Linguifex

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Some /h/-like phoneme, described as [hˤ] (written <ÎH, îh>). It might have corresponded to /ɣ/, but it is not very likely.
Some /h/-like phoneme, described as [hˤ] (written <ÎH, îh>). It might have corresponded to /ɣ/, but it is not very likely.


===Vowels===
=== Vowels ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|
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Orthography was made complicated on purpose.
Orthography was made complicated on purpose.


====Alphabet====
==== Alphabet ====
<poem>
<poem>
A, a /a/
A, a /a/
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</poem>
</poem>


====Spelling rules====
==== Spelling rules ====
Long vowels are spelled with doubled graphemes (<Aa, aa> /a:/, etc).
Long vowels are spelled with doubled graphemes (<Aa, aa> /a:/, etc).


There are many digraphs and even trigraphs ; usually, all letters are capitalized, when capitalization is needed.
There are many digraphs and even trigraphs ; usually, all letters are capitalized, when capitalization is needed.
=====Digraphs and trigraph with <Î, î>=====
===== Digraphs and trigraph with <Î, î> =====
In the original documentation, these are described as "purified" (''épurés'').
In the original documentation, these are described as "purified" (''épurés'').
<poem>
<poem>
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*Diphtongues with /ɥ/ are written with a <U, u>, either followed or preceded by a vowel.
*Diphtongues with /ɥ/ are written with a <U, u>, either followed or preceded by a vowel.


=====Triphtongues=====
They should also be analyzed as combinations of approximant + vowel + approximant. Besides using <I, i> and <O, o> or even <Ü, ü> and <U, u>, there is a handful of special spellings that denote such "triphtongues" :
<poem>
ÜÂ, üâ [jaj]
ÜY, üy [jɔj]
ÊÜ, êü [jaj]
YÜ, yü [joj] or [jɔj]
ÃÎ, ãî [aji]
ÕÎ, õî [oji]
</poem>
=====Word-final position induced changes=====
=====Word-final position induced changes=====
The original consonants /g/ <G, g>, /l/ <L, l> and syllable /wi/ <W, w> turn into [j] when in a word-final position. Instead, the spellings <gue>, <lle> and <wi> are used.
*The original consonants /g/ <G, g>, /l/ <L, l> and syllable /wi/ <W, w> turn into [j] when in a word-final position. Instead, the spellings <gue>, <lle> and <wi> are used.
<poem>
*There are some other special word-final spellings :
<g> /j/
<l> /j/
<w> /j/
<gue> /g/
<lle> /l/
<wi> /wi/
</poem>
There are some other special spellings :
<poem>
<poem>
<ebm> /ɛjm/
<ebm> /ɛjm/
<ebn> /ɛjn/
<ebn> /ɛjn/
</poem>
</poem>
Finally, some letters are simply not pronounced at the end of a word, and other spellings are used instead :
*Finally, some letters are simply not pronounced at the end of a word :
<poem>
<poem>
<e>
<e>
<ô>
<d>
<d>
<nowiki><q></nowiki>
<r>
<nowiki><s></nowiki>
<nowiki><s></nowiki>
<t>
<t>
<z>
<z>
<er>
<er>
<dde> /d/
<qe> /ʃ/
<sse> /θ/ (or possibly /s/ ?)
<tte> /t/
<ze> /z/
</poem>
</poem>


