·m'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·s'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·mi'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·si'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rya'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rus'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·re'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rahe'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·de'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rm'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rs'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rt'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·na'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·sva'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·m'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·s'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·mi'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·si'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rya'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rus'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·ra'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rahe'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·da'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rm'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rs'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rt'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·na'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·sva'''
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·dya'''
|}
The aorist tense is formed using the aorist stem, which is created from the verb root by adding the prefix '''''e-'''''. In this process, the first vowel of the root is shifted to the position of the second vowel, and the original second vowel is removed. For instance, the verb '''Faran''' "to love" (rootː √far-), the aorist form becomesː '''Efr·a'''. Vülnan "to focus" (rootː √vüln-) is '''Evlün·a'''. If the verb root begins with a vowel, the first consonant that follows the vowel becomes the intermediary for vowel relocation. For instanceː Uppatan "to prove" (rootː √uppat-) becomes '''Epupat·a'''.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Aorist Tense of Sućan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Singular
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
!1st Person
!2nd Person
!3rd Person
|-
! rowspan="3" |Indicative
!Active
| Esćun'''·a·m'''
| Esćun'''·a·s'''
| Esćun'''·a'''
| Esćun'''·a·mi'''
| Esćun'''·a·si'''
| Esćun'''·a·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Esćun'''·a·rya'''
| Esćun'''·a·rus'''
| Esćun'''·a·re'''
| Esćun'''·a·rahe'''
| Esćun'''·a·de'''
| Esćun'''·a·nta'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Esćun'''·a·rm'''
| Esćun'''·a·rs'''
| Esćun'''·a·rt'''
| Esćun'''·a·na'''
| Esćun'''·a·sva'''
| Esćun'''·a·dya'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive
!Active
| Esćun'''·e·m'''
| Esćun'''·e·s'''
| Esćun'''·e'''
| Esćun'''·e·mi'''
| Esćun'''·e·si'''
| Esćun'''·e·ti'''
|-
!Passive
| Esćun'''·e·rya'''
| Esćun'''·e·rus'''
| Esćun'''·e·ra'''
| Esćun'''·e·rahe'''
| Esćun'''·e·da'''
| Esćun'''·e·nti'''
|-
!Reflexive
| Esćun'''·e·rm'''
| Esćun'''·e·rs'''
| Esćun'''·e·rt'''
| Esćun'''·e·na'''
| Esćun'''·e·sva'''
| Esćun'''·e·dya'''
|}
 
==== Secondary System ====
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 75: Line 902:
===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.
Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.
===Sentence phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===

Latest revision as of 08:18, 8 June 2025


Introduction

Orthography

The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.

Consonants

Non-Sibilants Labial Dental Velar
IPA Romanisation script IPA Romanisation script IPA Romanisation script
Nasal m m n n ŋ q
Plosive Tenuis p p t t k k က
Aspirated ph th kh
Voiced b b d d g g
Fricative Tenuis f f h x
Voiced v v ʔ ' (medial)
Approximant w w l l
Sibilants Alveolar Retroflex Palatal
IPA Romanisation script IPA Romanisation script IPA Romanisation script
Plosive Tenuis t͡s c t͡ʂ ç t͡ɕ ć
Aspirated t͡sʰ ch t͡ʂʰ çh t͡ɕʰ ćh
Voiced d͡z ð d͡ʐ ł d͡ʑ j
Fricative Tenuis s s ʂ ş ɕ ś
Voiced z z ʐ ʑ ź
Approximant ɹ r j y

Vowels

Front Back
Flat Round Flat Round
IPA Romanisation Script IPA Romanisation Script IPA Romanisation Script IPA Romanisation Script
Close i i ကိ y ü ကၳ ɨ iu ကၖ u u ကု
Middle e e ကဲ ø ö ကၲ ə eo ကါ o o ကး
Open ɛ ai ကေ œ ä ကႄ ɐ a က ɔ au ကီ
Vowel Diacritics
Nullification Diacritics

Although both Virama (္) and Asat (်) delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. Asat (်), as in က်, marks syllable boundaries, while Virama (္), as in က္, forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when , , and are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in ကျ, ကွ, and ကြ, respectively.

