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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name=Scots Norse
|name=Scots Norse
|nativename=Sudhrø̀sk
|nativename=Sudhrø̀scc
|pronunciation=sˠʌ.ˈreskʰ
|pronunciation=sˠʌ.ˈreskʰ
|ethnicity=Norse Scots
|ethnicity=Norse Scots
Line 28: Line 28:
|speakers2=(L2) < 50,000
|speakers2=(L2) < 50,000
|date=2019
|date=2019
|map=File:Lang Status 20-CR.svg
|mapcaption=Scots Norse is classified as [[w:Critically endangered language|critically endangered]] by the UNESCO ''[[w:Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger|Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
}}
}}


'''Scots Norse''' (Also ''Sodor Norse''; [[w:endonym|endonym]]: ''Sudhrø̀sk''; /sˠʌ.ˈreskʰ/) is a West Nordic language, making it closer to Icelandic and Faroese than Swedish or Danish. It is natively spoken throughout [[w:Suðreyjar|Suðreyjar]], being the dominant language of the isles. It has recieved heavy influence from Scots Gaelic over the last several centuries, contributing heavily to the spelling conventions of the language, and likely being the primary pushing force behind the development of the broad/slender distinction in Scots Norse (see "-ske" /ʃcʰ/ vs "-sk" /skʰ/)
'''Scots Norse''' (Also ''Sodor Norse''; [[w:endonym|endonym]]: ''Sudhrø̀scc''; /sˠʌ.ˈreskʰ/) is a West Nordic language, making it closer to Icelandic and Faroese than Swedish or Danish. It is natively spoken throughout [[w:Suðreyjar|Suðreyjar]], being the dominant language of the isles. It has recieved heavy influence from Scots Gaelic over the last several centuries, contributing heavily to the spelling conventions of the language, and likely being the primary pushing force behind the development of the broad/slender distinction in Scots Norse (see "-sce" /ʃcʰ/ vs "-scc" /skʰ/)


Scots Norse is typically split into two main dialect groups, Inner and Outer, corresponding to the Inner and Outer Hebrides, these are further divided into North and South for both, with a Central division for Inner. These dialects are almost entirely mutually intelligible within their groups, and mostly so even between the groups. Uniting all of these is the standardized form, ''Hàsudhrø̀sk'', literally meaning "High Scots Norse". ("high" as in "exalted")
Scots Norse is typically split into two main dialect groups, Inner and Outer, corresponding to the Inner and Outer Hebrides, these are further divided into North and South for both, with a Central division for Inner. These dialects are almost entirely mutually intelligible within their groups, and mostly so even between the groups. Uniting all of these is the standardized form, ''Hàsudhrø̀sk'', literally meaning "High Scots Norse". ("high" as in "exalted")
Line 101: Line 103:
| fˠ
| fˠ
| fʲ
| fʲ
| s, θ͇
| s, θ͇¹
| sˠ
| sˠ
| ʃ
| ʃ
| h
| h²
| x
| x
| ç
| ç
Line 121: Line 123:
|  
|  
|  
|  
| r, l
| r, l³
| rˠ, lˠ
| rˠ, lˠ
| rʲ, ʎ
| rʲ, ʎ
Line 127: Line 129:
|-
|-
|}
|}
#Often plain /θ/
#/h/ merges with /x/ outside of Standard Scots Norse.
#Final "l" (not "ll") is often realized as /ʃ/.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
Line 144: Line 150:
! Near-High
! Near-High
| ɪ
| ɪ
| rowspan=2 | ɤ
| colspan=2 | ʊ
|
|-
|-
! Mid-High
! Mid-High
| e
| e
| (ə)
| o
| o
|-
|-
! Mid-Low
! Mid-Low
| ɛ
| ɛ
| ʌ
| (ʌ)
| ɔ
| ɔ
|-
|-
Line 159: Line 165:
|  
|  
| ɑ
| ɑ
| ɒ
| (ɒ)
|-
|-
|}
|}
#/ə, ʌ, ɒ/ are the unstressed realizations of /ɑ, ʊ, ɔ/.
#/ʊ/ is most typically realized as [ɤ]