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|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"| s <C, c> alt. <TĦ/Tħ, tħ> ; z <Z, z> alt. <DĦ/Dħ, dħ> alt. <SĦ/Sħ, sħ>
|colspan="2"| s <C, c> alt. <SĦ/Sħ, sħ> ; z <Z, z> alt. <DĦ/Dħ, dħ>>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <Q, q> ; ʒ <Ö, ö> alt. <JĦ/Jħ, jħ> alt. <QJ/Qj, qj>
|colspan="2"| ʃ <Q, q> ; ʒ <J, j>
|colspan="2"| ʃʲ / ç / ɕ <QÛ, qû>
|colspan="2"| ʃʲ / ç / ɕ <QÛ, qû>
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
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|colspan="2"| ɸ <ÎF, îf> ; β <ÎV, îv>
|colspan="2"| ɸ <ÎF, îf> ; β <ÎV, îv>
|colspan="2"| f <F, f> alt. <PĦ/Pħ, pħ> ; v <V, v> alt. <BĦ/Bħ, bħ>
|colspan="2"| f <F, f> alt. <PĦ/Pħ, pħ> ; v <V, v> alt. <BĦ/Bħ, bħ>
|colspan="2"| θ <S, s> alt. <Tûhh, s> ; ð <J, j>  
|colspan="2"| θ <S, s> ; ð <X, x>  
|colspan="2"| (ɬ / ɮ <HÛ, hû>)
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"| ɧ̙ʷ <ÎQ, îq> ; ɧ̙ʷ̬ <ÎÖ, îö> alt. <LÎÖ, lîö>
|colspan="2"| ɧ̙ʷ <ÎQ, îq> ; ɧ̙ʷ̬ <ÎÖ, îö>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"| x <ÎX, îx>
|colspan="2"| ʁ <R, r>
|colspan="2"| χ <X, x> ; ʁ <R, r>
|colspan="2"| h <H, h>
|colspan="2"| h <H, h>
|-
|-
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|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɹ <RÛ, rû>
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"| j <I, i> (before a vowel), <Ü, ü> (after a vowel) ; ɥ <U, u> (before some vowels)
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| j <I, i> (before a vowel), <Ü, ü> (after a vowel) ; ɥ <U, u> (before or after vowel)
|colspan="2"| w <O, o> (before or after a vowel)
|colspan="2"| w <O, o> (before or after a vowel)
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
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|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"| (r <LÛ, lû>)
|colspan="2"| r <LÛ, lû>
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"| ʀ <RX, rx>
|colspan="2"| ʀ <ÏR, ïr>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
!colspan="2"|Flap
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ɾ <ĦÛ, ħû>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
!colspan="2"|Lateral approx.
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|-
|-
!colspan="2"|Close
!colspan="2"|Close
|colspan="2"|i <I, i> alt. <Oi, oi> ; y <U, u>
|colspan="2"|i <I, i> alt. <Î, î> ; y <U, u>
|colspan="2"|ɨ <Î, î> alt. <Ï, ï>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|u <OU/Ou, ou>
|colspan="2"|u <OU/Ou, ou>
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
!colspan="2"|Close-mid
|colspan="2"|e <E, ç/ë> ; ø <EU/Eu, eu> alt. <OE/Oe, oe>
|colspan="2"|e <EI, ei> alt. <E, é> ; ø <EU, eu> alt. <OE, oe>
|colspan="2"| ə <E, e>
|colspan="2"| ə <E, e>
|colspan="2"|o <O, o> alt. <Ô, ô> alt. <Õ, õ>
|colspan="2"|o <O, o> alt. <Ô, ô>
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
!colspan="2"|Open-mid
|colspan="2"|ɛ <E, ÿ/ê> alt. <EA, ea> ; œ <E, ù/ĕ> alt. <EÔ/Eô, eô> ; ɛ̃ <Ä, é/â> ; œ̃ <Ä, è/ä>
|colspan="2"|ɛ <AI, ai> alt. <E, è> ; ɛ̃ <ÎÃ, îã> ; œ <Ä, ä> ; œ̃ <Un, un> alt. <Um, um>
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|ɔ <O, o> ; ɔ̃ <Ä, à/ă>
|colspan="2"|ɔ <O, o> ; ɔ̃ <Õ, õ>
|-
|-
!colspan="2"|Open
!colspan="2"|Open
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"| ä <A, a> alt. <Ã, ã>
|colspan="2"| ä <A, a>  
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <Ä, ä>
|colspan="2"| ɑ̃ <Ã, ã>
|}
|}


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===Nouns===
===Nouns===
Nouns have definiteness, gender, and number. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are three genders : neuter, masculine, and feminine.   
Nouns have definiteness, gender, and number. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are three genders : neuter, masculine, and feminine.   
<!--Nouns have three genders in Qtolqjimctadû : neuter, masculine, and feminine. Genders are marked by the ending. Nouns that represent inanimate things are usually neutral, with masculine and feminine generally found in nouns that represent animate things. Some nouns can have all three genders (for example, male and female animal names are often built on the same underlying neutral form). Nouns also have two numbers : singular and plural. The plural is marked with a suffix that comes after any gender mark, while the singular is unmarked. The "dictionary" form when a given noun can have several genders is the singular neuter. Most nouns in the singular neuter end either with a <nowiki><e></nowiki> or with a consonant. The plural takes a different form depending on the ending of the word, in the singular neuter if applicable.-->
 
====Gender====
====Gender====
Gender is usually marked by the ending of the noun. Nouns that correspond to non-animate things are usually neutral whereas nouns that describe animate things are usually masculine or feminine. However, some nouns can have all three genders, with the masculine and feminine forms built on an underlying neutral form ; this is common for instance for animal names, or for professions.
Gender is usually marked by the ending of the noun. Nouns that correspond to non-animate things are usually neutral whereas nouns that describe animate things (living beings) are usually masculine or feminine.  
 
According to documentation, most neuter nouns in the singular end either in <nowiki><-e></nowiki> or in a consonant. There is however no indication of how to distinguish masculine and feminine nouns, but based on the description of neuter forms, it may be posited that they must typically end in some kinds of vowels. Nouns that end in <nowiki><-e></nowiki> in the singular neuter are part of a paradigm that builds masculine and feminine forms on this underlying neuter form :
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Ending in -e
|-
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
|-
| Neuter || -e /ə/ || -ea /ɛ/
|-
| Masculine || -e /ə/ || -ebn /ɛjn/
|-
| Feminine || -ea /ɛ/ || -ean /əɑ̃/
|}
 
According to documentation, it is common for the neuter to present as a masculine singular ending in the singular, and as a feminine singular ending in the plural.


