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Akhyan: Difference between revisions
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== | ==Orthography== | ||
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script. | |||
===Consonants=== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | |||
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Non-Sibilants | |||
! colspan="3" |Labial | |||
| rowspan="9" | | |||
! colspan="3" |Dental | |||
| rowspan="9" | | |||
! colspan="3" |Velar | |||
|- | |||
!IPA | |||
!Romanisation | |||
!script | |||
!IPA | |||
!Romanisation | |||
!script | |||
!IPA | |||
!Romanisation | |||
!script | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" |Nasal | |||
|m | |||
|m | |||
|မ | |||
|n | |||
|n | |||
|န | |||
|ŋ | |||
|q | |||
|င | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |Plosive | |||
!Tenuis | |||
|p | |||
|p | |||
|ပ | |||
|t | |||
|t | |||
|တ | |||
|k | |||
|k | |||
|က | |||
|- | |||
!Aspirated | |||
|pʰ | |||
|ph | |||
|ဖ | |||
|tʰ | |||
|th | |||
|ထ | |||
|kʰ | |||
|kh | |||
|ခ | |||
|- | |||
!Voiced | |||
|b | |||
|b | |||
|ဗ | |||
|d | |||
|d | |||
|ဒ | |||
|g | |||
|g | |||
|ဂ | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" |Fricative | |||
!Tenuis | |||
|f | |||
|f | |||
|ၾ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|h | |||
|x | |||
|ဟ | |||
|- | |||
!Voiced | |||
|v | |||
|v | |||
|ဘ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|ʔ | |||
|' (medial) | |||
|အ | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" |Approximant | |||
|w | |||
|w | |||
|ဝ | |||
|l | |||
|l | |||
|လ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|} | |||
- | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" | ||
=== | ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sibilants | ||
=== | ! colspan="3" |Alveolar | ||
| rowspan="8" | | |||
! colspan="3" |Retroflex | |||
| rowspan="8" | | |||
! colspan="3" |Palatal | |||
|- | |||
!IPA | |||
!Romanisation | |||
!script | |||
!IPA | |||
!Romanisation | |||
!script | |||
!IPA | |||
!Romanisation | |||
!script | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |Plosive | |||
!Tenuis | |||
|t͡s | |||
|c | |||
|ၸ | |||
|t͡ʂ | |||
|ç | |||
|ဋ | |||
|t͡ɕ | |||
|ć | |||
|စ | |||
|- | |||
!Aspirated | |||
|t͡sʰ | |||
|ch | |||
|ႀ | |||
|t͡ʂʰ | |||
|çh | |||
|ဌ | |||
|t͡ɕʰ | |||
|ćh | |||
|ဆ | |||
|- | |||
!Voiced | |||
|d͡z | |||
|ð | |||
|ၻ | |||
|d͡ʐ | |||
|ł | |||
|ဍ | |||
|d͡ʑ | |||
|j | |||
|ၺ | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" |Fricative | |||
!Tenuis | |||
|s | |||
|s | |||
|သ | |||
|ʂ | |||
|ş | |||
|ၑ | |||
|ɕ | |||
|ś | |||
|ၔ | |||
|- | |||
!Voiced | |||
|z | |||
|z | |||
|ဓ | |||
|ʐ | |||
|ẓ | |||
|ၓ | |||
|ʑ | |||
|ź | |||
|ည | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" |Approximant | |||
|ɹ | |||
|r | |||
|ရ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|j | |||
|y | |||
|ယ | |||
|} | |||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
=== | {| class="wikitable" | ||
==== | |+ | ||
= | ! rowspan="3" | | ||
! colspan="7" |Front | |||
| rowspan="6" | | |||
! colspan="7" |Back | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="3" |Flat | |||
| rowspan="5" | | |||
! colspan="3" |Round | |||
! colspan="3" |Flat | |||
| rowspan="5" | | |||
! colspan="3" |Round | |||
|- | |||
!IPA | |||
!Romanisation | |||
!Script | |||
!IPA | |||
!Romanisation | |||
!Script | |||
!IPA | |||
!Romanisation | |||
!Script | |||
!IPA | |||
!Romanisation | |||
!Script | |||
|- | |||
!Close | |||
|i | |||
|i | |||
|ကိ | |||
|y | |||
|ü | |||
|ကၳ | |||
|ɨ | |||
|iu | |||
|ကၖ | |||
|u | |||
|u | |||
|ကု | |||
|- | |||
!Middle | |||
|e | |||
|e | |||
|ကဲ | |||
|ø | |||
|ö | |||
|ကၲ | |||
|ə | |||
|eo | |||
|ကါ | |||
|o | |||
|o | |||
|ကး | |||
|- | |||
!Open | |||
|ɛ | |||
|ai | |||
|ကေ | |||
|œ | |||
|ä | |||
|ကႄ | |||
|ɐ | |||
|a | |||
|က | |||
|ɔ | |||
|au | |||
|ကီ | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ | |||
! colspan="4" |Vowel Diacritics | |||
|- | |||
|ိ | |||
|ၳ | |||
|ၖ | |||
|ု | |||
|- | |||
|ဲ | |||
|ၲ | |||
|ါ | |||
|း | |||
|- | |||
|ေ | |||
|ႄ | |||
| | |||
|ီ | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ | |||
| colspan="2" |Nullification Diacritics | |||
|- | |||
|် | |||
|္ | |||
|} | |||
Although both '''Virama (္)''' and '''Asat (်)''' delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. '''Asat (်)''', as in '''က်''', marks syllable boundaries, while '''Virama (္)''', as in '''က္''', forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when '''ယ''', '''ဝ''', and '''ရ''' are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in '''ကျ''', '''ကွ''', and '''ကြ''', respectively. | |||
===Phonotactics=== | ===Phonotactics=== | ||
==Nouns & Adjectives== | |||
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ | |||
