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Scots Norse ([[w:Autonym|Autonym]]: {{l|snon|Agharsc}} /ˈəːɾsk/) is a West Nordic language spoken in the Hebrides most closely related to [[w:Norn|Norn]], less so to [[w:Icelandic|Icelandic]] and [[w:Faroese|Faroese]], and quite distantly to [[w:Swedish|Swedish]], [[w:Norwegian|Norwegian]], and [[w:Danish|Danish]]. It has extremely significant influence from mainly [[w:Scottish Gaelic|Scots]] and [[w:Irish|Irish]] [[w:Goidelic languages|Gaelic]], and less so from the [[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]] languages [[w:Scots language|Scots]] [[w:English language|English]]. The Gaelic influence is most noticeable in the [[w:Morphophonology|morphophonology]] of Scots Norse, both with the [[w:palatalization (linguistics)|slender]]/[[w:velarization|broad]] distinction in [[w:consonants|consonants]] and the presence of [[w:consonant mutation|initial consonant mutation]].
Scots Norse ([[w:Autonym|Autonym]]: {{l|snon|Agharsc}} /ˈəːɾsk/) is a West Nordic language spoken in the Hebrides most closely related to [[w:Norn|Norn]], less so to [[w:Icelandic|Icelandic]] and [[w:Faroese|Faroese]], and quite distantly to [[w:Swedish|Swedish]], [[w:Norwegian|Norwegian]], and [[w:Danish|Danish]]. It has extremely significant influence from mainly [[w:Scottish Gaelic|Scots]] and [[w:Irish|Irish]] [[w:Goidelic languages|Gaelic]], and less so from the [[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]] languages [[w:Scots language|Scots]] [[w:English language|English]]. The Gaelic influence is most noticeable in the [[w:Morphophonology|morphophonology]] of Scots Norse, both with the [[w:palatalization (linguistics)|slender]]/[[w:velarization|broad]] distinction in [[w:consonants|consonants]] and the presence of [[w:consonant mutation|initial consonant mutation]].


Scots Norse has roughly eleven [[w:dialect|dialects]] that form the language's two [[w:dialect continuum|dialect continuums]], these are called {{l|snon|Veastèghsc}} ("Western") and {{l|snon|Èstèghsc}} ("Eastern") Scots Norse respectively, these are further divided into specific dialects, which can be viewed within the articles themselves. All [[w:variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of Scots Norse are written using the [[w:Latin script|Latin script]], employing [[w:Gaelic Type|Gaelic Type]] or [[w:Insular Script|Insular]] as the [[w:script|hand]], this acts as a notable exception to the general notion that Gaelic Type and Insular only survive for ornamental or historical usages, as they are still the primary hand used for Scots Norse.
Scots Norse has roughly eleven [[w:dialect|dialects]] that form the language's two [[w:dialect continuum|dialect continuums]], these being ''Western'' and ''Eastern'' Scots Norse respectively, these are further divided into specific dialects. All [[w:variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of Scots Norse are written using the [[w:Latin script|Latin script]], employing [[w:Gaelic Type|Gaelic Type]] or [[w:Insular Script|Insular]] as the [[w:script|hand]], this acts as a notable exception to the general notion that Gaelic Type and Insular only survive for ornamental or historical usages, as they are still the primary hand used for Scots Norse.


Uniting all of these dialects is the [[w:standard language|standard variety]], called ''Agharsc h'u Zorcha'', literally "Sorcha's Scots Norse". This form of the language is the most conservative of them all, being largely based on the 18th century description of Western Scots Norse by Sorcha of Uist. At times, the standard form has had certain shifts undone, such as the /ɛ/-/ɪ/ merger typical of Western dialects.
Uniting all of these dialects is the [[w:standard language|standard variety]], called ''Agharsc h'u Zorcha'', literally "Sorcha's Scots Norse". This form of the language is the most conservative of them all, being largely based on the 18th century description of Western Scots Norse by Sorcha of Uist. At times, the standard form has had certain shifts undone, such as the /ɛ/-/ɪ/ merger typical of Western dialects.


==Classification==
==Classification==
Scots Norse has long been a difficulty for linguists to classify, as it shows clear signs of being a mixed language, though the extent of this has been and still is heavily debated and questioned. As well as the general lack of speakers of Scots Norse, it is hard to determine whether Scots Norse stands as a creole or not, thus the general consensus among modern linguists to class it under ''Gaelo-Nordic'' till enough research has been done to reclassify it under a more appropriate position, potentially as a Scottish-Norse creole.
Scots Norse has long been a difficulty for linguists to classify, as it shows clear signs of being a mixed language, though the extent of this has been, and still is, heavily debated and questioned. As well as the general lack of speakers, it is hard to determine whether it stands as a creole or not, thus the general consensus among modern linguists to class it under ''Gaelo-Nordic'' till enough research has been done to reclassify it under a more appropriate position, potentially as a Scottish-Norse creole.