====Definiteness====
====Definiteness====
Earlier documentation does not explicitly state that the definite and definite articles must agree with nouns in number and gender, but it is apparent in corpus that there is at least a masculine or neutral singular definite article that differs from a feminine singular definite article. From this and comparison with other versions of Tolsian, one can infer that articles, both definite and indefinite, come in at least three forms : masculine singular, feminine singular, and a plural form that covers all genders. Based on the existence of a neutral gender, it may be posited that there must be a neutral singular form as well. There is however no actual indication of whether there is only one plural form for all genders, or if there are also different plural forms for different genders. We'll assume the following paradigm :
Earlier documentation is sparse but mentions articles that agree in gender and number with the noun they qualify. Based on comparisons with other versions of Tolsian, we can assume that there are definite articles and indefinite article, with different forms for masculine, neuter and feminine in the singular (or with the masculine and the neuter merged together), and most likely only one form for all genders in the plural.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Definite and indefinite articles
|-
! Definiteness / Gender !! Neuter !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Plural
|-
| Definite|| - || pna /pna/ || pnÿ /pnɛ/ || -
|-
| Indefinite|| -|| -|| ad /a/ || -
|-
|}


====Number====
====Number====
There are two numbers, singular and plural ; singular is unmarked while plural is marked with a suffix that differs depending on the ending of the noun.
There are two numbers, singular and plural ; singular is unmarked while plural is marked with a suffix that differs depending on the ending of the noun :
Besides the "-e" paradigm above, different groups of endings take different plural markings. It is likely that the consonantal endings indicate neuter nouns, whereas the vocalic endings indicate masculine and feminine nouns.
 
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table of plurals
|+ Plural in nouns
|-
! Types of endings !! Plural affix !! Pronunciation
|-
|-
| -c ; -f ; -j ; -l ; -m ; -n ; -v ; -û ; -ë || -c || -cc /s/ ; -fc /fs/ ; -jc /θ/ ; -lc /js/ ; -mc ; -nc ; -vc /fs/ ; -ûc /ɫ/ ; -ëc /bɾɛk/
! Noun ending !! Plural suffix
|-
|-
| -b ; -d ; -g ; -p ; -q ; -w ; -ü ; -k || -tt || -btt /pt/ ; -dtt /d̚/ ; -gtt /kt/ ; -ptt /pt/ ; -qtt /ʃt/ ; -wtt /wit/ ; -ütt /jt/ ; -ktt /kt/
| Vowel || <-z> /z/ (if the vowel ending is <e>, it remains unpronounced)
|-
|-
| -s ; -r || -ch || -sch /ʃ/ ; -rch /?/ ("[hˤ]" see notes on consonants) ; -rsch /ʁʃa/
| Consonant|| <-s> /θ/ (if the consonant ending was unpronounced, it remains so)
|-
|-
| -h ; -t ; -x ; -z ; -ö ; -ñ || -c or -tt || -hc /k/ ; -tc /ts/ ; -xc /χs/ ; -zc /s/ ; -öc /s/ ; -ñc /s/ <p> -htt /ht/ ; -ttt /t̚/ ; -xtt /χt/ ; -ztt /st/ ; -ött /ʃt/ ; -ñtt /t/
| Ending in <-s> || <-ï> (<-sï> remains unpronounced)
|-
|-
| Vowel endings (other than "e") || -es || not pronounced.
| Ending in <-x> || <-ï> (<-xï> remains /θ/)
|}
|}


====Pronouns====
====Pronouns====
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| 3SG.impersonal || "man", "one" || tawi /tawi/
| 3SG.impersonal || "man", "one" || tawi /tawi/
|-
|-
| 1PL || we || îhalÿn /xalɛn/
| 1PL || we || cên /sjan/
|-
|-
| 2PL || you || hiçve /hjev/
| 2PL || you || hiév /hjev/
|-
|-
| 3PL.masc || they || tagg /tag/ (or /tagj/ ?)
| 3PL.masc || they || tagg /tag/ (or /tagj/ ?)
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! Grammatical description !! English translation !! Pronoun
! Grammatical description !! English translation !! Pronoun
|-
|-
| Singular demonstrative pronoun || this || fe /fə/
| Singular demonstrative pronoun || this || cc /s/
|-
| Plural demonstrative pronoun || these || îvae /βa/
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal reflexive pronouns
|-
! Grammatical description !! English translation !! Pronoun
|-
| 1SG || myself || kab /kab/
|-
| 2SG || yourself || kat /ka/ (or /kat) ?)
|-
| 3SG.masc || himself || kaad /ka:/ (or /ka:d/ ?)
|-
| 3SG.fem || herself || kaad /ka:/ (or /ka:d/ ?)
|-
| 3SG.impersonal || oneself || kad /ka/ (or /kad/ ?)
|-
| 1PL || ourselves || aö /aʒ/
|-
| 2PL || yourselves || av /av/
|-
| 3PL.masc || themselves || aann /a:n/
|-
| 3PL.fem || themselves || aann /a:n/
|-
|-
| 2POLITE || yourself ; yourselves || enn /ən/
| Plural demonstrative pronoun || these || ce /s(ə)/
|}
|}