!1 | |||
|Numbers | |||
|Singular & Plural | |||
|- | |||
!2 | |||
|Cases | |||
|Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental | |||
|} | |||
-- | Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is: | ||
* Akranta (-a stems) | |||
* Zeokçho (-o stems) | |||
* Mitaveş (Consonant stems) | |||
According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases. | |||
* Łiunaing '''Intransitive Case''' | |||
* Kaothiv '''Ergative Case''' | |||
* Penubo '''Accusative Case''' | |||
* Nauthang '''Genitive Case''' | |||
* Seomar '''Dative Case''' | |||
* Baćhi '''Ablative Case''' | |||
* Xallei '''Locative Case''' | |||
* Reftou '''Instrumental Case''' | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Akranta (a-stems) Example: Koşçha "Storeroom" | |||
! rowspan="2" |Case | |||
! colspan="2" |Layout | |||
! colspan="2" |Example | |||
|- | |||
!Singular | |||
!Plural | |||
!Singular | |||
!Plural | |||
|- | |||
|'''Intransitive''' | |||
| -a | |||
| -e | |||
|Koşçh'''a''' | |||
|Koşçh'''e''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Ergative''' | |||
| -ane | |||
| -ene | |||
|Koşçh'''ane''' | |||
|Koşçh'''ene''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Accusative''' | |||
| -am | |||
| -as | |||
|Koşçh'''am''' | |||
|Koşçh'''as''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Genitive''' | |||
| -arum | |||
| -os | |||
|Koşçh'''arum''' | |||
|Koşçh'''os''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Dative''' | |||
| -avya | |||
| -anya | |||
|Koşçh'''avya''' | |||
|Koşçh'''anya''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Ablative''' | |||
| -aya | |||
| -aye | |||
|Koşçh'''aya''' | |||
|Koşçh'''aye''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Locative''' | |||
| -i | |||
| -evya | |||
|Koşçh'''i''' | |||
|Koşçh'''evya''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Instrumental''' | |||
| -avi | |||
| -avis | |||
|Koşçh'''avi''' | |||
|Koşçh'''avis''' | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Zeokçho (o-stems) Example: Nintalpo "Bed" | |||
! rowspan="2" |Case | |||
! colspan="2" |Layout | |||
! colspan="2" |Example | |||
|- | |||
!Singular | |||
!Plural | |||
!Singular | |||
!Plural | |||
|- | |||
|'''Intransitive''' | |||
| -o | |||
| -ai | |||
|Nintalp'''o''' | |||
|Nintalp'''ai''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Ergative''' | |||
| -one | |||
| -ones | |||
|Nintalp'''one''' | |||
|Nintalp'''ones''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Accusative''' | |||
| -um | |||
| -ovas | |||
|Nintalp'''um''' | |||
|Nintalp'''ovas''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Genitive''' | |||
| -una | |||
| -unas | |||
|Nintalp'''una''' | |||
|Nintalp'''unas''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Dative''' | |||
| -us | |||
| -os | |||
|Nintalp'''us''' | |||
|Nintalp'''os''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Ablative''' | |||
| -au | |||
| -om | |||
|Nintalp'''au''' | |||
|Nintalp'''om''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Locative''' | |||
| -i | |||
| -evya | |||
|Nintalp'''i''' | |||
|Nintalp'''evya''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Instrumental''' | |||
| -aun | |||
| -aus | |||
|Nintalp'''aun''' | |||
|Nintalp'''aus''' | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Mitaveş (Consonant stems) Example: Dazkhät "Cotton" | |||
! rowspan="2" |Case | |||
! colspan="2" |Layout | |||
! colspan="2" |Example | |||
|- | |||
!Singular | |||
!Plural | |||
!Singular | |||
!Plural | |||
|- | |||
|'''Intransitive''' | |||
| -X | |||
| -es | |||
|Dazkhät | |||
|Dazkhät'''es''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Ergative''' | |||
| -ne | |||
| -nes | |||
|Dazkhät'''ne''' | |||
|Dazkhät'''nes''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Accusative''' | |||
| -em | |||
| -ya | |||
|Dazkhät'''em''' | |||
|Dazkhät'''ya''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Genitive''' | |||
| -ae | |||
| -yum | |||
|Dazkhät'''ae''' | |||
|Dazkhät'''yum''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Dative''' | |||
| -ye | |||
| -we | |||
|Dazkhät'''ye''' | |||
|Dazkhät'''we''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Ablative''' | |||
| -i | |||
| -u | |||
|Dazkhät'''i''' | |||
|Dazkhät'''u''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Locative''' | |||
| -e | |||
| -o | |||
|Dazkhät'''e''' | |||
|Dazkhät'''o''' | |||
|- | |||
|'''Instrumental''' | |||
| -ai | |||
| -au | |||
|Dazkhät'''ai''' | |||
|Dazkhät'''au''' | |||
|} | |||
== Verbs == | |||
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate. | |||
Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive ('''Kerraż'''), Intransitive ('''Padaizma'''), and Ambitransitive ('''Dosthu'''). Transitive verbs, such as '''Girtan''' “to carry”, require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like '''Naman''' “to sleep” function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context. | |||