Long vowels have long been lost, though their effects remain prominently, influencing the languages stress patterns heavily.
Long vowels have long been lost, though their effects remain prominently, influencing the languages stress patterns heavily.
Line 173: Line 182:
The rules for stress are very slightly more complex than they were in Old Norse, but not by much.
The rules for stress are very slightly more complex than they were in Old Norse, but not by much.
:Stress always goes on the left-most syllable possible. When there are vowels with a grave, stress goes to the first one, skipping over all vowels without one. (so ''sudhrø̀jr'' is stressed on "ø̀")
:Stress always goes on the left-most syllable possible. When there are vowels with a grave, stress goes to the first one, skipping over all vowels without one. (so ''sudhrø̀jr'' is stressed on "ø̀")
===Mutation===
Since Old Norse, initial consonant mutations have began developing. Scots Norse has several forms:
:radical (basic)
:lenited
:nasal
:soft
these can be shown quite well through pronouns + lemma, as a pronoun exists that causes most of them (except soft).
Take these following examples:
:''thù tàlir'' /ˈxu ˈto.ʎɪθ͇/ — "you speak"
:''e thàli'' /ˈe ˈho.ʎɪ/— "I speak"
:''ha nhàlir'' /ˈha ˈn̥o.ʎɪθ͇/— "he speaks"