Reflexive pronouns are placed immediately after the subject pronoun, like in French : "êü kab ... " ''je me ...
''
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Possessive pronouns
|+ Possessive pronouns
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! Grammatical description !! English translation !! Masculine and neuter singular !! Feminine singular !! Masculine and neuter plural !! Feminine plural
! Grammatical description !! English translation !! Masculine and neuter singular !! Feminine singular !! Masculine and neuter plural !! Feminine plural
|-
|-
| 1SG || my, mine || kabħe /kavə/ || kabħa /kava/ || kabħei /kavi/ || kabħae /kavaɥ/
| 1SG || my, mine || kabħe /kav/ || kabħa /kava/ || kabħei /kavi/ || kabħae /kavɛ/
|-
|-
| 2SG || your, yours || katħe /kasə/ || katħa /kasa/ || katħei /kasi/ || katħae /kasaɥ/
| 2SG || your, yours || kadħe /kaz/ || kadħa /kaza/ || kadħei /kazi/ || kadħae /kazɛ/
|-
|-
| 3SG || his, her, hers, its || kadħe /kazə/ || kadħa /kaza/ || kadħei /kazi/ || kadħae /kazaɥ/
| 3SG || his, her, hers, its || kasħe /kas/ || kasħa /kasa/ || kasħei /kasi/ || kasħae /kasɛ/
|-
|-
| 1PL || our, ours || pħaöe /faʒə/ || pħaöa /faʒa/ || pħaöei /faʒi/ || pħaöae /faʒaɥ/
| 1PL || our, ours || pħane /fan/ || pħana /fana/ || pħanei /fani/ || pħanae /fanɛ/
|-
|-
| 2PL || your, yours || pħave /favə/ || pħava /fava/ || pħavei /favi/ || pħavae /favaɥ/
| 2PL || your, yours || pħave /fav/ || pħava /fava/ || pħavei /favi/ || pħavae /favɛ/
|-
|-
| 3PL || their, theirs || pħann /fan/ || pħana /fana/ || pħani /fani/ || pħanae /fanaɥ/
| 3PL || their, theirs || kapħe /kaʃ/ || kapħa /kaʃa/ || kapħei /kaʃi/ || kapħae /kaʃɛ/
|-
|-
| 2POLITE || your, yours || ïqann /iʃan/ || aîqann /aɧ̙ʷan/ || ïqani /iʃani/ || aîqane /aɧ̙ʷan/
| 2POLITE || your, yours || samm /θam/ || sama/θama/ || sami /θami/ || samae /θamɛ/
|}
|}


Possessive pronouns agree in gender and number with the nouns denoting what is "possessed".
Possessive pronouns agree in gender and number with the nouns denoting what is "possessed" (masculine and neuter are the same). They are placed after that noun if there is also an article being used, but before it otherwise.


===Verbs===
===Verbs===


There are two main verbal groups, one ending in "-ë" (usually with a radical ending in a vowel), and one ending in "-er" (usually with a radical ending in a consonant). Verbs are conjugated for person, tense, and mood. There are formally seven persons : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.  
There are two main verbal groups, one ending in "-ë" (usually with a radical ending in a vowel), and one ending in "-er" (usually with a radical ending in a consonant). Verbs are conjugated for person, tense, and mood. There are formally seven persons : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.  
*Plural persons (1PL, 2Pl, 3PL, 2POL depending on context) are built from their singular counterparts, by adding a plural suffix between the radical and the conjugation ending : <-tt-> if the verb radical ends in a vowel, <-a-> if it ends in a consonant.


====Mood====
====Mood====
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The indicative and absolute moods are forms of realis : indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods.  
The indicative and absolute moods are forms of realis : indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods.  
=====Absolute=====
=====Absolute=====
The absolute is traditionally treated as a mood because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis. According to documentation : <q>L'absolu est un mode intemporel. Il peut traduire un présent de vérité générale, parler d'une propriété intrinsèque à un corps, être utilisé en poésie... Il peut être utilisé aussi en tant que présent s'il décrit une action ''a priori'' continue dans le temps, comme lorsqu'on emploie des adjectifs qualificatifs.</q>
The absolute is traditionally treated as a mood because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect.
 
=====Imperative=====
=====Imperative=====
The conditional and imperative moods are forms of irrealis : the imperative expresses commands, prohibitions and requests. It is not used with the seventh person (2nd person used for politeness), in which case it is substituted for a hypothetical conditional.  
The conditional and imperative moods are forms of irrealis : the imperative expresses commands, prohibitions and requests. It is not used with the seventh person (2nd person used for politeness).
 