==== Building Verbs ==== | |||
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root '''√girt'''- functions as the base for the verb Girtan, meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together. | |||
=== Non-Finite Forms === | |||
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles. | |||
==== Infinitives ==== | |||
Infinitives are formed through affixing '''-an''' into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root '''√niut-''' "to dance" is '''Niutan'''. Imperatives can be formed through removing the '''n''' from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the '''n''' is omitted from the verb '''Niutan''', leaving '''Niuta''' as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs | |||
==== Participles ==== | |||
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future. | |||
The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final '''''-n''''', serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word '''Thiźan''' "to tell" (root: '''√thiź-''') | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
! rowspan="2" | | |||
! colspan="2" |Layout | |||
! colspan="2" |Example | |||
|- | |||
!Active | |||
!Passive | |||
!Active | |||
!Passive | |||
|- | |||
!Present | |||
| -ens | |||
| -onc | |||
|Thiź'''ens''' | |||
|Thiź'''onc''' | |||
|- | |||
!Aorist | |||
| | |||
| -tyo | |||
| | |||
|Thiźa'''tyo''' | |||
|- | |||
!Perfect | |||
| -yana | |||
| | |||
|Thiź'''yana''' | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
!Future | |||
| -śya | |||
| -ndo | |||
|Thiźa'''śya''' | |||
|Thiźa'''ndo''' | |||
|} | |||
==== Gerunds ==== | |||
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific suffixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice, but cannot decline for number. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Example: kaltan root: √kalt- | |||
! rowspan="2" | | |||
! colspan="2" |Layout | |||
! colspan="2" |Example | |||
|- | |||
!Active | |||
!Passive | |||
!Active | |||
!Passive | |||
|- | |||
!Accusative | |||
| -ime | |||
| -ibe | |||
|kalt'''ime''' | |||
|kalt'''ibe''' | |||
|- | |||
!Genitive | |||
| -ae | |||
| -ao | |||
|kalt'''ae''' | |||
|kalt'''ao''' | |||
|- | |||
!Dative | |||
| -ixar | |||
| -iqar | |||
|kalt'''ixar''' | |||
|kalt'''iqar''' | |||
|- | |||
!Ablative | |||
| -u | |||
| -um | |||
|kalt'''u''' | |||
|kalt'''um''' | |||
|- | |||
!Instrumental | |||
| -upi | |||
| -ubi | |||
|kalt'''upi''' | |||
|kalt'''ubi''' | |||
|} | |||
===Verb Conjugation=== | |||
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms. | |||
==== Primary System ==== | |||
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: '''Present''', '''Aorist''', and '''Perfect'''. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Primary System Personal Endings | |||
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | |||
! colspan="3" |Singular | |||
! colspan="3" |Plural | |||
|- | |||
!1st Person | |||
!2nd Person | |||
!3rd Person | |||
!1st Person | |||
!2nd Person | |||
!3rd Person | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |Indicative | |||
!Active | |||
| -am | |||
| -as | |||
| -a | |||
| -ami | |||
| -asi | |||
| -ati | |||
|- | |||
!Passive | |||
| -arya | |||
| -arus | |||
| -are | |||
| -arahe | |||
| -ade | |||
| -anta | |||
|- | |||
!Reflexive | |||
| -arm | |||
| -ars | |||
| -art | |||
| -ana | |||
| -asva | |||
| -adya | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive | |||
!Active | |||
| -em | |||
| -es | |||
| -e | |||
| -emi | |||
| -esi | |||
| -eti | |||
|- | |||
!Passive | |||
| -erya | |||
| -erus | |||
| -era | |||
| -erahe | |||
| -eda | |||
| -enti | |||
|- | |||
!Reflexive | |||
| -erm | |||
| -ers | |||
| -ert | |||
| -ena | |||
| -esva | |||
| -edya | |||
|} | |||
The Present Tense of verbs are simply formed via affixing the various endings into the verb stem, connected by the thematic vowel. For instance the verb Naśan (verb root: √naś-) "to disappear" conjugated in the 3rd Person Plural Active Indicative becomes Naśati. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Present Tense of Pathan "to read" | |||
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | |||
! colspan="3" |Singular | |||
! colspan="3" |Plural | |||
|- | |||
!1st Person | |||
!2nd Person | |||
!3rd Person | |||
!1st Person | |||
!2nd Person | |||
!3rd Person | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |Indicative | |||
!Active | |||
| Path'''·a·m''' | |||
| Path'''·a·s''' | |||
| Path'''·a''' | |||
| Path'''·a·mi''' | |||
| Path'''·a·si''' | |||
| Path'''·a·ti''' | |||
|- | |||
!Passive | |||
| Path'''·a·rya''' | |||
| Path'''·a·rus''' | |||
| Path'''·a·re''' | |||