The difficulty in classifying Scots Norse comes largely down to the morphology and phonology, where it is closer to the modern Gaelic languages than the other Nordic languages, having lost most inflection while simultaneously gaining a simple system of preposition inflections from heavily reduced pronouns.
The difficulty in classifying Scots Norse comes largely down to the morphology and phonology, where it is closer to the modern Gaelic languages than the other Nordic languages, having lost most inflection while simultaneously gaining a simple system of preposition inflections from heavily reduced pronouns.
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==History==
==History==
===Pre-Modern===
===Pre-Modern===
Scots Norse originates in the mid to late 13th century, around the time Suðreyjar was handed over to [[w:Scotland|Scotland]] with the [[w:Treaty of Perth|Treaty of Perth]]. Though the language would continue to be largely unchanged from the Old Norse of the 12th century, 1266AD is often used as a dividing date between Old Norse and the earliest forms of Scots Norse. While 1266 is a relatively arbitrary date, it serves its purpose as a convenient divide between two stages, as following the Treaty of Perth, the Hebrides would gain a much larger population of Gaelic and English speakers (At this point still [[w:Middle Irish|Middle Irish]] and [[w:Middle English|Middle English]]), and from roughly 1450AD onward, Scots Norse would be increasingly influenced by Scots Gaelic and, to a lesser extent, Scots.
Scots Norse originates in the mid to late 13th century, around the time Suðreyjar was handed over to [[w:Scotland|Scotland]] with the [[w:Treaty of Perth|Treaty of Perth]]. Though the language would continue to be largely unchanged from the Old Norse of the 12th century, 1266AD is often used as a dividing date between Old Norse and the earliest forms of Scots Norse. While 1266 is a relatively arbitrary date, it serves its purpose as a convenient divide between two stages, as following the Treaty of Perth, the Hebrides would gain a much larger population of Gaelic and English speakers (At this point still [[w:Middle Irish|Middle Irish]] and [[w:Middle English|Middle English]]), and from roughly 1450AD onward, Scots Norse would be increasingly influenced by Scots Gaelic and, to a lesser extent, Scots and English.


Having been spoken throughout all of Suðreyjar, Scots Norse once had a dialect within the [[w:Isle of Man|Isle of Man]] ({{l|snon|Monaègharr}}). Little is known about Manx Scots Norse ({{l|snon|Monèsc}}), as it is very poorly recorded, the most extensive description being a short document from around 1500AD that contains a list of about 150 words (see ''[[the Noreine speche fra Man]]''), with a very poor description of the pronunciations. Though from this description we can gather that it still had the original [[w:dental fricative|dental fricatives]] that had been lost in other dialects (merging with t/d), we get this from the description "... these [th and dh] are like that of the Saxons' beloved þ."
Having been spoken throughout all of Suðreyjar, Scots Norse once had a dialect within the [[w:Isle of Man|Isle of Man]] ({{l|snon|Ma}}). Little is known about the Mannish dialect ({{l|snon|Mazc}}), as it is very poorly recorded, the most extensive description being a short document from around 1500AD that contains a list of about 150 words, with a very poor description of the pronunciations. Though from this description we can gather that it still had the original [[w:dental fricative|dental fricatives]] that had been lost in other dialects (merging with t/d), we get this from the description "... these [th and dh] are like that of the Saxons' beloved þ."


Following the treaty of Perth, the usage of Norse began declining significantly, with evidence it was nearly extinct by 1550. A small revitalization occurred in the 18th century when several of the last native speakers (having had no more than 150 remaining speakers) were gathered together by [[Sorcha of Uist]] in order to compile two main documents, [[An Etymological Dictionary of Scotland's Norse|a dictionary]] and [[A Description of Scotland's Norse|a grammar]]. This effort was mostly effective, leading to the first noticeable rise in speaker count since it began declining. By the 1880's, there would be upwards of 1,500 native speakers, a majority of them young.
Following the treaty of Perth, the usage of Norse began declining significantly, with evidence it was nearly extinct by 1550. A small revitalization occurred in the 18th century when several of the last native speakers (having had no more than 150 remaining speakers) were gathered together by [[Sorcha of Uist]] in order to compile two main documents, [[An Etymological Dictionary of Scotland's Norse|a dictionary]] and [[A Description of Scotland's Norse|a grammar]]. This effort was mostly effective, leading to the first noticeable rise in speaker count since it began declining. By the 1880's, there would be upwards of 1,500 native speakers, a majority of them young.
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{{snon-pronouns}}
{{snon-pronouns}}
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
Nouns have been reduced down to a basic singular/plural distinction, with the gender distinction effectively lost, only being maintained by the pronouns used for the words. Nouns have also dropped their definite forms in favor of an independent article, {{l|snon|hi}}.
Nouns have dropped their definite forms in favor of an independent article, {{l|snon|hi}}.