=====Conditional=====
=====Conditional=====
The conditional expresses hypotheticals, desires and wishes. According to documentation, so-called "hypothetical conditional" corresponds to the French subjunctive mood.
The conditional expresses hypotheticals, desires and wishes.
 
====Tense====
====Tense====


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=====Present=====
=====Present=====
*In the indicative mode, there is one present, the indicative present.
*In the indicative mode, there is one present, the indicative present. A present progressive (''présent continu'') is bilt analytically.
*In the conditional mood, there are two kinds of present : the conditional present and the so-called "hypothetical conditional present" (''conditionel hypothétique présent''), meant to correspond to the French subjunctive present.
*In the conditional mood, there is one present, the conditional present.
*In the imperative and absolute moods, there is only a present tense.
*In the imperative and absolute moods, there is only a present tense.
=====Past=====
=====Past=====
*In the indicative mood, there are four kinds of past : the so-called "foregone past" (''passé révolu''), which is meant to correspond to the French pluperfect ; the "descriptive past" (''passé descriptif''), meant to correspond to the French simple past and imperfect past ; the "general past" (''passé général''), meant to correspond to the French imperfect and ''passé composé'' (present perfect) ; and the "anterior past" (''passé antérieur''), built analytically with the auxiliary verb "kavaver"(to have) in the foregone past and the past participle.
*In the indicative mood, there is one past, the "general past" (''passé général''), meant to correspond to the French ''passé composé'', as well as the ''imparfait'' and even the ''passé simple''. There are also a so-called "foregone past" (''passé révolu'') and a "descriptive past" (''passé descriptif''), the latter being meant to correspond more specifically to French ''imparfait''. They are both built analytically.
*In the conditional mood, there are three kinds of past : the "past conditional" (''conditionnel passé''), the so-called "retrospective conditional" (''conditionnel rétrospectif''), which is meant to correspond to the French ''conditionnel passé de seconde forme'', and the so-called "hypothetical conditional past" (''conditionel hypothétique passé''), meant to express the French past subjunctive.  
*In the conditional mood, there is only an analytically built past conditional.
 
=====Future=====
=====Future=====
In the indicative mood, there are two kinds of future : the "general future" (''futur général''), which indicates event that are yet to happen, and the "retrospective future" (''futur rétrospectif''), which corresponds to the traditional "future perfect" (''futur antérieur''), used to express an action that will be completed before another action in the future.
In the indicative mood, there is a "general future" (''futur général''), which indicates event that are yet to happen. There are also a so-called "retrospective future" (''futur rétrospectif''), and a "proximity future" (''futur de proximité''), which is meant to express the inchoative aspect. They are both built analytically.
 
====Negation====
 
QtolqjimctadûB uses double negation, with a negation verb. There are two possible constructions :
 
*Nî + subject + conjugated verb + infinitive "daer"
*Subject + conjugated verb "daer" + infinitive verb


====Conjugation tables====
====Conjugation tables====
The only available conjugation tables describe the endings in the indicative present for verbs of the first and second groups.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Indicative present of the first group : "kalûaë", ''to be''
|+ Indicative present
|-
|-
! Person !! Ending !! Example
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
|-
| 1SG || -qni /ʃni/ || kalûaqni /kaɾaʃni/
| 1SG || -os /o/ || -e / /
|-
|-
| 2SG || -qniî /ʃnij/ || kalûaqniî /kaɾaʃnij/
| 2SG || -is /i/ || -es / /
|-
|-
| 3SG || - (radical) || kalûa /kaɾa/
| 3SG || -at /a/ || -et / /
|-
|-
| 1PL || -cÿcq /sɛsʃ/ || kalûacÿcq /kaɾasɛsʃ/
| 1PL || -aos /aw/ || -tte /t/
|-
|-
| 2PL || -tts /t/ || kalûatts /kaɾat/
| 2PL || -ais /ai/ (/aj/) || -ttez /t/
|-
|-
| 3PL || -me /mə/ || kalûame /kaɾamə/
| 3PL || -aat /a:/ || -ttet /t/
|-
|-
| 2POLITE || -i /i/ || kalûai /kaɾai/
| 2POLITE || -ae /ɛ/ ; -aae /aɛ/ || -ez / / ; -ttez / /
|}
|}
The progressive (or continuous) present of a verb is built analytically with the present participle of the auxiliary verb "to have" followed with the infinitive of the verb.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Indicative present of the second group : "kavaver", ''to have''
|+ Indicative simple past
|-
|-
! Person !! Ending !! Example
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
|-
| 1SG || - (radical) || kav /kav/
| 1SG || -od /o/ || -de /d/
|-
|-
| 2SG || -s (unpronounced) || kavavs /kavav/
| 2SG || -id /i/ || -des /d/
|-
|-
| 3SG || - (radical) || kavav /kavav/
| 3SG || -ad /a/ || -det /d/
|-
|-
| 1PL || -m /m/ || kavavm /kavavm/
| 1PL || -aod /aw/ || -ttde /t/
|-
|-
| 2PL || -ês /ja/ || kavavês /kavavja/
| 2PL || -aid /ai/ (/aj/) || -ttdes /t/
|-
|-
| 3PL || -n /n/ || kavavn /kavavn/
| 3PL || -aad /a:/ || -ttdet /t/
|-
|-
| 2POLITE || -i /i/ || kavi /kavi/
| 2POLITE || -ade /ad/ ; -aade /a:d/ || -dez /ɥa/ ; -ttdez /t/
|}
|}
Note : the first and seventh persons are irregular in this case.