| Path'''·a·rahe''' | |||
| Path'''·a·de''' | |||
| Path'''·a·nta''' | |||
|- | |||
!Reflexive | |||
| Path'''·a·rm''' | |||
| Path'''·a·rs''' | |||
| Path'''·a·rt''' | |||
| Path'''·a·na''' | |||
| Path'''·a·sva''' | |||
| Path'''·a·dya''' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive | |||
!Active | |||
| Path'''·e·m''' | |||
| Path'''·e·s''' | |||
| Path'''·e''' | |||
| Path'''·e·mi''' | |||
| Path'''·e·si''' | |||
| Path'''·e·ti''' | |||
|- | |||
!Passive | |||
| Path'''·e·rya''' | |||
| Path'''·e·rus''' | |||
| Path'''·e·ra''' | |||
| Path'''·e·rahe''' | |||
| Path'''·e·da''' | |||
| Path'''·e·nti''' | |||
|- | |||
!Reflexive | |||
| Path'''·e·rm''' | |||
| Path'''·e·rs''' | |||
| Path'''·e·rt''' | |||
| Path'''·e·na''' | |||
| Path'''·e·sva''' | |||
| Path'''·e·dya''' | |||
|} | |||
The perfect tense is formed through the perfect stem, which is created by modifying the verb root. This is usually done by reduplicating the first consonant of the root and placing it at the beginning of the word, followed by '''-e-'''. However, if the verb root already begins with a vowel, the prefix '''in-''' is added. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Perfect Tense of Kapatan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat" | |||
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | |||
! colspan="3" |Singular | |||
! colspan="3" |Plural | |||
|- | |||
!1st Person | |||
!2nd Person | |||
!3rd Person | |||
!1st Person | |||
!2nd Person | |||
!3rd Person | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |Indicative | |||
!Active | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·m''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·s''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·mi''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·si''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·ti''' | |||
|- | |||
!Passive | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rya''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rus''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·re''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rahe''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·de''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·nta''' | |||
|- | |||
!Reflexive | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rm''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rs''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·rt''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·na''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·sva''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·a·dya''' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive | |||
!Active | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·m''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·s''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·mi''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·si''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·ti''' | |||
|- | |||
!Passive | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rya''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rus''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·ra''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rahe''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·da''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·nti''' | |||
|- | |||
!Reflexive | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rm''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rs''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·rt''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·na''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·sva''' | |||
| '''Ke·'''kapat'''·e·dya''' | |||
|} | |||
The aorist tense is formed using the aorist stem, which is created from the verb root by adding the prefix '''''e-'''''. In this process, the first vowel of the root is shifted to the position of the second vowel, and the original second vowel is removed. For instance, the verb '''Faran''' "to love" (rootː √far-), the aorist form becomesː '''Efr·a'''. Vülnan "to focus" (rootː √vüln-) is '''Evlün·a'''. If the verb root begins with a vowel, the first consonant that follows the vowel becomes the intermediary for vowel relocation. For instanceː Uppatan "to prove" (rootː √uppat-) becomes '''Epupat·a'''. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Aorist Tense of Sućan "to deceive, to fool, to cheat" | |||
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | | |||
! colspan="3" |Singular | |||
! colspan="3" |Plural | |||
|- | |||
!1st Person | |||
!2nd Person | |||
!3rd Person | |||
!1st Person | |||
!2nd Person | |||
!3rd Person | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |Indicative | |||
!Active | |||
