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Koǧan: Difference between revisions

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[[File:Kwadzjan map.png|thumb|right|An ancient map]]
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Kawdzja was part of the Caliphate of Córdoba from early on and developed as an exceptionally tolerant multicultural haven, offering the greatest protection and coexistence for Jews and Christians anywhere in the empire.  Extended exposure to Classical Arabic, not merely rural dialects. Jewish linguistic influence (e.g., Hebrew calques, Semitic syntax transfers, or Judeo-Romance variants). Christian Latin continuity via protected ecclesiastical communities and monastic scribes. An intellectual center for translation, scientific synthesis, and lexical borrowing in philosophy, agriculture, medicine, and jurisprudence.
Koǧa was part of the Caliphate of Córdoba from early on and developed as an exceptionally tolerant multicultural haven, offering the greatest protection and coexistence for Jews and Christians anywhere in the empire.  Extended exposure to Classical Arabic, not merely rural dialects. Jewish linguistic influence (e.g., Hebrew calques, Semitic syntax transfers, or Judeo-Romance variants). Christian Latin continuity via protected ecclesiastical communities and monastic scribes. An intellectual center for translation, scientific synthesis, and lexical borrowing in philosophy, agriculture, medicine, and jurisprudence.


== Historical Background of Caudia ==
== Historical Timeline of the Koǧan Language ==


The island of Caudia (endonym: Kawdzja) occupies a unique position in the Romance-speaking world. Located in the western Mediterranean, equidistant from Ibiza, Algiers, and Cagliari, Caudia developed in partial isolation yet maintained sustained maritime contact with several major cultural centers. Its linguistic history reflects a sequence of layered influences, beginning with Roman colonization and extending through a complex legacy of religious, political, and intellectual exchange. The result is a Romance language of singular character, deeply shaped by Semitic and Hellenistic overlays, yet structurally descended from Vulgar Latin.
This timeline outlines the development of Koǧan as a Romance language shaped by prolonged contact with Semitic and Hellenistic cultures. Each phase is marked by linguistic evolution, historical events, and the emergence of layered registers.


=== I. Late Roman and Early Post-Roman Period ===
=== I. Late Roman and Early Post-Roman Period (c. 200–700 CE) ===
''Linguistic Phase: Proto-Koǧan''


During the late Roman Empire, Caudia was settled by a community of Latin-speaking provincials with strong ties to the eastern Mediterranean. Archaeological and textual evidence suggest that the early Caudian population may have included a substantial Jewish demographic, either as voluntary migrants or as resettled populations following the destruction of the Second Temple and later Roman crackdowns. These settlers brought with them not only Latin but also a background in Koine Greek, Hebrew, and the legalistic registers of Classical education.
During this time, Koǧa was settled by African Latin-speaking provincials from the eastern Mediterranean. The population likely included Jews resettled after the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135 CE). These settlers brought Latin, Koine Greek, Hebrew, and Classical education.


The variety of Latin spoken on Caudia diverged early from continental Vulgar Latin. While it maintained the phonological shifts typical of spoken Latin (e.g., syncope, monophthongization), the syntactic and lexical profile of early Caudian Latin bore traces of its learned origins:
Key features:
* Early divergence from continental Vulgar Latin.
* Lexical influence from Koine Greek and Hebrew.
** Hebrew influence seems to be mostly, liturgical and scholarly, but notice שוב "again".
** Greek is major in the areas of philosophy, medicine, and theology.
** The strands appear mixed, leading most scholars to conclude they were Hellenized Jews from the Aegean or Cyrenaica—areas that used Latin in official contexts but spoke Greek natively.
* Syntactic conservatism due to Classical education and Hebraic influence.
* Formation of a hybrid Latin variant: '''Proto-Koǧan'''.


* Lexical borrowings from Greek and Hebrew entered at an early stage.
===  II. Islamic Period: Integration into al-Andalus (c. 711–1100 CE) ===
* Certain Classical Latin archaisms, particularly in legal and rhetorical constructions, were preserved in fossilized forms.
''Linguistic Phase: Early Koǧan''
* Syntax exhibited conservatism in verbal periphrases and pronoun usage, possibly influenced by scriptural Hebrew and ecclesiastical Latin.


This substratum, referred to by linguists as Proto-Kawdzjan, laid the foundation for later development. It is best viewed as a peripheral but not isolated offshoot of Proto-Romance, exhibiting both conservatism and early hybridization.
After 711 CE, Caudia became part of the Umayyad Caliphate, later governed by Córdoba. The island remained an intellectual and mercantile enclave with exceptional religious tolerance.