The verb kalûaë, being a high frequency verb, also has contracted, less formal forms :
The so-called "foregone past" is built analytically with the auxiliary verb "to be" in the general past and the past participle of the verb.
 
The so-called "descriptive past" (imperfect) is built analytically with the auxiliary verb "to have" in the general past followed with the present participle of the verb.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Informal indicative present of kalûaë, "to be"
|+ Indicative simple future
|-
|-
! Person !! Kalûaë
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
|-
| 1SG || kaqni /kaʃni/  
| 1SG || -(i)ros /(i)ʁo/ || -re /ʁ/
|-
|-
| 2SG || kaqniî /kaʃnij/  
| 2SG || -(i)ris /(i)ʁi/ || -res /ʁ/
|-
|-
| 3SG || kaq /kaʃ/  
| 3SG || -(i)rat /(i)ʁa/ || -ret /ʁ/
|-
|-
| 1PL || kacÿcq /kasɛsʃ/  
| 1PL || -aros /aʁo/ || -ttre /tʁ/
|-
|-
| 2PL || katts /kat/  
| 2PL || -aris /aʁi/ || -ttres /tʁ/
|-
|-
| 3PL || kame /kamə/  
| 3PL || -arat /aʁa/ || -ttret /tʁ/
|-
|-
| 2POLITE || kai /kai/  
| 2POLITE || -(i)rae /(i)ʁɛ/ ; -arae /-aʁɛ/|| -rez /ʁ/ -ttrez /tʁ/
|}
|}


====Participle====
The so-called "retrospective future" (future perfect) is built analytically with the auxiliary verb "to be" in the future followed by the past participle of the verb.
 
=====Present participle=====
There are two different kinds of present participles ; the regular present participle, and a so-called substantival present participle (''participe présent substantivé'').
*Regular present participle :
It is built by adding either the ending -klûenat /kɾna/ or the ending -kvi /gvi/ to the verb radical. These endings correspond directly to the present participles of the verb kalûaë : klûenat, and of the verb kavaver : kvi.
Example : çctekvi /estegvi/, "losing".
*Substantival present participle :
It is used for instance for expressing continuing action (''Il sert par exemple à transcrire l'idée d'action continue : en français, "être en train de..."''). It is built by adding the ending -m to the infinitive form.
Example : kavaverm /kavavm/ "having", kalûaëm /kaɾam/ "being", çctÿeëm /estɛbɾəm/ "losing".
Example : Êü kavaqni çcteëm nda tÿmg kabbhe, "I am wasting my time"
Subject pronoun "I" + verb "to have" + substantival present participle of the verb "to lose" + particle "in, from, of" + "time" + possessive pronoun "mine".
 
=====Past participle=====


The past participle is built by adding the ending -ut /y/ to the verb radical, for verbs of the first group ; and by adding the ending -ç /e/ to the verb radical, for verbs of the second group.
The so-called "proximity future" (inchoative, ''I am going to ...'', ''Je vais ...'') is built analytically with the auxiliary verb "to be" in the present, followed by the present participle of the auxiliary verb "to have", followed by the infinitive of the verb.
Exceptions : kalûaë : klûu /kɾy/ (or /kɾu/ ?), "been" ; kavaver : avvç /av:e/.
The past participle agrees in gender and number with the object of the verb :


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Past participle
|+ Conditional present
|-
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
|-
!  !! first group !! second group
| 1SG || -(i)rios /(i)ʁjo/ || -red /ʁ/
|-
|-
| Masculine singular || -ut /y/ || -ç /e/
| 2SG || -(i)riis /(i)ʁji/ || -reds /ʁ/
|-
|-
| Neuter singular || -ut /y/ || -ç /e/
| 3SG || -(i)riat /(i)ʁja/ || -redt /ʁ/
|-
|-
| Feminine singular || -uet /y/ || -çe /e/
| 1PL || -arios /aʁjo/ || -ttre /tʁ/
|-
|-
| Masculine plural || -uts /y/ || -çs /e/
| 2PL || -ariis /aʁji/ || -ttreds /tʁ/
|-
|-
| Neuter plural || -uts /y/ || -çs /e/
| 3PL || -ariat /aʁja/ || -ttredt /tʁ/
|-
|-
| Feminine plural || -uets /y/ || -çes /e/
| 2POLITE || -(i)riae /(i)ʁjɛ/ ; -ariae /aʁjɛ/ || -redz /ʁɛ/ ; -ttredz /tʁɛ/
|}
|}


Example : çcteut, çcteuts, çcteuet, çcteuets /esty/.
The conditional past is built analytically with the auxiliary verb "to have" in the present conditional followed with the past participle of the verb.
 