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
(only accurate up to "rn")
Doubled consonants are essentially identical to singular ones, the exceptions will be placed in the table, and as a general rule, doubled initial consonants are long, composing the only geminates in the language.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=3 | Letter(s)
! Phoneme
! Examples 
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''b'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /b/
| {{term|}}
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /bˠ/
| {{term|bògi}} /ˈbˠo.ɟɪ/
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /bʲ/
| {{term|}}
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''bh'''
| colspan=2 | before u/ù, a consonant, or finally
| /./ or null
| {{term|bhùrr}} /ˈur/, {{term|àbbh}} /ˈo/
|-
| rowspan=3 | usually
| plain
| /v/
| {{term|bhàrr}} /ˈvor/
|-
| broad
| /vˠ/
| {{term|bholc}} /ˈvˠʊkʰ/
|-
| slender
| /vʲ/
| {{term|bhère}} /ˈvʲerʲ/
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''c'''
| rowspan=2 | plain/broad
| initially and finally
| /kʰ/
| {{term|cotte}} /ˈkʰɔt͡ʃʰ/
|-
| between vowels
| /k/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=2 | slender
| initially and finally
| /cʰ/
| {{term|cìss}} /cʰis/
|-
| between vowels
| /c/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ch'''
| colspan=2 | plain/broad
| /x/
| {{term|locch}} /ˈlˠɔx/
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ç/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=3 | '''chd'''
| /xk/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=3 | '''cn'''
| /kʰɾ/
| {{term|cnà}} /ˈkʰɾo/
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''d'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /d/
| {{term|dàge}} /ˈdoɟ/
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /dˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /d͡ʒ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''dh'''
| colspan=2 | intervocalic/pre-consonantal/finally
| /./ or null
| {{term|òdha}} /ˈo.ə/, {{term|sudhrø̀jr}} /sˠʌ.ˈrei̯θ͇/
|-
| colspan=2 | plain/broad
| /ɣ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ʝ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''g'''
| colspan=2 | plain/broad
| /g/
| {{term|godh}} /ˈɡɔ/
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ɟ/
| {{term|dàge}} /ˈdoɟ/
|-
| colspan=3 | '''gn'''
| /ɡɾ/
| {{term|gnø̀t}} /ˈɡɾet/
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''h'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /h/
| {{term|hàte}} /ˈhot͡ʃ/
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /x/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ç/
| {{term|dìhiale}} /ˈd͡ʒi.çəʎ/
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''l'''
| rowspan=2 | plain
| non-finally
| /l/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| finally
| /ʃ/
| {{term|sèl}} /ˈʃeʃ/
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /lˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ʎ/
| {{term|sèl|sèlir}} /ˈʃe.ʎɪθ͇/
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''ll'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /l/
| {{term|tàll}} {{IPA|/ˈtol/}}
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /lˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ʎ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''m'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /m/
| {{term|màl}} /mu/
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /mˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /mʲ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''n'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /n/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /nˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ɲ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | post-vocalic when final/pre-fricative
| /Ṽ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''nn'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /n/
| {{term|hann}} /han/
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /nˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ɲ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''p'''
| rowspan=2 | plain
| initially, before a vowel/finally
| /pʰ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| elsewhere
| /p/
| {{term|priadh}} /ˈprʲa/
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /pˠ/
| {{term|post}} /ˈpˠɔstʰ/
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /pʲ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''ph'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /f/
| {{term|ophàrr}} /ɒ.ˈfor/
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /fˠ/
| ({{term|sa}}) {{term|phost}} /(ˈsa) ˈfˠɔstʰ/
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /fʲ/
| (han) {{term|phiutharr}} /(ˈhã) ˈfʲɤ.ər/
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''r'''
| colspan=2 | finally
| /θ͇~θ/
| {{term|bhar}} /ˈvaθ͇/
|-
| colspan=2 | plain
| /r/
| {{term|sudhrø̀scc}} /sˠʌ.ˈreskʰ/
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /rˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /rʲ/
| {{term|bhère}} /ˈvʲerʲ/
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''rr'''
| colspan=2 | finally
| /r/
| {{term|bhàrr}} /ˈvor/
|-
| colspan=2 | plain
| /r/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /rˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /rʲ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=3 | '''-rt''', '''-rd'''
| /ɾʃt̪/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=3 | '''-rn'''
| /r/
| {{term|norn}} /ˈnɔr/
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''s'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /s/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /sˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ʃ/
| {{term|sèl}} /ˈʃeʃ/
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''sh'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /h/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /x/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ç/
| bhol {{term|shèl}} /ˈvɤ ˈçeʃ/
|-
| rowspan=5 | '''t'''
| rowspan=2 | plain
| initially/finally
| /tʰ/
| {{term|tàll}} /ˈtʰol/
|-
| elsewhere
| /t/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /tˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=2 | slender
| initially/finally
| /t͡ʃʰ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| elsewhere
| /t͡ʃ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''th'''
| colspan=2 | intervocalic/pre-consonantal/finally
| /./ or null
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | plain
| /h/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /x/
| {{term|thù}} /ˈxu/
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ç/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| rowspan=3 | z
| colspan=2 | plain
| /z/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /zˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ʒ/
| an {{term|zèl}} /(ˈã) ˈʒeʃ/
|-
|}
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
A major development in nouns is the complete loss of the definite forms, being replaced by the independent "hinn", which precedes the noun, triggering nasal mutation in some forms.
====Strong nouns====
====Strong nouns====
{{snon-decl-m-a|eld|fc=d}}
There are two strong neuter, three masculine, and three feminine declensions. The masculine and feminine each have an A, an I, and an R stem, after the defining difference in the nominative singular of the Proto-Germanic form.


Though the masculine a-stems tend for an -s genitive singular, and the i- and r-stems tend for -ar, there are many words that don't follow. The -i of the dative singular is frequently dropped from many words, particularly in the i-declension. Bisyllabic proper names originally in -arr or -urr, such as Einarr (modern "Ènar" /ˈe.nəθ͇/) and Gizurr (modern "Gisur" /ˈɟɪ.sʌθ͇/) do not contract as hamarr ("hamr-") before an inflectional syllable.
These first few are masculine a-stems.
{{snon-decl-m-a|eld|n=n-|fc=d}}
{{snon-decl-m-a|àt|òt|n=nh|c=h|fc=t}}
{{snon-decl-m-a|àmar|omr|amr|amar|n=nh|c=h}}
Due to many sound changes, "hamare" is quite irregular, this following table is more colloquial spellings that better show pronunciation.
{{snon-decl-m-a|àmar|onr|anr|anar|n=nh|c=h}}
And an uncontracted form (which is regular):
{{snon-decl-m-a|àmar|òmar|n=nh|c=h|fc=r}}
===Adjectives===
As with nouns, the definiteness distinction has been lost in adjectives, though it was lost far earlier than in nouns, this is attributed to the increasing reliance on the noun for definiteness. (Which itself too eventually fell to the use of "hi")
{{snon-decl-adj|sèl|r=sèl|fc=l|lem=sèl}}
===Adverbs===
===Verbs===
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
====Strong verbs====
Line 190: Line 582:
=====Class 7=====
=====Class 7=====
====Weak verbs====
====Weak verbs====
=====Class 1=====
======Class 1-heavy======
======Class 1-light======
=====Class 2=====
{{snon-conj-weak2|tàl|tòl|d=tàll}}
=====Class 3=====
====Suppletive verbs====
====Suppletive verbs====
==Syntax==
==Syntax==
==Texts==
==Texts==