| Esćun'''·a·m''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·s''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·mi''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·si''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·ti''' | |||
|- | |||
!Passive | |||
| Esćun'''·a·rya''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·rus''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·re''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·rahe''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·de''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·nta''' | |||
|- | |||
!Reflexive | |||
| Esćun'''·a·rm''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·rs''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·rt''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·na''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·sva''' | |||
| Esćun'''·a·dya''' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |Subjunctive | |||
!Active | |||
| Esćun'''·e·m''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·s''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·mi''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·si''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·ti''' | |||
|- | |||
!Passive | |||
| Esćun'''·e·rya''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·rus''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·ra''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·rahe''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·da''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·nti''' | |||
|- | |||
!Reflexive | |||
| Esćun'''·e·rm''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·rs''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·rt''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·na''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·sva''' | |||
| Esćun'''·e·dya''' | |||
|} | |||
==== Secondary System ==== | |||
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense. | |||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
Line 75: | Line 902: | ||
===Noun phrase=== | ===Noun phrase=== | ||
===Verb phrase=== | ===Verb phrase=== | ||
Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood. | |||
Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases. | |||
===Sentence phrase=== | ===Sentence phrase=== | ||
===Dependent clauses=== | ===Dependent clauses=== |
Latest revision as of 08:18, 8 June 2025
Introduction
Orthography
The consonant system of Akhyan is characterised by its resemblance as the same consonant system of Sanskrit, with slight deviations. Akhyan has eliminated voiced aspirated consonants, having assimilated to a fricative or deaspirated. Akhyan has a three way contrast of plosives and affricates, including aspirated and unaspirated pairs. The language also features a three-way contrast between sibilants, such as palatal, retroflex, & alveolar. Akhyan uses the Mon-Burmese script.
Consonants
Non-Sibilants | Labial | Dental | Velar | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IPA | Romanisation | script | IPA | Romanisation | script | IPA | Romanisation | script | ||||
Nasal | m | m | မ | n | n | န | ŋ | q | င | |||
Plosive | Tenuis | p | p | ပ | t | t | တ | k | k | က | ||
Aspirated | pʰ | ph | ဖ | tʰ | th | ထ | kʰ | kh | ခ | |||
Voiced | b | b | ဗ | d | d | ဒ | g | g | ဂ | |||
Fricative | Tenuis | f | f | ၾ | h | x | ဟ | |||||
Voiced | v | v | ဘ | ʔ | ' (medial) | အ | ||||||
Approximant | w | w | ဝ | l | l | လ |
Sibilants | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IPA | Romanisation | script | IPA | Romanisation | script | IPA | Romanisation | script | ||||
Plosive | Tenuis | t͡s | c | ၸ | t͡ʂ | ç | ဋ | t͡ɕ | ć | စ | ||
Aspirated | t͡sʰ | ch | ႀ | t͡ʂʰ | çh | ဌ | t͡ɕʰ | ćh | ဆ | |||
Voiced | d͡z | ð | ၻ | d͡ʐ | ł | ဍ | d͡ʑ | j | ၺ | |||
Fricative | Tenuis | s | s | သ | ʂ | ş | ၑ | ɕ | ś | ၔ | ||
Voiced | z | z | ဓ | ʐ | ẓ | ၓ | ʑ | ź | ည | |||
Approximant | ɹ | r | ရ | j | y | ယ |
Vowels
Front | Back | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flat | Round | Flat | Round | ||||||||||||
IPA | Romanisation | Script | IPA | Romanisation | Script | IPA | Romanisation | Script | IPA | Romanisation | Script | ||||
Close | i | i | ကိ | y | ü | ကၳ | ɨ | iu | ကၖ | u | u | ကု | |||
Middle | e | e | ကဲ | ø | ö | ကၲ | ə | eo | ကါ | o | o | ကး | |||
Open | ɛ | ai | ကေ | œ | ä | ကႄ | ɐ | a | က | ɔ | au | ကီ |
Vowel Diacritics | |||
---|---|---|---|
ိ | ၳ | ၖ | ု |
ဲ | ၲ | ါ | း |
ေ | ႄ | ီ |
Nullification Diacritics | |
် | ္ |
Although both Virama (္) and Asat (်) delete the inherent vowel, they serve distinct functions. Asat (်), as in က်, marks syllable boundaries, while Virama (္), as in က္, forms consonant clusters. Special forms also emerge when ယ, ဝ, and ရ are combined with a consonant and the virama, resulting in ကျ, ကွ, and ကြ, respectively.