Phonotactics

Nouns & Adjectives

Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.

1 Numbers Singular & Plural
2 Cases Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental

Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:

  • Akranta (-a stems)
  • Zeokçho (-o stems)
  • Mitaveş (Consonant stems)

According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.

  • Łiunaing Intransitive Case
  • Kaothiv Ergative Case
  • Penubo Accusative Case
  • Nauthang Genitive Case
  • Seomar Dative Case
  • Baćhi Ablative Case
  • Xallei Locative Case
  • Reftou Instrumental Case
Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha "Storeroom"
Case Layout Example
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Intransitive -a -e Koşçha Koşçhe
Ergative -ane -ene Koşçhane Koşçhene
Accusative -am -as Koşçham Koşçhas
Genitive -arum -os Koşçharum Koşçhos
Dative -avya -anya Koşçhavya Koşçhanya
Ablative -aya -aye Koşçhaya Koşçhaye
Locative -i -evya Koşçhi Koşçhevya
Instrumental -avi -avis Koşçhavi Koşçhavis
Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo "Bed"
Case Layout Example
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Intransitive -o -ai Nintalpo Nintalpai
Ergative -one -ones Nintalpone Nintalpones
Accusative -um -ovas Nintalpum Nintalpovas
Genitive -una -unas Nintalpuna Nintalpunas
Dative -us -os Nintalpus Nintalpos
Ablative -au -om Nintalpau Nintalpom
Locative -i -evya Nintalpi Nintalpevya
Instrumental -aun -aus Nintalpaun Nintalpaus
Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät "Cotton"
Case Layout Example
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Intransitive -X -es Dazkhät Dazkhätes
Ergative -ne -nes Dazkhätne Dazkhätnes
Accusative -em -ya Dazkhätem Dazkhätya
Genitive -ae -yum Dazkhätae Dazkhätyum
Dative -ye -we Dazkhätye Dazkhätwe
Ablative -i -u Dazkhäti Dazkhätu
Locative -e -o Dazkhäte Dazkhäto
Instrumental -ai -au Dazkhätai Dazkhätau

Verbs

Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.

Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive (Kerraż), Intransitive (Padaizma), and Ambitransitive (Dosthu). Transitive verbs, such as Girtan “to carry”, require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like Naman “to sleep” function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.

Building Verbs

Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root √girt- functions as the base for the verb Girtan, meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.

Non-Finite Forms

Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.

Infinitives

Infinitives are formed through affixing -an into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root √niut- "to dance" is Niutan. Imperatives can be formed through removing the n from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the n is omitted from the verb Niutan, leaving Niuta as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs

Participles

Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.

The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final -n, serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word Thiźan "to tell" (root: √thiź-)

Layout Example
Active Passive Active Passive
Present -ens -onc Thiźens Thiźonc
Aorist -tyo Thiźatyo
Perfect -yana Thiźyana
Future -śya -ndo Thiźaśya Thiźando

Gerunds

A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific suffixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice, but cannot decline for number.

Example: kaltan root: √kalt-
Layout Example
Active Passive Active Passive
Accusative -ime -ibe kaltime kaltibe
Genitive -ae -ao kaltae kaltao
Dative -ixar -iqar kaltixar kaltiqar
Ablative -u -um kaltu kaltum
Instrumental -upi -ubi kaltupi kaltubi

Verb Conjugation

Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.

Primary System

The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: Present, Aorist, and Perfect. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.

Primary System Personal Endings
Singular Plural
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
Indicative Active -am -as -a -ami -asi -ati
Passive -arya -arus -are -arahe -ade -anta
Reflexive -arm -ars -art -ana -asva -adya
Subjunctive Active -em -es -e -emi -esi -eti
Passive -erya -erus -era -erahe -eda -enti
Reflexive -erm -ers -ert -ena -esva -edya

The Present Tense of verbs are simply formed via affixing the various endings into the verb stem, connected by the thematic vowel. For instance the verb Naśan (verb root: √naś-) "to disappear" conjugated in the 3rd Person Plural Active Indicative becomes Naśati.