Latest revision as of 00:42, 8 April 2026


Scots Norse
Sudhrø̀scc
Pronunciation[sˠʌ.ˈreskʰ]
Created byMelinoë
DateApril 3rd, 2026
Native toSuðreyjar
EthnicityNorse Scots
Native speakers(L1) 2,000 (2019)
(L2) < 50,000
Early forms
Dialects
  • Inner South
  • Inner Central
  • Inner North
  • Outer South
  • Outer North
Official status
Official language in
Scotland
Scots Norse is classified as critically endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Scots Norse (Also Sodor Norse; endonym: Sudhrø̀scc; /sˠʌ.ˈreskʰ/) is a West Nordic language, making it closer to Icelandic and Faroese than Swedish or Danish. It is natively spoken throughout Suðreyjar, being the dominant language of the isles. It has recieved heavy influence from Scots Gaelic over the last several centuries, contributing heavily to the spelling conventions of the language, and likely being the primary pushing force behind the development of the broad/slender distinction in Scots Norse (see "-sce" /ʃcʰ/ vs "-scc" /skʰ/)

Scots Norse is typically split into two main dialect groups, Inner and Outer, corresponding to the Inner and Outer Hebrides, these are further divided into North and South for both, with a Central division for Inner. These dialects are almost entirely mutually intelligible within their groups, and mostly so even between the groups. Uniting all of these is the standardized form, Hàsudhrø̀sk, literally meaning "High Scots Norse". ("high" as in "exalted")

History

Pre-Modern

Scots Norse originates in the mid to late 13th century, around the time Suðreyjar was handed over to Scotland with the Treaty of Perth. Though the language would continue to be largely unchanged from the Old Norse of the 12th century, 1266AD is often used as a dividing date between Old Norse and the earliest forms of Scots Norse. While 1266 is a relatively arbitrary date, it serves its purpose as a convenient divide between two stages, as following the Treaty of Perth, the Hebrides would gain a much larger population of Gaelic and English speakers (At this point still Middle Irish and Middle English), and from roughly 1450AD onward, Scots Norse would be increasingly influenced by Scots Gaelic and, to a lesser extent, Scots.

Having been spoken throughout Suðreyjar, Scots Norse had a dialect within the Isle of Mann (Scots Norse "monø̀jr" /mɒ.ˈnei̯θ͇/). Little is known about Manx Norse (monø̀sk), as it is very poorly recorded, the most extensive description being a short document from around 1500AD that contains a list of about 150 words, with a very poor description of the pronunciations. Though from this description we can gather that Manx Norse still had the dental fricatives that had been lost in other dialects (merging with t/d), we get this from the description "... these [th and dh] are like that of the Saxons' beloved þ or the Scots' [Gaels'] sounds of the same staves [=letters]."

Following the treaty of Perth, the usage of Norse began declining significantly, with evidence it was nearly extinct by 1550. A small revitalization occured in the mid 18th century when several of the last native speakers (at the time, Scots Norse had no more than 150 remaining speakers) gathered together to document the language so it could be taught to children. This effort was mostly effective, leading to the first noticeable rise in speaker count since it began declining. By the 1880's, there would be upwards of 1,500 native speakers, a majority of them young.

Modern

Modern Scots Norse is typically classed as critically endangered due to how few speakers it has, having no more than 2,500 native speakers as of 2020, and virtually all of them live in the Hebrides, making it extremely limited.