===Adjectives===
 
Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they qualify. It is marked with a prefix that changes depending on the beginning of the neuter singular form.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective starts with a vowel
|+ Imperative
|-
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
| 1SG || -e / / || -e / /
|-
| 2SG || -e / / || -e / /
|-
|-
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
| 3SG || - / / || - / /  
|-
|-
| Neuter || - || es- /əθ/
| 1PL || -ae /a/ /j/ || -ae /a/
|-
|-
| Masculine || a- /a/ || ai- /aj/
| 2PL || -ae /a/ || -ae /a/
|-
|-
| Feminine || e- /ə/ || es- /əθ/
| 3PL || -a /a/ || -a /a/
|}
|}
There is no imperative form for the person of politeness.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective starts with h-, t-, x-, z-, ö-,ñ-
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
| 1SG || -ha /ha/ || -h /h/ (or unpronounced ?)
|-
| 2SG || -ex /əθ/ || -x /θ/
|-
| 3SG || -etû /ət̚/ || -tû /t̚/
|-
| 1PL || -epħ /əf/ || -îfè /ɸɛ/
|-
| 2PL || -ebħ /əv/ || -îvè /βɛ/
|-
|-
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
| 3PL || -edû /əd̚/ || -dû /d̚/
|-
|-
| Neuter || - || cs- /s/
| 2POLITE || -èîq /ɛɧ̙ʷ/ || -îq /ɧ̙ʷ/
|}
 
====Participle====
 
=====Present participle=====
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present Participle
|-
|-
| Masculine || q- /ʃ/ || qs- /ʃ/
! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
|-
| Feminine || c- /s/ || cs- /s/
| -ent /ɑ̃/ || -öħt / /
|}
|}
=====Past participle=====


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective starts with b-, d-, g-, p-, q-, w-, ü-, k
|+ Past participle
|-
|-
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
! Gender/Number !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
| Masculine singular || -öi /i/ || -t / /
|-
| Neuter singular || -i /i/ || -t / /
|-
| Feminine singular || -ie /i/ || -te /t/
|-
|-
| Neuter || - || hm- /hm/
| Masculine plural || -öis /i/ || -ts / /
|-
|-
| Masculine || m- /m/ || ebm- /ɛjm/
| Neuter plural || -is /i/ || -ts / /
|-
|-
| Feminine || hm- /hm/ || hebm- /hɛjm/
| Feminine plural || -ies /i/ || -tes /t/
|}
|}
===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they qualify. Agreement is marked with a suffix, that varies depending on the ending in the neuter singular form, which is the radical form of the adjective. When in a nominal phrase, the adjective can be placed both before or after the noun it qualifies, though collocations can exist (''sous réserve de virtuelles évolutions de la langue qui, pour des raisons x ou y, pourrait préférer pour tel adjectif ou tel autre un emplacement particulier'').


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective starts with s-, r-
|+ Adjective ends with a vowel
|-
|-
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
|-
|-
| Neuter || - || kbett- /kbət/
| Neuter || - || -z / /
|-
|-
| Masculine || kbet- /kbət/ || kbest- /kbət/
| Masculine || -lö /l/ || -löz /l/
|-
|-
| Feminine || kbeat- /kbɛt/ || kbeast- /kbɛt/
| Feminine || -là /la/ || -làz /la/
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective starts with c-, f-, j-, l-, m-, n-, v-, û-, ë-
|+ Adjective ends with a consonant
|-
|-
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
|-
|-
| Neuter || - || atûïve- /at̚ɨvə/
| Neuter || - || -s / /
|-
|-
| Masculine || etûove- /ət̚ovə/ || etûïve- /ət̚ɨvə/
| Masculine || -ö / / || -ös / /
|-
|-
| Feminine || atûova- /at̚ova/ || atûïva- /at̚ɨva/
| Feminine || -ÿ / / || -ÿs / /
|}
|}