=== II. Islamic Period: Integration into al-Andalus ===
Key features:
* Extensive Arabic borrowing (jurisprudence, cooking, etc.).
* Borrowings show adaptation to Koǧan phonotactics; lack of Arabic definite article ''al-''.  Borrowings were filtered through writing and adapted into learned registers.
** Examples include xuk (market), roz (rice), mufada (pillow), etc.
* Use of Classical Arabic (''fuṣḥā'') over Maghrebi vernacular, but still professional interactions predominated.
* Koǧa as a translation hub (Latin, Arabic, Hebrew), fostering a trilingual elite.


In the early 8th century CE, Caudia was absorbed into the expanding Umayyad Caliphate, and subsequently became an overseas dependency of the Emirate, later Caliphate, of Córdoba. Owing to its small size and strategic position, Caudia functioned less as a military outpost and more as an intellectual and mercantile enclave. Its ports hosted traders, translators, and jurists; its inland monasteries and zawiyas (زوايا) became centers of scholarship and religious dialogue.
===  III. Post-Andalusian Period: Semi-Autonomous Continuity (c. 1100–1500 CE) ===
''Linguistic Phase: Classical Koǧan''


During this period, Caudia acquired a reputation for exceptional religious tolerance. Jewish, Christian, and Muslim communities coexisted under the relatively lenient dhimmi system, with Jewish communities in particular enjoying a degree of autonomy and prestige rarely matched elsewhere in the Islamic world. Kawdzjan oral traditions record this period as a "golden age" of letters.
Caudia avoided full integration into the Christian Reconquista, instead passing between Genoese, Pisan, and Aragonese control. Muslim and Jewish institutions survived well beyond their suppression elsewhere.  Koǧa's status as a nominal vassal of Aragon, and the Treaty of Miǧan secured independence, but exacted a heavy toll.


The impact on the language was profound:
Key features:
* Arabic loanwords entered in significant numbers, particularly in domains such as philosophy, jurisprudence, medicine, agriculture, architecture, and administration.
* Koǧan became a lingua franca for interfaith communication.
* Unlike Iberian Romance languages, Arabic borrowings were typically adopted without the definite article al-, a sign of the Caudians’ familiarity with Arabic morphology and semantics. Thus, mufada (pillow) rather than almufada, or zawija (monastery) rather than alzawija.
* Renewed Latin influence via legal texts.
* Arabic borrowings were often morphologically integrated into native derivational patterns, and show consistent phonological adaptation to Kawdzjan phonotactics.
* Increased specialization of Arabic/Hebrew loanwords.
* The variety of Arabic spoken on the island was closer to Classical Arabic (fuṣḥā) than to Maghrebi vernaculars, further differentiating Caudian Arabic from that of the Iberian Peninsula.
* Formal registers of Koǧan emerge: '''Classical Koǧan''', which include Hebrew and Arabic alongside Latin in legal documents.  A trilingual bureaucracy shaped Koǧan lexicon and calquing.


This period also witnessed the rise of Caudia as a translation center, where Hebrew exegetes, Latin scribes, and Arabic philosophers worked in tandem to produce multilingual treatises. This tri-scriptural culture left a permanent imprint on Kawdzjan lexicon and discourse style.
===  IV. Early Modern Period and Koǧan Standardization (c. 1500–1800 CE) ===
''Linguistic Phase: Late Koǧan''


=== III. Post-Andalusian Period: Semi-Autonomous Continuity ===
With the expulsion of Jews and Muslims from the mainland, Caudia once again became a refuge. Maritime contact with Catalonia and Italy increased.


The island's relationship to the Christian Reconquista was anomalous. While Caudia formally came under the suzerainty of various Christian polities (at various times Pisa, Aragon, or Genoa), it was rarely subjected to direct ecclesiastical or military control. As such, Caudia remained culturally hybrid, and retained both Arabic and Hebrew institutions long after their suppression on the mainland.
Key features:
* Gradual orthographic Latinization.
* Diglossia between vernacular and elevated liturgical/literary forms.
* Phonological hypercorrection among urban elites.
* Importation of neo-Latin and Romance vocabulary from the mainland (both Catalan and Sardinian)
* Legal and literary prose in Koǧan expanded.


During this period, Latin liturgical practices reasserted themselves, particularly in coastal cathedrals and episcopal centers. However, these coexisted with enduring Muslim and Jewish communities. The vernacular Kawdzjan language became the principal vehicle of interfaith communication, absorbing and transmitting the philosophical, legal, and agricultural terminologies of the three traditions.
===  V. Modern Era: Revival and Codification (c. 1800–Present) ===
''Linguistic Phase: Modern Koǧan''


The linguistic consequences included:
In response to European linguistic pressures, Koǧa witnessed cultural revival efforts in the 19th and 20th centuries. Language preservation became tied to regional identity.
* Continued but more selective lexical borrowing from Latin and emerging Ibero-Romance varieties.
* Increased semantic specialization in loanwords — e.g., Arabic terms retained specific technical senses.
* Preservation of older grammatical constructions due to textual conservatism in religious and legal documents.
* Emergence of a prestige dialect among urban literati, with phonological hypercorrections and borrowings from ecclesiastical Latin.