Since the early 1990's, Scots Norse has gained a small but dedicated community of linguists that are determined to further document it and make resources more readily available. As of 2018, an online course has been published that goes over Standard Scots Norse, and it has been continually updated since then, improving the quality and extent of the contents, having started out as a rather barebones description of the phonology, orthography, and rudimentary grammar.

Phonology

labial alveolar velar
plain broad slender plain broad slender plain broad slender
Nasal m mˠ mʲ n nˠ ɲ
Stop Unvoiced p pˠ pʲ t tˠ t͡ʃ k c
Voiced b bˠ bʲ d dˠ d͡ʒ g ɟ
Fricative Unvoiced f fˠ fʲ s, θ͇¹ sˠ ʃ h² x ç
Voiced v vˠ vʲ
Approximant r, l³ rˠ, lˠ rʲ, ʎ j
  1. Often plain /θ/
  2. /h/ merges with /x/ outside of Standard Scots Norse.
  3. Final "l" (not "ll") is often realized as /ʃ/.
Front Back
Unround Round
High i u
Near-High ɪ ʊ
Mid-High e (ə) o
Mid-Low ɛ (ʌ) ɔ
Low ɑ (ɒ)
  1. /ə, ʌ, ɒ/ are the unstressed realizations of /ɑ, ʊ, ɔ/.
  2. /ʊ/ is most typically realized as [ɤ]

Long vowels have long been lost, though their effects remain prominently, influencing the languages stress patterns heavily.

Every vowel can appear nasalized, though nasalization only occurs in specific positions, and is always shown with a single N. (though not all single Ns are nasalization)

  • Word finally
  • Before a fricative (S and H)
  • In some irregular positions when loaned from another language.

Prosody

The rules for stress are very slightly more complex than they were in Old Norse, but not by much.

Stress always goes on the left-most syllable possible. When there are vowels with a grave, stress goes to the first one, skipping over all vowels without one. (so sudhrø̀jr is stressed on "ø̀")

Mutation

Since Old Norse, initial consonant mutations have began developing. Scots Norse has several forms:

radical (basic)
lenited
nasal
soft

these can be shown quite well through pronouns + lemma, as a pronoun exists that causes most of them (except soft).

Take these following examples:

thù tàlir /ˈxu ˈto.ʎɪθ͇/ — "you speak"
e thàli /ˈe ˈho.ʎɪ/— "I speak"
ha nhàlir /ˈha ˈn̥o.ʎɪθ͇/— "he speaks"

Orthography

(only accurate up to "rn") Doubled consonants are essentially identical to singular ones, the exceptions will be placed in the table, and as a general rule, doubled initial consonants are long, composing the only geminates in the language.