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Particles are function words that include prepositions, postpositions, conjunction words, etc.  
Particles are function words that include prepositions, postpositions, conjunction words, etc.  
*One notable particle is the so-called subject particle, which is used with stative verbs to introduce the subject's attribute. It can take two different forms, usually depending on whether the subject is animate (particle "tke?") or inanimate (particle "ke?"), but also potentially on whether the relationship between subject and attribute is perceived as "temporary" or "eternal".
*One notable particle is the so-called subject particle, which is used with stative verbs to introduce the subject's attribute. It can take two different forms, usually depending on whether the subject is animate (particle "tke?") or inanimate (particle "ke?"), but also potentially on whether the relationship between subject and attribute is perceived as "temporary" or "eternal".
*Another notable particle is the "possessive" particle, which is suffixed to the noun that represents a "possessor", akin to a genitive marking. It can be used instead of possessive pronouns, when suffixed to a personal subject pronoun : for instance, the personal pronoun "êü" + the possessive particle "-dô" becomes "êüdô", ''my''. On the other hand, when using one of the possessive pronouns, a so-called "possessed particle" is placed in front of the "possessed" noun.
*Another notable particle is the "possessive" particle, which is suffixed to the noun that represents a "possessor", akin to a genitive marking. It can be used instead of possessive pronouns, when suffixed to a personal subject pronoun : for instance, the personal pronoun "êü" + the possessive particle "-dô" becomes "êüdô", ''my''.  
*Some particles are more like traditional prepositions ; for instance, "nda" means ''in, from, of''.
*Most particles are more like traditional prepositions.
 
===Derivational morphology===
 
====Adjectives====
 
Adjectives can be derived from nouns by adding the suffix -ke. The resulting adjective agrees in gender and number with the noun it qualifies, following the regular agreement rules for adjectives.
Example : "tolsian", neuter singular : tolqjimke, masculine singular : qtolqjimke.
 
====Nouns====
Nouns can be derived from adjectives or past participles by adding the suffix -ctadû /stad̚/. The resulting noun is usually masculine. According to documentation, if a noun is derived from an adjective that was itself derived from a noun with the suffix -ke, then this suffix should be dropped, which sure sounds a lot like we're back to deriving a noun from a noun.
Example : (the) Tolsian (language) : pna Qtolqjimctadû.
 
====Verbs====
 
Verbs can most likely be derived from nouns by adding either the suffix -ë (probably if the noun ends in a vowel) or the suffix -er (if it ends in a consonant).


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
*Sentences with a stative verbs have a different constituent order depending on whether the attribute is an adjective or a noun phrase ; in the first case, it is akin to a SVO order, in the second, to an OSV order :
*The basic constituent order of a declarative sentence is SVO (Subject - Verb - Object).
 
*questions are formed by inversing verb and subject (VSO).
"I am Tolsian" (the speaker is a woman) : êü kalûaqni tke? ctolqjimke.
 
Subject + "to be" + subject particle + "Tolsian" (f.sg.)
 
"I am a (Tolsian) woman" : Ad tke? mqarea (ctolqjimke) êü kalûaqni.
 
Article + subject particle + "woman" (+ "Tolsian") + subject + "to be".
 
*The basic constituent order of a declarative sentence is SVO.
Example : "I am wasting my time" : Êü kavaqni çcteëm nda tÿmg kabbhe. 
 
Subject pronoun + "to have" + substantival present participle of the verb "to lose" + particle "in, from, of" + "time" + possessive pronoun "mine".


===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
If there is a determiner (for example, a definiteness article), it is placed at the beginning of the noun phrase. If there is an adjective, it can be placed either right before, or right after, the noun it qualifies. Most particles are placed between a determiner and the adjective + noun (or noun + adjective) group. A prepositional phrase or clause comes after.
If there is a determiner (for example, a definiteness article), it is placed at the beginning of the noun phrase. If there is an adjective, it can be placed either right before, or right after, the noun it qualifies. Most particles are placed between a determiner and the adjective + noun (or noun + adjective) group. A prepositional phrase or clause comes after.
 
*Sentences with a stative verb use the so-called subject particle, which is used with stative verbs to introduce the subject's attribute. It can take two different forms, usually depending on whether the subject is animate (particle "tke?") or inanimate (particle "ke?"), but also potentially on whether the relationship between subject and attribute is perceived as "temporary" or "eternal".
Example :
 
"I am Tolsian" (the speaker is a woman) : êü kalûaqni tke? ctolqjimke.
 
Subject + "to be" + subject particle + "Tolsian" (f.sg.)
 
*Genitive phrase :
*Genitive phrase :


"My mother" : (Pnÿ) êüdô maîha.
"My mother" : (article) êüdô maîha.


(Definite article) + Subject pronoun + possessive particle suffix + "mother".
(Definite article) + Subject pronoun + possessive particle suffix + "mother".
"My mother" : Ne maîha kabħa.
"Possessed" particle + "mother" + possessive pronoun.
"This is my mother" : Fe kalûa ne maîha kabħa.
Demonstrative pronoun + "to be" + "possessed" particle + "mother" + possessive pronoun.
"Mine" : Pnÿ kabħa.
Definite article + possessive pronoun.
"It is mine" : Fe kalûa pnÿ kabħa.
Demonstrative pronoun + "to be" + definite article + possessive pronoun.


===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
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