Phonotactics
Nouns & Adjectives
Akhyan features a system of noun and adjective declension that operates across two grammatical numbers and eight cases, treating both parts of speech with similar morphological rules—so much so that adjectives can conveniently be analysed alongside nouns. With respect to their intended use in the sentence, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives alter their endings. Different 'cases' are the terms used to describe the various endings.
1 | Numbers | Singular & Plural |
---|---|---|
2 | Cases | Intransitive, Ergative, Accusative, Genitive, Dative, Ablative, Locative, Instrumental |
Akhyan’s declension paradigm is surprisingly streamlined, consisting of only three distinct declension patterns. The general classification is:
- Akranta (-a stems)
- Zeokçho (-o stems)
- Mitaveş (Consonant stems)
According to the Rasthani, the manuscript identified 8 cases which is defined in the book as "Türrao". The eight Türrao (cases) are the intransitive, ergative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases.
- Łiunaing Intransitive Case
- Kaothiv Ergative Case
- Penubo Accusative Case
- Nauthang Genitive Case
- Seomar Dative Case
- Baćhi Ablative Case
- Xallei Locative Case
- Reftou Instrumental Case
Case | Layout | Example | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Intransitive | -a | -e | Koşçha | Koşçhe |
Ergative | -ane | -ene | Koşçhane | Koşçhene |
Accusative | -am | -as | Koşçham | Koşçhas |
Genitive | -arum | -os | Koşçharum | Koşçhos |
Dative | -avya | -anya | Koşçhavya | Koşçhanya |
Ablative | -aya | -aye | Koşçhaya | Koşçhaye |
Locative | -i | -evya | Koşçhi | Koşçhevya |
Instrumental | -avi | -avis | Koşçhavi | Koşçhavis |
Case | Layout | Example | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Intransitive | -o | -ai | Nintalpo | Nintalpai |
Ergative | -one | -ones | Nintalpone | Nintalpones |
Accusative | -um | -ovas | Nintalpum | Nintalpovas |
Genitive | -una | -unas | Nintalpuna | Nintalpunas |
Dative | -us | -os | Nintalpus | Nintalpos |
Ablative | -au | -om | Nintalpau | Nintalpom |
Locative | -i | -evya | Nintalpi | Nintalpevya |
Instrumental | -aun | -aus | Nintalpaun | Nintalpaus |
Case | Layout | Example | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
Intransitive | -X | -es | Dazkhät | Dazkhätes |
Ergative | -ne | -nes | Dazkhätne | Dazkhätnes |
Accusative | -em | -ya | Dazkhätem | Dazkhätya |
Genitive | -ae | -yum | Dazkhätae | Dazkhätyum |
Dative | -ye | -we | Dazkhätye | Dazkhätwe |
Ablative | -i | -u | Dazkhäti | Dazkhätu |
Locative | -e | -o | Dazkhäte | Dazkhäto |
Instrumental | -ai | -au | Dazkhätai | Dazkhätau |
Verbs
Akhyan verbs exhibit a highly dynamic conjugation system that forms a core component of Akhyan's grammar. Verbs are notable for their morphological complexity, undergoing a wide range of conjugations based on specific grammatical attributes. Each verb root adapts to reflect these features, enabling to convey subtle distinctions in action, state, and the relationships between subject, object, and predicate.
Verbs in Akhyan are classified into three primary categories according to transitivity: Transitive (Kerraż), Intransitive (Padaizma), and Ambitransitive (Dosthu). Transitive verbs, such as Girtan “to carry”, require a direct object to complete their meaning. In contrast, intransitive verbs like Naman “to sleep” function independently of an object. Ambitransitive verbs demonstrate greater flexibility, operating as either transitive or intransitive depending on syntactic context.