Letter(s) Phoneme Examples
b plain /b/ [Term?]
broad /bˠ/ bògi /ˈbˠo.ɟɪ/
slender /bʲ/ [Term?]
bh before u/ù, a consonant, or finally /./ or null bhùrr /ˈur/, àbbh /ˈo/
usually plain /v/ bhàrr /ˈvor/
broad /vˠ/ bholc /ˈvˠʊkʰ/
slender /vʲ/ bhère /ˈvʲerʲ/
c plain/broad initially and finally /kʰ/ cotte /ˈkʰɔt͡ʃʰ/
between vowels /k/ [Term?] //
slender initially and finally /cʰ/ cìss /cʰis/
between vowels /c/ [Term?] //
ch plain/broad /x/ locch /ˈlˠɔx/
slender /ç/ [Term?] //
chd /xk/ [Term?] //
cn /kʰɾ/ cnà /ˈkʰɾo/
d plain /d/ dàge /ˈdoɟ/
broad /dˠ/ [Term?] //
slender /d͡ʒ/ [Term?] //
dh intervocalic/pre-consonantal/finally /./ or null òdha /ˈo.ə/, sudhrø̀jr /sˠʌ.ˈrei̯θ͇/
plain/broad /ɣ/ [Term?] //
slender /ʝ/ [Term?] //
g plain/broad /g/ godh /ˈɡɔ/
slender /ɟ/ dàge /ˈdoɟ/
gn /ɡɾ/ gnø̀t /ˈɡɾet/
h plain /h/ hàte /ˈhot͡ʃ/
broad /x/ [Term?] //
slender /ç/ dìhiale /ˈd͡ʒi.çəʎ/
l plain non-finally /l/ [Term?] //
finally /ʃ/ sèl /ˈʃeʃ/
broad /lˠ/ [Term?] //
slender /ʎ/ sèlir /ˈʃe.ʎɪθ͇/
ll plain /l/ tàll /ˈtol/
broad /lˠ/ [Term?] //
slender /ʎ/ [Term?] //
m plain /m/ màl /mu/
broad /mˠ/ [Term?] //
slender /mʲ/ [Term?] //
n plain /n/ [Term?] //
broad /nˠ/ [Term?] //
slender /ɲ/ [Term?] //
post-vocalic when final/pre-fricative /Ṽ/ [Term?] //
nn plain /n/ hann /han/
broad /nˠ/ [Term?] //
slender /ɲ/ [Term?] //
p plain initially, before a vowel/finally /pʰ/ [Term?] //
elsewhere /p/ priadh /ˈprʲa/
broad /pˠ/ post /ˈpˠɔstʰ/
slender /pʲ/ [Term?] //
ph plain /f/ ophàrr /ɒ.ˈfor/
broad /fˠ/ (sa) phost /(ˈsa) ˈfˠɔstʰ/
slender /fʲ/ (han) phiutharr /(ˈhã) ˈfʲɤ.ər/
r finally /θ͇~θ/ bhar /ˈvaθ͇/
plain /r/ sudhrø̀scc /sˠʌ.ˈreskʰ/
broad /rˠ/ [Term?] //
slender /rʲ/ bhère /ˈvʲerʲ/
rr finally /r/ bhàrr /ˈvor/
plain /r/ [Term?] //
broad /rˠ/ [Term?] //
slender /rʲ/ [Term?] //
-rt, -rd /ɾʃt̪/ [Term?] //
-rn /r/ norn /ˈnɔr/
s plain /s/ [Term?] //
broad /sˠ/ [Term?] //
slender /ʃ/ sèl /ˈʃeʃ/
sh plain /h/ [Term?] //
broad /x/ [Term?] //
slender /ç/ bhol shèl /ˈvɤ ˈçeʃ/
t plain initially/finally /tʰ/ tàll /ˈtʰol/
elsewhere /t/ [Term?] //
broad /tˠ/ [Term?] //
slender initially/finally /t͡ʃʰ/ [Term?] //
elsewhere /t͡ʃ/ [Term?] //
th intervocalic/pre-consonantal/finally /./ or null [Term?] //
plain /h/ [Term?] //
broad /x/ thù /ˈxu/
slender /ç/ [Term?] //
z plain /z/ [Term?] //
broad /zˠ/ [Term?] //
slender /ʒ/ an zèl /(ˈã) ˈʒeʃ/

Morphology

Nouns

A major development in nouns is the complete loss of the definite forms, being replaced by the independent "hinn", which precedes the noun, triggering nasal mutation in some forms.

Strong nouns

There are two strong neuter, three masculine, and three feminine declensions. The masculine and feminine each have an A, an I, and an R stem, after the defining difference in the nominative singular of the Proto-Germanic form.

Though the masculine a-stems tend for an -s genitive singular, and the i- and r-stems tend for -ar, there are many words that don't follow. The -i of the dative singular is frequently dropped from many words, particularly in the i-declension. Bisyllabic proper names originally in -arr or -urr, such as Einarr (modern "Ènar" /ˈe.nəθ͇/) and Gizurr (modern "Gisur" /ˈɟɪ.sʌθ͇/) do not contract as hamarr ("hamr-") before an inflectional syllable.

These first few are masculine a-stems.