=== IV. Linguistic Summary ===
Key features:
* Standardized orthography and grammar.
* Institutional support for Koǧan education and literature.
** The Royal Academy slowly evolved into its current form, overseeing the language.
* Literary revival of Koǧan poetry, especially in religious contexts.
** This tends to favor Semitic over Latinate roots at times.
* Expansion of vocabulary to include modern domains (science, politics, etc.).
** The Royal Academy prefers constructing from Koğan roots, as opposed to importing neologisms.


The Kawdzjan language as it exists today is thus the product of a deeply stratified linguistic ecology, in which:
===  Summary Table ===
* Proto-Romance provides the grammatical skeleton.
* Classical Latin and Koine Greek supply archaisms and syntactic conservatism.
* Hebrew contributes both lexical items and subtle syntactic calques, particularly in parallelism and discourse structure.
* Arabic offers a rich stratum of vocabulary and intellectual idioms, stripped of folk transmission markers such as definite articles.
* Ecclesiastical Latin in the post-Reconquista era reaffirms certain nominal and participial structures in formal contexts.


The resulting language is Romance at its core, but notably non-European in its evolution — a Romance language that grew up not under the shadow of Charlemagne or Castile, but under the dome of Córdoba and the scrolls of Tiberias.
{| class="wikitable"
! Period !! Dates !! Linguistic Phase !! Summary
|-
| Late Roman & Early Post-Roman || c. 200–700 CE || '''Proto-Koǧan''' || Latin base with Greek and Hebrew overlay; early divergence from continental Romance
|-
| Islamic Period || c. 711–1100 CE || '''Early Koǧan''' || Arabic scholarly vocabulary; Classical Arabic influence; trilingual elite
|-
| Christian Suzerainty || c. 1100–1500 CE || '''Classical Koǧan''' || Liturgical Latin influence; Koǧan becomes standard vernacular of educated classes
|-
| Early Modern Contact || c. 1500–1800 CE || '''Late Koǧan''' || Increased Romance contact (Catalan, Genoese); grammar codification begins
|-
| Modern Revival || c. 1800–Present || '''Modern Koǧan''' || Literary and institutional revival; vocabulary expansion; prestige planning
|}


== Phonology ==
Forms that differ from IPA are shown in bold.  Most allophony occurs intervocalically.


== Phonology ==
Forms that differ from IPA are shown in bold.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Kawdzjan Consonant Phonemes
|+ Koǧan Consonant Phonemes
! Manner \ Place || Labial || Alveolar || Palatal || Velar  
! Manner \ Place || Labial || Alveolar || Palatal || Velar  
|-
|-
! Nasal
! Nasal
| /m/ || /n || /ɲ/ '''nj''' ||  
| /m/ || /n || /ɲ/ '''ñ''' ||  
|-
|-
! Stop (voiceless)
! Stop (voiceless)
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|-
|-
! Stop (voiced)
! Stop (voiced)
| /b/ || /d~ð/ || || /g/  
| /b/ || /d~ð/ '''d''' || || /g~ɣ̞/  
|-
|-
! Fricative (voiceless)
! Fricative (voiceless)
| /f/ || /s/ || /ʃ/ '''sj''' || /x~h/ '''x'''  
| /f/ || /s/ || /ʃ/ '''x''' || /x~h~ɦ/ '''h'''  
|-
|-
! Fricative (voiced)
! Fricative (voiced)
| /v/ || /z/ || /ʒ/ '''zj''' ||  
| /v/ || /z/ || /ʒ/ '''zh''' ||  
|-
|-
! Affricate  
! Affricate  
| || || /tʃ/ '''tsj'''  ||  
| || || /tʃ/ '''c'''  ||  
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Affricate
| || || /dʒ/ '''dzj''' ||
| || || /dʒ/ '''ǧ''' ||
|-
|-
! Lateral approximant
! Lateral approximant
| || /l/ || /ʎ/ '''lj''' ||  
| || /l/ || /ʎ/ '''ll''' ||  
|-
|-
! Approximant  
! Approximant  
| || /ɾ/ '''r''' || ||  
| || /ɾ/ '''r''' || /ʝ/ '''j''' ||  
|-
|-
! Trill
! Trill
| || /r/ '''rr''' || ||  
| || /r/ '''rr''' || ||  
|}
|}
Voicing spreads in consonant cluster, and is usually written.
Voicing spreads in consonant cluster, and is usually written.  '''h''' voices intervocalically.  Men tend to velarize it as /x/, while /h/ is typically viewed as more feminine.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Kawdzjan Vowel Phonemes
|+ Koǧan Vowel Phonemes
! Height \ Backness || Front || Central || Back
! Height \ Backness || Front || Central || Back
|-
|-
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| colspan="3" | /a/
| colspan="3" | /a/
|}
|}
Schwa is found in rushed speech and apocopated syllables.
=== Traits ===
=== Traits ===
Aragonese has many historical traits in common with Catalan and Aragonese. Some are conservative features that are also shared with the Asturleonese languages and Galician–Portuguese, where Spanish innovated in ways that did not spread to nearby languages.  It also has many conservative vocabulary items in common with Sardinian.
Aragonese has many historical traits in common with Catalan and Aragonese. Some are conservative features that are also shared with the Asturleonese languages and Galician–Portuguese, where Spanish innovated in ways that did not spread to nearby languages.  It also has many conservative vocabulary items in common with Sardinian.