Building Verbs
Verbs are fundamentally composed of a root, conventionally represented by the mathematical symbol √. This root serves as the base form from which various grammatical features such as tense, person, number, mood, and voice, where they are all derived through morphological modification. For example, the root √girt- functions as the base for the verb Girtan, meaning “to carry.” Some modifications are simple, meanwhile others can be complex & even incorporate two modification methods together.
Non-Finite Forms
Non-finite forms of verbs do not express tense, person, or number, and therefore cannot function as the main verb of an independent clause. The non-finite verb system encompasses imperatives, infinitives, gerunds, and participles.
Infinitives
Infinitives are formed through affixing -an into a verb root. For example, the infinitive of a verb root √niut- "to dance" is Niutan. Imperatives can be formed through removing the n from a verb in the infinitive, leaving only the verb root without the asat. To illustrate, the n is omitted from the verb Niutan, leaving Niuta as the imperative. This process is regular and applies to all verbs
Participles
Participles are non-finite verbal forms that function adjectivally. Although they originate from verb roots, they exhibit syntactic and semantic properties characteristic of adjectives. In Akhyan, participles are attested in both the active and passive voices, and they occur across four tenses: present, perfect, aorist, and future.
The imperative stem, derived from the infinitive form by omitting the final -n, serves as the foundational base for constructing several participial forms, most notably the aorist & future participles. In contrast, the present & perfect participles are formed directly from the verb root itself. The range of resulting participial forms is illustrated below by the word Thiźan "to tell" (root: √thiź-)
Layout | Example | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Active | Passive | Active | Passive | |
Present | -ens | -onc | Thiźens | Thiźonc |
Aorist | -tyo | Thiźatyo | ||
Perfect | -yana | Thiźyana | ||
Future | -śya | -ndo | Thiźaśya | Thiźando |
Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal noun formed from a verb that functions syntactically as a noun while retaining some verbal properties. Gerunds are created by attaching specific suffixes to verb roots, a process that is notably irregular and does not align with the standard patterns of declension found in the rest of the language. Unlike in many other languages, Akhyan gerunds undergo declension for both case and voice, but cannot decline for number.
Layout | Example | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Active | Passive | Active | Passive | |
Accusative | -ime | -ibe | kaltime | kaltibe |
Genitive | -ae | -ao | kaltae | kaltao |
Dative | -ixar | -iqar | kaltixar | kaltiqar |
Ablative | -u | -um | kaltu | kaltum |
Instrumental | -upi | -ubi | kaltupi | kaltubi |
Verb Conjugation
Akhyan verb conjugation consists of two main types: Primary and Secondary. The Primary conjugation is a thematic set, meaning it uses a connecting vowel, often called a "theme vowel" between the verb stem and the personal endings. In contrast, the Secondary conjugation is athematic, meaning it lacks this theme vowel and attaches the endings directly to the stem, often resulting in more irregular or complex forms.
Primary System
The Primary system is a thematic set of verb forms characterized by the use of two distinct vowels, -a- and -e-, to indicate different moods. Specifically, the vowel -a- is used for the Indicative mood, while -e- marks the Subjunctive mood. This system operates within three main tenses: Present, Aorist, and Perfect. It is also important to note that in the Subjunctive mood, the following are distinguished by aspect, not tense.
Singular | Plural | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | 1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | ||
Indicative | Active | -am | -as | -a | -ami | -asi | -ati |
Passive | -arya | -arus | -are | -arahe | -ade | -anta | |
Reflexive | -arm | -ars | -art | -ana | -asva | -adya | |
Subjunctive | Active | -em | -es | -e | -emi | -esi | -eti |
Passive | -erya | -erus | -era | -erahe | -eda | -enti | |
Reflexive | -erm | -ers | -ert | -ena | -esva | -edya |
The Present Tense of verbs are simply formed via affixing the various endings into the verb stem, connected by the thematic vowel. For instance the verb Naśan (verb root: √naś-) "to disappear" conjugated in the 3rd Person Plural Active Indicative becomes Naśati.