Plurals of native words are almost always formed with {{l|snon|-ar}}, though remnants of umlaut also exist. Nouns from Gàidhlig most often instead use {{l|snon|-an}}.
Direct plurals of native words are almost always formed with {{l|snon|-ar}} when masculine, or {{l|snon|-ir}} when feminine, though remnants of umlaut also exist. Nouns from Gàidhlig most often instead use {{l|snon|-an}}.


 
{{snon-decl-noun-m|v|elph|2o=eolph}}
With the general loss of gender, the suffix {{l|snon|-al}} developed. Originally a feminine diminutive, it was analogized to the masculine and became an agent suffix, then a general suffix for forming feminine nouns. In the plural, it appears as {{l|snon|-lar}}.
{{snon-decl-noun-f|v|alph|2e=aelph}}


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
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==="To be"===
==="To be"===
====The stative====
====Existential ''bì''====
Scots Norse has several things fulfilling the function of "to be". In the descriptive role (eg. "I am happy") the stative of a verb is used (eg. "sèladhist").
Likely under the influence of Irish, the verb "bìodh" (Old Norse "bíða") shifted to an existential copula, expressing existence, location, and condition, rather than an impersonal one, while an odd development, the extreme influence of the Gaelic languages does well explain it, in this sense it's most often spelt "bì", with the various endings being appended with an apostrophe, as in "bì'ir" or "bì'adhist", in these forms it is often pronounced /bj-/, thus /bjəjʃt/ for "bì'adhist".
====Copulative ''vèr''====
The verb {{l|snon|vèr}} acts as the so-called "equative 'to be'", eg. the verb "to be" as used to mean "X = Y", as in:
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(4)
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(4)
| tiòemhadhist hi ger
|er mic sèl
| empty.STAT the box
|COP.PRES 1sg happy
| The box is empty
|I am happy
}}
 
 
"vèr" in the present tense can often be dropped when paired with an emphatic pronoun (eg. pronoun + {{l|snon|-si}}), compare '''''er mic hi dèter.''''' vs. '''''micsi hi dèter.''''', both meaning "I am the teacher."
 
When saying "this/that is", "tèsh" and "ta" are used, with the verb dropped in the present tense.
(5a) ''tèsh mic u dèter'' "This (is) my teacher"
(5b) ''ta hi dèter'' "That's the teacher"
 
"in them" can also be used with an adjective to intensify it.
''''
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(6)
|er ha zèl h'igha
|COP.PRES 3sg.M happy {in him}
|He is happy
}}
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(7)
|er ho brìa h'igha
|COP.PRES 3sg.F beautiful {in her}
|She is beautiful
}}
}}
====Existential ''bì''====
Likely under the influence of Irish, the verb "bìodh" (Old Norse "bíða") shifted to an existential copula, rather than an impersonal one, while an odd development, the extreme influence of the Gaelic languages does well explain it, in this sense it's most often spelt "bì", with the various endings being appended with an apostrophe, as in "bì'ir" or "bì'adhist", in these forms it is often pronounced /bj-/, thus /bjəjʃt/ for "bì'adhist".