Present Tense of Pathan "to read"
Singular Plural
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
Indicative Active Path·a·m Path·a·s Path·a Path·a·mi Path·a·si Path·a·ti
Passive Path·a·rya Path·a·rus Path·a·re Path·a·rahe Path·a·de Path·a·nta
Reflexive Path·a·rm Path·a·rs Path·a·rt Path·a·na Path·a·sva Path·a·dya
Subjunctive Active Path·e·m Path·e·s Path·e Path·e·mi Path·e·si Path·e·ti
Passive Path·e·rya Path·e·rus Path·e·ra Path·e·rahe Path·e·da Path·e·nti
Reflexive Path·e·rm Path·e·rs Path·e·rt Path·e·na Path·e·sva Path·e·dya

The perfect tense is formed through the perfect stem, which is created by modifying the verb root. This is usually done by reduplicating the first consonant of the root and placing it at the beginning of the word, followed by -e-. However, if the verb root already begins with a vowel, the prefix in- is added.

Perfect Tense of Kapatan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat"
Singular Plural
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
Indicative Active Ke·kapat·a·m Ke·kapat·a·s Ke·kapat·a Ke·kapat·a·mi Ke·kapat·a·si Ke·kapat·a·ti
Passive Ke·kapat·a·rya Ke·kapat·a·rus Ke·kapat·a·re Ke·kapat·a·rahe Ke·kapat·a·de Ke·kapat·a·nta
Reflexive Ke·kapat·a·rm Ke·kapat·a·rs Ke·kapat·a·rt Ke·kapat·a·na Ke·kapat·a·sva Ke·kapat·a·dya
Subjunctive Active Ke·kapat·e·m Ke·kapat·e·s Ke·kapat·e Ke·kapat·e·mi Ke·kapat·e·si Ke·kapat·e·ti
Passive Ke·kapat·e·rya Ke·kapat·e·rus Ke·kapat·e·ra Ke·kapat·e·rahe Ke·kapat·e·da Ke·kapat·e·nti
Reflexive Ke·kapat·e·rm Ke·kapat·e·rs Ke·kapat·e·rt Ke·kapat·e·na Ke·kapat·e·sva Ke·kapat·e·dya

The aorist tense is formed using the aorist stem, which is created from the verb root by adding the prefix e-. In this process, the first vowel of the root is shifted to the position of the second vowel, and the original second vowel is removed. For instance, the verb Faran "to love" (rootː √far-), the aorist form becomesː Efr·a. Vülnan "to focus" (rootː √vüln-) is Evlün·a. If the verb root begins with a vowel, the first consonant that follows the vowel becomes the intermediary for vowel relocation. For instanceː Uppatan "to prove" (rootː √uppat-) becomes Epupat·a.

Aorist Tense of Sućan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat"
Singular Plural
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
Indicative Active Esćun·a·m Esćun·a·s Esćun·a Esćun·a·mi Esćun·a·si Esćun·a·ti
Passive Esćun·a·rya Esćun·a·rus Esćun·a·re Esćun·a·rahe Esćun·a·de Esćun·a·nta
Reflexive Esćun·a·rm Esćun·a·rs Esćun·a·rt Esćun·a·na Esćun·a·sva Esćun·a·dya
Subjunctive Active Esćun·e·m Esćun·e·s Esćun·e Esćun·e·mi Esćun·e·si Esćun·e·ti
Passive Esćun·e·rya Esćun·e·rus Esćun·e·ra Esćun·e·rahe Esćun·e·da Esćun·e·nti
Reflexive Esćun·e·rm Esćun·e·rs Esćun·e·rt Esćun·e·na Esćun·e·sva Esćun·e·dya

Secondary System

The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.

Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Other resources