Singular | Plural | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | 1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | ||
Indicative | Active | Path·a·m | Path·a·s | Path·a | Path·a·mi | Path·a·si | Path·a·ti |
Passive | Path·a·rya | Path·a·rus | Path·a·re | Path·a·rahe | Path·a·de | Path·a·nta | |
Reflexive | Path·a·rm | Path·a·rs | Path·a·rt | Path·a·na | Path·a·sva | Path·a·dya | |
Subjunctive | Active | Path·e·m | Path·e·s | Path·e | Path·e·mi | Path·e·si | Path·e·ti |
Passive | Path·e·rya | Path·e·rus | Path·e·ra | Path·e·rahe | Path·e·da | Path·e·nti | |
Reflexive | Path·e·rm | Path·e·rs | Path·e·rt | Path·e·na | Path·e·sva | Path·e·dya |
The perfect tense is formed through the perfect stem, which is created by modifying the verb root. This is usually done by reduplicating the first consonant of the root and placing it at the beginning of the word, followed by -e-. However, if the verb root already begins with a vowel, the prefix in- is added.
Singular | Plural | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | 1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | ||
Indicative | Active | Ke·kapat·a·m | Ke·kapat·a·s | Ke·kapat·a | Ke·kapat·a·mi | Ke·kapat·a·si | Ke·kapat·a·ti |
Passive | Ke·kapat·a·rya | Ke·kapat·a·rus | Ke·kapat·a·re | Ke·kapat·a·rahe | Ke·kapat·a·de | Ke·kapat·a·nta | |
Reflexive | Ke·kapat·a·rm | Ke·kapat·a·rs | Ke·kapat·a·rt | Ke·kapat·a·na | Ke·kapat·a·sva | Ke·kapat·a·dya | |
Subjunctive | Active | Ke·kapat·e·m | Ke·kapat·e·s | Ke·kapat·e | Ke·kapat·e·mi | Ke·kapat·e·si | Ke·kapat·e·ti |
Passive | Ke·kapat·e·rya | Ke·kapat·e·rus | Ke·kapat·e·ra | Ke·kapat·e·rahe | Ke·kapat·e·da | Ke·kapat·e·nti | |
Reflexive | Ke·kapat·e·rm | Ke·kapat·e·rs | Ke·kapat·e·rt | Ke·kapat·e·na | Ke·kapat·e·sva | Ke·kapat·e·dya |
The aorist tense is formed using the aorist stem, which is created from the verb root by adding the prefix e-. In this process, the first vowel of the root is shifted to the position of the second vowel, and the original second vowel is removed. For instance, the verb Faran "to love" (rootː √far-), the aorist form becomesː Efr·a. Vülnan "to focus" (rootː √vüln-) is Evlün·a. If the verb root begins with a vowel, the first consonant that follows the vowel becomes the intermediary for vowel relocation. For instanceː Uppatan "to prove" (rootː √uppat-) becomes Epupat·a.
Singular | Plural | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | 1st Person | 2nd Person | 3rd Person | ||
Indicative | Active | Esćun·a·m | Esćun·a·s | Esćun·a | Esćun·a·mi | Esćun·a·si | Esćun·a·ti |
Passive | Esćun·a·rya | Esćun·a·rus | Esćun·a·re | Esćun·a·rahe | Esćun·a·de | Esćun·a·nta | |
Reflexive | Esćun·a·rm | Esćun·a·rs | Esćun·a·rt | Esćun·a·na | Esćun·a·sva | Esćun·a·dya | |
Subjunctive | Active | Esćun·e·m | Esćun·e·s | Esćun·e | Esćun·e·mi | Esćun·e·si | Esćun·e·ti |
Passive | Esćun·e·rya | Esćun·e·rus | Esćun·e·ra | Esćun·e·rahe | Esćun·e·da | Esćun·e·nti | |
Reflexive | Esćun·e·rm | Esćun·e·rs | Esćun·e·rt | Esćun·e·na | Esćun·e·sva | Esćun·e·dya |
Secondary System
The Secondary system refers to a group of verb forms that are characterized as athematic. This system do not use thematic vowels unlike the Primary System. This system appears only in the Indicative mood and includes four main tenses: the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Conditional. A distinctive feature of these tenses is the use of the augment; a prefix added to the verb stem to indicate past time, applied to all except the Future tense.
Syntax
Constituent order
Noun phrase
Verb phrase
Infinitive constructions are commonly employed to express the purpose of an action, frequently serving as a more concise alternative to the phrase “in order to.” In such contexts, the infinitive functions adverbially, modifying the main verb by indicating intention or goal. However, this usage presupposes that the subject of the infinitive is identical to that of the main clause. When the subjects differ, the infinitive is typically replaced by a subordinate clause in the subjunctive mood.
Just like how infinitives can add extra information about verbs, they can also modify the meanings of nouns. In this case, they act as adjectives and adjective phrases.