* Romance initial ''f-'' is preserved, e.g. ''fīlium'' > ''filjo ('son', Sp. ''hijo'', Cat. ''fill'', Pt. ''filho'').
* Romance initial ''f-'' is preserved, e.g. ''fīlium'' > ''fillo'' ('son', Sp. ''hijo'', Cat. ''fill'', Pt. ''filho'').
* ''cl-'', ''fl-'', ''pl-'' are never preserved, becoming ''zj-'', ''sj-'', ''br-''.
* ''cl-'', ''fl-'', ''pl-'' are never preserved, becoming ''zh-'', ''x-'', ''br-''.
* Romance palatal approximant (''ge-'', ''gi-'', ''i-'') consistently became medieval [ʒ], unlikely medieval Catalan and Portuguese.
* Romance palatal approximant (''ge-'', ''gi-'', ''i-'') consistently became medieval [ʒ], unlike medieval Catalan and Portuguese.
* Romance groups ''-lt-'', ''-ct-'' result in [jt], e.g. ''factum'' > ''fèjto'' ('done', Sp. ''hecho'', Cat. ''fet'', Gal./Port. ''feito''), ''multum'' > ''mwito'' ('many, much', Sp. ''mucho'', Cat. ''molt'', Gal. ''moito'', Port. ''muito'').
* Romance groups ''-lt-'', ''-ct-'' result in [jt], e.g. ''factum'' > ''fèjto'' ('done', Sp. ''hecho'', Cat. ''fet'', Gal./Port. ''feito''), ''multum'' > ''mwito'' ('many, much', Sp. ''mucho'', Cat. ''molt'', Gal. ''moito'', Port. ''muito'').
* Romance groups ''-x-'', ''-ps-'', ''scj-'' result in voiceless palatal fricative '''sj'' [ʃ], e.g. ''coxu'' > ''cosjo'' ('crippled', Sp. cojo, Cat. coix), ''ipse'' > ''èsje'', ''scientia'' > ''esjentsja''.
* Romance groups ''-x-'', ''-ps-'', ''scj-'' result in voiceless palatal fricative '''sj'' [ʃ], e.g. ''coxu'' > ''koxo'' ('crippled', Sp. cojo, Cat. coix), ''ipse'' > ''èxe'', ''scientia'' > ''exènca''.
* Romance groups ''-lj-'', ''-c'l-'', ''-t'l-'' result in palatal lateral ''lj'' [ʎ], e.g. ''muliere'' > ''muljer'' ('woman', Sp. ''mujer'', Cat. ''muller''), ''acuc'la'' > ''agulja'' ('needle', Sp. ''aguja'', Cat. ''agulla'').
* Romance groups ''-lj-'', ''-c'l-'', ''-t'l-'' result in palatal lateral ''lj'' [ʎ], e.g. ''muliere'' > ''muller'' ('woman', Sp. ''mujer'', Cat. ''muller''), ''acuc'la'' > ''agulla'' ('needle', Sp. ''aguja'', Cat. ''agulla'').
* Open ''o'', ''e'' from Romance result systematically in diphthongs [we], [je], e.g. ''vet'la'' > ''vièlja'' ('old woman', Sp. ''vieja'', Cat. ''vella'', Pt. ''velha''). This includes before a palatal approximant, e.g. ''octō'' > ''wèjto'' ('eight', Sp. ''ocho'', Cat. ''vuit'', Pt. ''oito''). Spanish diphthongizes except before yod, whereas Catalan only diphthongizes before yod.