==Texts==
==Texts==
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| fire
| fire
| eldr
| eldr
| ald /ˈæʎdʲ/
| eldh
| eldur
| eldur
| eld
| eld
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| nose
| nose
| nǫs
| nǫs
| no /ˈnˠɔ/
| nas
| nös
| nös
| nas
| nas
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| to go
| to go
| ganga
| ganga
| gang /ˈɟæŋ̟/
| gangh
| ganga
| ganga
| gånga
| gånga
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| water
| water
| vatn
| vatn
| vat /ˈvʲætʲ/
| vath
| vatn
| vatn
| vatten
| vatten
|-
|-
|5
|5
| mouth
| mouth (body)</br>(river)
| (body) munnr</br>(river) mynni</br>(river) óss
| munnr</br>mynni, óss
| (body) muenn /ˈmˠɤɲ/</br>(river) mainn /ˈmiɲ/
| munh</br>miùenh
|  
|  
|-
|-
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| tongue
| tongue
| tunga
| tunga
| tueng /ˈtˠɤŋ̟/
| tungh
|-
|-
|7
|7
| blood
| blood
| blóð
| blóð
| blòd /ˈbˠɫodˠ/
| blòd
|-
|-
|8
|8
| bone
| bone
| bein
| bein
| bè /ˈbʲe/
| bè
|-
|-
|9
|9
| 2sg pronoun (you)
| 2sg pronoun (you)
| þú
| þú
| tù /ˈtˠu/
| tù
|-
|-
|10
|10
| root
| root
| rót
| rót
| ròt /ˈrˠotˠ/
| ròt
|-
|-
|11
|11
| to come (move)
| to come (move)
| koma
| koma
| còem /ˈkomʲ/
| còmh
|-
|-
|12
|12
| breast
| breast
| brjóst
| brjóst
| briòst /ˈbʲrʲosˠ(tˠ)/
| briòst
|-
|-
|13
|13
| rain
| rain
| regn
| regn
| rei /ˈrʲɛː/
| règh
|-
|-
|14
|14
| 1sg pronoun (I)
| 1sg pronoun (I)
| ek
| ek
| e /ɛɛ/
| mic
|-
|-
|15
|15
| name
| name
| nafn
| nafn
| nav /ˈnʲæ/
| nav
|-
|-
|16
|16
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| night (time)
| night (time)
| nátt
| nátt
| nàtt /ˈnot/
| nàt
|-
|-
|22
|22
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| to say
| to say
| tala
| tala
| tàel /ˈtoʎ/
| tàl
|-
|-
|30
|30
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| one (number)
| one (number)
| einn
| einn
| è /ˈe/
| è
|-
|-
|34
|34
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| 3sg pronoun (they)
| 3sg pronoun (they)
| hann (m)</br>hǫ́n (f)</br>þat (n)
| hann (m)</br>hǫ́n (f)</br>þat (n)
| ha (m) /ˈha/</br>hò (f) /ˈxo/
| ha (m)</br>ho (f)
|-
|-
|36
|36
Line 961: Line 981:
| this (pron.)
| this (pron.)
| sá
| sá
| tà /ˈto/
| tà
|-
|-
|40
|40
| fish
| fish
| fiskr
| fiskr
| fisc /ˈfʲɪʃc/
| fisc
|-
|-
|41
|41
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|43
|43
| black (color)
| black (color)
|  
| svartr
|  
| sfarth
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 1,060: Line 1,080:
|56
|56
| not (adj./adv.)
| not (adj./adv.)
| eigi</br>(verbal) -at
| eigi
| ègh /eʝ/</br>(verbal) -(a)t /(ə)tʲ/
| è(gh)
|-
|-
|57
|57
Line 1,072: Line 1,092:
| to know
| to know
| kunna</br>(a person) kenna
| kunna</br>(a person) kenna
| cuen /ˈkɤ̃/</br>(a person) cen /ˈcɛ̃/
| cunh
|-
|-
|59
|59
Line 1,131: Line 1,151:
| skin/hide
| skin/hide
| feldr (animal)</br> skinn (general)</br>húð
| feldr (animal)</br> skinn (general)</br>húð
| feld /ˈfʲɛʎdʲ/ (animal)</br> sci /ˈʃcɪ/ (general)</br>hùd /ˈxudˠ/
| feldh (animal)</br> sci (general)</br>hùd
|-
|-
|69
|69
Line 1,172: Line 1,192:
| to eat
| to eat
| eta
| eta
| èt /ˈetʲ/
| èth
|-
|-
|76
|76
Line 1,237: Line 1,257:
| dog
| dog
| hundr</br>rakki
| hundr</br>rakki
| huenn /ˈxɤɲ/ (archaic)</br>rac /ˈrʲæc/</br>(affectionate) cù /ˈku/
| hun (archaic)</br>raech</br>cù (affectionate)
| hundur</br>rakki
| hundur</br>rakki
| hund</br>rakka
| hund</br>rakka
Line 1,280: Line 1,300:
| bird
| bird
| fugl
| fugl
| fùil /ˈfˠɯʎ/
| fùghl
|-
|-
|94
|94
Line 1,309: Line 1,329:
| in
| in
| í
| í
| ì /i/
| i
|-
|-
|99
|99
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