Inflection of elde (masculine a-stem)
singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative elde hi n-elde eldar hinir eldar
accusative eld hi n-eld eldd hinn eldd
dative eldi hinu n-eldi elduᶰ hinu n-elduᶰ
genitive eldᶫ hins n-eldᶫ eldd hinn eldd

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

Inflection of hàte (masculine a-stem)
singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative hàte hi nhàte hàtar hinir hàtar
accusative hàt hi nhàt hàtt hinn hàtt
dative hàti hinu nhàti hòtuᶰ hinu nhòtuᶰ
genitive hàtᶫ hins nhàtᶫ hàtt hinn hàtt

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

Inflection of hàmare (masculine a-stem)
singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative hàmare hi nhàmare hàmarar hinir hàmarar
accusative hàmar hi nhàmar hamar hinn hamar
dative hamri hinu nhamri homruᶰ hinu nhomruᶰ
genitive hàmarᶫ hins nhàmarᶫ hamar hinn hamar

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

Due to many sound changes, "hamare" is quite irregular, this following table is more colloquial spellings that better show pronunciation.

Inflection of hàmare (masculine a-stem)
singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative hàmare hi nhàmare hàmarar hinir hàmarar
accusative hàmar hi nhàmar hanar hinn hanar
dative hanri hinu nhanri honruᶰ hinu nhonruᶰ
genitive hàmarᶫ hins nhàmarᶫ hanar hinn hanar

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

And an uncontracted form (which is regular):

Inflection of hàmare (masculine a-stem)
singular plural
indefinite definite indefinite definite
nominative hàmare hi nhàmare hàmarar hinir hàmarar
accusative hàmar hi nhàmar hàmarr hinn hàmarr
dative hàmari hinu nhàmari hòmaruᶰ hinu nhòmaruᶰ
genitive hàmarᶫ hins nhàmarᶫ hàmarr hinn hàmarr

ᶰ: triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: triggers lenition

Adjectives

As with nouns, the definiteness distinction has been lost in adjectives, though it was lost far earlier than in nouns, this is attributed to the increasing reliance on the noun for definiteness. (Which itself too eventually fell to the use of "hi")

Strong declension of sèl
singular masculine feminine neuter
nominative sèl sèl sèlt
accusative sèlaᶰ sèll sèlt
dative sèluᶰ sèlli sèlu
genitive sèlᶫ sèllar sèlᶫ
plural masculine feminine neuter
nominative sèlir sèlar sèl
accusative sèlir sèlar sèl
dative sèluᶰ sèluᶰ sèluᶰ
genitive sèll sèll sèll

ᶰ: Triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: Triggers lenition

Comparative declension of sèl
singular masculine feminine neuter
nominative sèlarr sèlari sèlarr
accusative sèlarr sèlari sèlarr
dative sèlarr sèlari sèlarr
genitive sèlarr sèlari sèlarr
plural masculine feminine neuter
nominative sèlari sèlari sèlari
accusative sèlari sèlari sèlari
dative sèluruᶰ sèluruᶰ sèluruᶰ
genitive sèlari sèlari sèlari

ᶰ: Triggers nasal mutation

Superlative declension of sèl
singular masculine feminine neuter
nominative sèlaste sèlust sèlast
accusative sèlastaᶰ sèlastt sèlast
dative sèlustuᶰ sèlastri sèlustu
genitive sèlasᶫ sèlastrar sèlasᶫ
plural masculine feminine neuter
nominative sèlastir sèlastar sèlust
accusative sèlastir sèlastar sèlust
dative sèlustuᶰ sèlustuᶰ sèlustuᶰ
genitive sèlastar sèlastar sèlastar

ᶰ: Triggers nasal mutation
ᶫ: Triggers lenition

Adverbs

Verbs

Strong verbs

Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
Class 5
Class 6
Class 7

Weak verbs

Class 1
Class 1-heavy
Class 1-light
Class 2
Conjugation of tàll (weak class 2)
present past
infinitive tàll tòludhu
participle tàladdi tàladhe
active passive active passive
1sg. tàli tòlunk tàladhi tòludhunk
2/3sg. tàlir tàlesk tàladhir tàladhesk
1pl. tàliᶰ tàlinsk tàladhiᶰ tàladhinsk
2pl. tàlidh tàlisk tàladhidh tàladhisk
3pl. tàli tàlisk tàladhi tàladhisk
Class 3

Suppletive verbs

Syntax

Texts

UDHR Article 1

Original (English):

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Lexical comparison

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