* Open ''o'', ''e'' from Romance result systematically in diphthongs [we], [je], e.g. ''vet'la'' > ''vièlla'' ('old woman', Sp. ''vieja'', Cat. ''vella'', Pt. ''velha''). This includes before a palatal approximant, e.g. ''octō'' > ''wèjto'' ('eight', Sp. ''ocho'', Cat. ''vuit'', Pt. ''oito''). Spanish diphthongizes except before yod, whereas Catalan only diphthongizes before yod.  Koǧan is unique in the uniformity of these changes.
* Voiced stops /b, d, ɡ/ lenited to approximants [β, ð, ɣ].  This continues through the present, so it is sometimes written, sometimes not.
* Voiced stops /b, d, ɡ/ lenite to approximants [β, ð, ɣ] intervocalically.
* Loss of neither final unstressed ''-e'' nor ''-o'', e.g. ''grande'' > ''grande'' ('big'), ''factum'' > ''fèjto'' ('done'). Catalan loses both ''-e'' and ''-o'' (Cat. ''gran'', ''fet''); Spanish preserves ''-o'' and sometimes ''-e'' (Sp. ''hecho'', ''gran ~ grande'').  Aragonese loses ''-e'' but not ''-o''.
* Loss of neither final unstressed ''-e'' nor ''-o'', e.g. ''grande'' > ''grande'' ('big'), ''factum'' > ''fèjto'' ('done'). Catalan loses both ''-e'' and ''-o'' (Cat. ''gran'', ''fet''); Spanish preserves ''-o'' and sometimes ''-e'' (Sp. ''hecho'', ''gran ~ grande'').  Aragonese loses ''-e'' but not ''-o''.
* Unlike Spanish and Aragonese, voiced sibilants do not become voiceless.
* Unlike Spanish and Aragonese, voiced sibilants do not become voiceless.
* The palatal /j/ is often realized as a fricative [ʝ].
* The palatal /j/ is often realized as a fricative [ʝ].
* Latin ''-b-'' became ''-v-'' in past imperfect endings of verbs of the second and third conjugations: ''teneva'', ''teniva'' ('he had', Sp. ''tenía'', Cat. ''tenia''), ''dormiva'' ('he was sleeping', Sp. ''dormía'', Cat. ''dormia'').
* Latin ''-b-'' became ''-v-'' in past imperfect endings of verbs of the second and third conjugations: ''teneva'', ''teniva'' ('he had', Sp. ''tenía'', Cat. ''tenia''), ''dormiva'' ('he was sleeping', Sp. ''dormía'', Cat. ''dormia'').
* Voicing of many intervocalic stop consonants, e.g. ''cletam'' > ''zjeda'' ('sheep hurdle', Cat. ''cleda'', Fr. ''claie''), ''cuculliatam'' > ''coguljada'' ('crested lark', Sp. ''cogujada'', Cat. ''cogullada'').
* Voicing of many intervocalic stop consonants, e.g. ''cletam'' > ''zheda'' ('sheep hurdle', Cat. ''cleda'', Fr. ''claie''), ''cuculliatam'' > ''koguljada'' ('crested lark', Sp. ''cogujada'', Cat. ''cogullada'').
* Latin geminate ''-ll-'' became [ʎ].
* Latin geminate ''-ll-'' became [ʎ].
* Initial [r] is trilled.
* Initial [r] is trilled.  Latin geminate [rr] is also preserved.
* Latin [nn] and [ni] became ñ.
* Like English and unlike Spanish, word-final vowels followed by word-initial vowels get a glottal stop inserted.
 
Stress is assumed to be penultimate.  Other locations are marked with an acute.


== Nouns ==
== Nouns ==
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| Masculine      || -ò, -e    || librò, kwò  || Default for most Latin-derived nouns       
| Masculine      || -ò, -e    || librò, kwò  || Default for most Latin-derived nouns       
|-
|-
| Feminine      || -a, -è      || taza, muxada, mira || Inherited from Latin -a and Arabic -ah
| Feminine      || -a, -è      || taza, mira || Inherited from Latin -a and Arabic -ah
|-
|-
| Ambiguous/loan || -consonant || saxan, xiber, kativ  || Gender marked only via articles/clitics   
| Ambiguous/loan || -consonant || saxan, xiber, kativ  || Gender marked only via articles/clitics   
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| Consonant || -es || saxan || saxanes || Insert epenthetic -e- for ease of pronunciation
| Consonant || -es || saxan || saxanes || Insert epenthetic -e- for ease of pronunciation
|-
|-
| Irregular || Varies || midrasja || midrasjot || Certain inherited or borrowed nouns are irregular
| Irregular || Varies || midraxa || midraxot || Certain inherited or borrowed nouns are irregular
|}
|}


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| Masculine || al || als || Arabic ''al-'' + Romance plural ''-s''
| Masculine || al || als || Arabic ''al-'' + Romance plural ''-s''
|-
|-
| Feminine || la || las || Inherited from Latin ''illa''
| Feminine || la || las || from Latin ''illa''
|}
|}


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=== Pronouns ===
=== Pronouns ===
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Number !! Person !! Politeness !! Nom. !! Acc. !! Dat. !! Obl. !! Poss. !! C.Acc !! C.Dat
! Number !! Person !! Politeness !! Nom. !! Acc. !! Dat. !! Obl. !! Poss. !! Clitic Acc. !! Clitic Dat.
|-
|-
! rowspan="4" | Singular !! 1 !! -
! rowspan="4" | Singular !! 1 !! -
| zjè || colspan="2" | me || mi || mi/ma/mes/mas || -me || -mi
| zhè || colspan="2" | me || mi || mi/ma/mes/mas || -me || -mi
|-
|-
! 2 !! Informal
! 2 !! Informal
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|-
|-
! 3f !! -
! 3f !! -
| èlja || colspan="2" | lo || li || le/lua/les/luas || -le || li
| èlla || colspan="2" | lo || li || le/lua/les/luas || -le || li
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! 1 !! -
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! 1 !! -
| colspan="2" | nos || colspan="2" | nov || nòstre/nòstra/nòstres/nòstras || -nos || -ni
| colspan="2" | nos || colspan="2" | nov || nòsce/nòca/nòsces/nòscas || -nos || -ni
|-
|-
! 2 !! Informal
! 2 !! Informal
| colspan="2" | vos || colspan="2" | vov || vèstre/vèstra/vèstres/vèstras || -vos || -vi
| colspan="2" | gwos || colspan="2" | gwov || vèsce/vèsca/vèsces/vèscas || -vos || -vi
|-
|-
! 3 !! -
! 3 !! -
| èls || colspan="2" | los || lis || lor/lar/lors/lars || -las || lis
| èls || colspan="2" | los || lis || lor/lar/lors/lars || -les || lis
|-
|-
! Both !! 2 !! Formal
! Both !! 2 !! Formal
| ant || - || lèkum || kum || ''paraph'' || -kum || -ki
| antu || - || lèkum || kum || ''paraph'' || -kum || -ki
|}
|}
Two clitics both attaching to a verb is possible.  If there are two, dative always precedes accusative.
Two clitics both attaching to a verb is possible.  If there are two, dative always precedes accusative, e.g. ''da-mi-le'' "give me her".


Another important pronoun is '''es'''.  It reflexive without person or number, clitic or independent, dative or accusative.
Another important pronoun is '''es'''.  It reflexive without person or number, clitic or independent, dative or accusative.


== Verbs ==
== Verbs ==
Verbs inflect for synthetic Present, Imperfect, Preterite, (plain) Future, Subjunctive, and Preterite Subjunctive.
There are also many periphrastic verb forms:
# "have" + inf = intentional future
# "stand" + gerund = present continuous
# "have" + estat + gerund = perfect continuous
* -ar class -> active, from -āre, e.g. kantar 'to sing'
* -ar class -> active, from -āre, e.g. kantar 'to sing'
* -èr class -> active, from -ēre, e.g. temer 'to fear'
* -èr class -> active, from -ēre, e.g. temer 'to fear'
* -ir class -> inchoative, from -īre, e.g. dormir 'to sleep'
* -ir class -> inchoative, from -īre, e.g. dormir 'to sleep'
* -òr class -> mediopassive, from -or, e.g. moròr 'to die', lavòr 'to bathe (oneself)'
* -òr class -> mediopassive, from -or, e.g. moròr 'to die', lavòr 'to bathe (oneself)'.  Amazingly, new verbs enter this category, such as ''umidékor'' "to get wet"


for -ar, s123p123 present indicative active: -o, -as, -a, -am, -atsj, -an.  
For -ar, present indicative active: -o, -as, -a(zh), -am, -ac, -an.  
-èr is -o, and then all e's instead of a's.
-èr is -o, -ès, -è(zh), -èm, -èc, -èm.
-ir is -o, and then all i's instead of a's.
-ir is -o, -is, -i(zh), -im, -ic, -im.
-òr is -o, and then all u's instead of a's.
-òr is -o, -us, -u(zh), -um, -uc, -um.  -ò- appears in other stems.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Person !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Synthetic Future !! Periphrastic Future
! Person !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Synthetic Future !! Periphrastic Future
|-
|-
| 1sg || kanto || kantèva || kantè || kantarè || avjo kantar
| 1sg || kanto || kantèva || kantê || kantarê || avo kantar
|-
| 2sg || kantas || kantèvas || kantás || kantarás || avas kantar
|-
|-
| 2sg || kantas || kantèvas || kantàs || kantaràs || avjas kantar
| 3f || kanta || kantèva || kantá || kantará || ava kantar
|-
|-
| 3sg || kanta || kantèva || kantà || kantarà || avja kantar
| 3m || kantazh || kantèvazh || kantázh || kantarázh || avazh kantar
|-
|-
| 1pl || kantam || kantèvam || kantam || kantarèm || avjam kantar
| 1pl || kantam || kantèvam || kantam || kantarèm || avam kantar
|-
|-
| 2pl || kantatsj || kantèvatsj || kantatsj || kantarètsj || avjatsj kantar
| 2pl || kantac || kantèvac || kantac || kantarèc || avac kantar
|-
|-
| 3pl || kantan || kantèvan || kantàron || kantaràn || avjan kantar
| 3pl || kantan || kantèvan || kantàron || kantaràn || avan kantar
|}
|}


Line 264: Line 306:
| 2sg || kantjes || kantèses || volrias kantar
| 2sg || kantjes || kantèses || volrias kantar
|-
|-
| 3sg || kantje || kantèse || volria kantar
| 3f || kantje || kantèse || volria kantar
|-
| 3m || kantjezh || kantèsezh || volriazh kantar
|-
|-
| 1pl || kantjem || kantèsem || volriam kantar
| 1pl || kantjem || kantèsem || volriam kantar
|-
|-
| 2pl || kantjetsj || kantèsetsj || volriatsj kantar
| 2pl || kantjec || kantèsec || volriac kantar
|-
|-
| 3pl || kantjen || kantèsen || volrian kantar
| 3pl || kantjen || kantèsen || volrian kantar
|}
|}


Imper.
* 2sg: kanta!
* 2sg: kanta!
* 2pl: kantatsj!
* 2pl: kantac!
* 3sg: kantje!
* 3sg: kantje!
* 3pl: kantan! (or kantjen!
* 3pl: kantan! (or kantjen!
* Negative forms use subjunctive:
* Negative forms use subjunctive:
** non kantjes
** non kantjes
** non kantjetsj
** non kantjec
** non kantje
** non kantje
** non kantjen
** non kantjen
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* Present participle: kantanto (used adjectivally)
* Present participle: kantanto (used adjectivally)
* Perfect participle: kantat
* Perfect participle: kantat
=== Specific Verbs ===
estar "stand"
* estíc, estás, está, estázh, estám, estác, están
* perfect participle = estat
ser "to be"
* so, sas, es, ezh, som, sac, son
e "to have" - only for auxiliary usage
* e, as, a (azh), em, ec, an
avo "to have" - only used for "used to"
* avo, avè, avè (avèzh),  avèm, avèc, avèn


== Vocab ==
== Grammar ==
* mèdzj - middle
SVO, except in formal register VSO
* dzjurn - daily
* odzjo - I hear
* zjamar - to cry out
* rezjina - queen
* ljoria - glory
* lezjer - to read
* exwiber - to write
* espèdzjar - to watch
* mazjòr - bigger
* etsja - road
* pasjènsja - patience
* sotsj - companion
* rasjò - reason
* nojta - night
* anjo - lamb
* axwa - water
* bruvia - rain
* lixwor - liquid
* sjor - flower
* kwo - which
* sjama - flame
* i/j' - and
 
=== More Arabic ===
; kadi : major, from القاضي
; sjadrez : chess, from الشطرنج
; mufada : pillow, from المخدة
; zjafran : saffron, from الزعفران
; zejtona : olive, from الزيتون
; oxalá : hopefully, from ¿إن شاء الله?
; mixrab : sanctum, from محراب
; zawija : monastery, from زاوية
; azjur : blue, from لازورد
; tasa : cup, from طاسة
; sekwa : irrigation ditch, from سَاقِيَة
; kazar : castle, from اَلْقَصْر
; safanòria : carrot, from *سَفُنَّارْيَة
; midrasja : seminary, from مدرسة (Heb)
; saxan : plate, courtyard, from صحن
; kativ : scribe, from كاتب (Heb)
; xiber : ink, from حبر
; baxarat : seasoning, from بهارات
; mira : mirror, from مرآة
; diwan : court, from ديوان
; gwaf : endowment, from وقف
; zit : oil, olive oil, from زيت


== Sound Changes ==
== Sound Changes ==
Stress followed Latin rules: penultimate if heavy, otherwise antepenultimate.  Write c as k.  Write qu as kw.
Stress followed Latin rules: penultimate if heavy, otherwise antepenultimate.  Write latin c as k.  Write latin qu as kw.


Vowels
Vowels
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Palatalization
Palatalization
* li -> lj
* li,ll -> ll
* di, de -> dzj
* di, de -> ǧ
* tiV, teV -> tsjV
* tiV, teV -> cV
* trV -> tsjV
* trV -> cV
* drV -> dzjV
* drV -> ǧV
* lt -> jt
* lt -> jt
* gn -> nj
* gn -> ñ
* cl -> zj
* cl -> zh
* ViV -> VzjV
* ViV -> VzhV
* fl -> sj
* fl -> x
* gl -> lj
* gl -> ll


Lenition
Lenition
* V[bdg]V -> V[vðx]V (not written for ð)
* V[bdg]V -> V[vðh]V (not written for ð)
* V[ptk]V -> V[bdg]V  
* V[ptk]V -> V[bdg]V  
* medial kw -> xw
* medial kw (Latin qu) -> hw
* initial and medial ß -> gw
* initial and intervocalic ß (latin v)-> gw


Cluster
Cluster
* pl -> br
* pl -> br
* kr stays
* kr stays
* degeminate all except r
* de-geminate all except rr, ll
* skr -> exw
* skr -> ehw
* sp -> esp
* sp -> esp
* str -> etsj
* str -> ec
* st -> est
* st -> est


rhotic
rhotic
* initial r -> rr
* initial r -> rr
* [lns]r -> [lns]rr
* [lns]r -> [lns]rr (and old geminates)
(and old geminates)


Late
Late
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== Passages ==
== Passages ==
=== North Wind ===
=== North Wind ===
* La Tramutanja i al Sol kontendègwan kwo de èls era mazjòr.
* La Tramutaña j'al Sol kontendègwan kwo de èls era mazhòr.


=== Rerum Novarum ===
=== Rerum Novarum ===
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| Italian || Salute e Benedizione Apostolica.  Una volta suscitata la brama di cose nuove, che da tempo turba la società, era quasi inevitabile che gli animi degli uomini si volgessero a nuove idee: ne è derivato che, da una parte, coloro che possedevano ricchezze le rivendicassero come un loro diritto, non soggetto in nulla alla legge divina o umana; dall’altra, che i lavoratori, oppressi dalla miseria e da una condizione più dura, cercassero unicamente di liberarsi completamente da tale servitù. Ciò li ha spinti, anche contro la loro volontà, ad abbracciare quelle opinioni e quei progetti che vengono comunemente chiamati socialismo; poiché è più facile persuadere le loro menti che tali ricchezze, accumulate con iniquità e ingiustizia, possano essere distribuite in comune, così da giovare, secondo la loro parte, a coloro che nulla possiedono.  Ma tutte queste proposte dei socialisti, benché a prima vista sembrino allettanti, non dimostrano altro che ragionamenti falsi e inefficaci per il fine che si propongono; anzi, tali rimedi sono di gran lunga peggiori dei mali che pretendono di sanare.
| Italian || Salute e Benedizione Apostolica.  Una volta suscitata la brama di cose nuove, che da tempo turba la società, era quasi inevitabile che gli animi degli uomini si volgessero a nuove idee: ne è derivato che, da una parte, coloro che possedevano ricchezze le rivendicassero come un loro diritto, non soggetto in nulla alla legge divina o umana; dall’altra, che i lavoratori, oppressi dalla miseria e da una condizione più dura, cercassero unicamente di liberarsi completamente da tale servitù. Ciò li ha spinti, anche contro la loro volontà, ad abbracciare quelle opinioni e quei progetti che vengono comunemente chiamati socialismo; poiché è più facile persuadere le loro menti che tali ricchezze, accumulate con iniquità e ingiustizia, possano essere distribuite in comune, così da giovare, secondo la loro parte, a coloro che nulla possiedono.  Ma tutte queste proposte dei socialisti, benché a prima vista sembrino allettanti, non dimostrano altro che ragionamenti falsi e inefficaci per il fine che si propongono; anzi, tali rimedi sono di gran lunga peggiori dei mali che pretendono di sanare.
|-
|-
| Kawdzjan || Salut i Benedikzjo Apostòlik.  Una gwedata despertat al sjok de kosas nwèvas, kwe fa tèm agita la sosjedat, èra kwazi inegwitabile kwe las animas dals òmes se gwolvòsen verz unas idèzjas nwevas:
| Kodzjan || Salut i Benedikzhon Apostòlika.  Una gwegada despertat al xok de kosas nwèvas, kwe fa tèm agita la soxedat, èra kwazi inegwitabile kwe las animas dals òmes se gwolvòsen verz unas idèzhas nwevas:


|}
|}
# [[Koǧan/Swadesh]]
{{Aquatiki}}
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