Linguifex

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Some /h/-like phoneme, described as [hˤ] (written <ÎH, îh>). It might have corresponded to /ɣ/, but it is not very likely.
Some /h/-like phoneme, described as [hˤ] (written <ÎH, îh>). It might have corresponded to /ɣ/, but it is not very likely.


===Vowels===
=== Vowels ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|
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Orthography was made complicated on purpose.
Orthography was made complicated on purpose.


====Alphabet====
==== Alphabet ====
<poem>
<poem>
A, a /a/
A, a /a/
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</poem>
</poem>


====Spelling rules====
==== Spelling rules ====
Long vowels are spelled with doubled graphemes (<Aa, aa> /a:/, etc).
Long vowels are spelled with doubled graphemes (<Aa, aa> /a:/, etc).


There are many digraphs and even trigraphs ; usually, all letters are capitalized, when capitalization is needed.
There are many digraphs and even trigraphs ; usually, all letters are capitalized, when capitalization is needed.
=====Digraphs and trigraph with <Î, î>=====
===== Digraphs and trigraph with <Î, î> =====
In the original documentation, these are described as "purified" (''épurés'').
In the original documentation, these are described as "purified" (''épurés'').
<poem>
<poem>
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There are two main verbal groups, one ending in "-ë" (usually with a radical ending in a vowel), and one ending in "-er" (usually with a radical ending in a consonant). Verbs are conjugated for person, tense, and mood. There are formally seven persons : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.  
There are two main verbal groups, one ending in "-ë" (usually with a radical ending in a vowel), and one ending in "-er" (usually with a radical ending in a consonant). Verbs are conjugated for person, tense, and mood. There are formally seven persons : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.  
*Plural persons (1PL, 2Pl, 3PL, 2POL depending on context) are built from their singular counterparts, by adding a plural suffix between the radical and the conjugation ending : <-tt-> if the verb radical ends in a vowel, <-a-> if it ends in a consonant.


====Mood====
====Mood====
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The indicative and absolute moods are forms of realis : indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods.  
The indicative and absolute moods are forms of realis : indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods.  
=====Absolute=====
=====Absolute=====
The absolute is traditionally treated as a mood because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis. According to documentation : <q>L'absolu est un mode intemporel. Il peut traduire un présent de vérité générale, parler d'une propriété intrinsèque à un corps, être utilisé en poésie... Il peut être utilisé aussi en tant que présent s'il décrit une action ''a priori'' continue dans le temps, comme lorsqu'on emploie des adjectifs qualificatifs.</q>
The absolute is traditionally treated as a mood because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect.
 
=====Imperative=====
=====Imperative=====
The conditional and imperative moods are forms of irrealis : the imperative expresses commands, prohibitions and requests. It is not used with the seventh person (2nd person used for politeness), in which case it is substituted for a hypothetical conditional.  
The conditional and imperative moods are forms of irrealis : the imperative expresses commands, prohibitions and requests. It is not used with the seventh person (2nd person used for politeness).
 
=====Conditional=====
=====Conditional=====
The conditional expresses hypotheticals, desires and wishes. According to documentation, so-called "hypothetical conditional" corresponds to the French subjunctive mood.
The conditional expresses hypotheticals, desires and wishes.
 
====Tense====
====Tense====


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=====Present=====
=====Present=====
*In the indicative mode, there is one present, the indicative present.
*In the indicative mode, there is one present, the indicative present. A present progressive (''présent continu'') is bilt analytically.
*In the conditional mood, there are two kinds of present : the conditional present and the so-called "hypothetical conditional present" (''conditionel hypothétique présent''), meant to correspond to the French subjunctive present.
*In the conditional mood, there is one present, the conditional present.
*In the imperative and absolute moods, there is only a present tense.
*In the imperative and absolute moods, there is only a present tense.
=====Past=====
=====Past=====
*In the indicative mood, there are four kinds of past : the so-called "foregone past" (''passé révolu''), which is meant to correspond to the French pluperfect ; the "descriptive past" (''passé descriptif''), meant to correspond to the French simple past and imperfect past ; the "general past" (''passé général''), meant to correspond to the French imperfect and ''passé composé'' (present perfect) ; and the "anterior past" (''passé antérieur''), built analytically with the auxiliary verb "kavaver"(to have) in the foregone past and the past participle.
*In the indicative mood, there is one past, the "general past" (''passé général''), meant to correspond to the French ''passé composé'', as well as the ''imparfait'' and even the ''passé simple''. There are also a so-called "foregone past" (''passé révolu'') and a "descriptive past" (''passé descriptif''), the latter being meant to correspond more specifically to French ''imparfait''. They are both built analytically.
*In the conditional mood, there are three kinds of past : the "past conditional" (''conditionnel passé''), the so-called "retrospective conditional" (''conditionnel rétrospectif''), which is meant to correspond to the French ''conditionnel passé de seconde forme'', and the so-called "hypothetical conditional past" (''conditionel hypothétique passé''), meant to express the French past subjunctive.  
*In the conditional mood, there is only an analytically built past conditional.
 
=====Future=====
=====Future=====
In the indicative mood, there are two kinds of future : the "general future" (''futur général''), which indicates event that are yet to happen, and the "retrospective future" (''futur rétrospectif''), which corresponds to the traditional "future perfect" (''futur antérieur''), used to express an action that will be completed before another action in the future.
In the indicative mood, there is a "general future" (''futur général''), which indicates event that are yet to happen. There are also a so-called "retrospective future" (''futur rétrospectif''), and a "proximity future" (''futur de proximité''), which is meant to express the inchoative aspect. They are both built analytically.
 
====Negation====
 
QtolqjimctadûB uses double negation, with a negation verb. There are two possible constructions :
 
*Nî + subject + conjugated verb + infinitive "daer"
*Subject + conjugated verb "daer" + infinitive verb


====Conjugation tables====
====Conjugation tables====
The only available conjugation tables describe the endings in the indicative present for verbs of the first and second groups.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Indicative present of the first group : "kalûaë", ''to be''
|+ Indicative present
|-
|-
! Person !! Ending !! Example
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
|-
| 1SG || -qni /ʃni/ || kalûaqni /kaɾaʃni/
| 1SG || -os /o/ || -e / /
|-
|-
| 2SG || -qniî /ʃnij/ || kalûaqniî /kaɾaʃnij/
| 2SG || -is /i/ || -es / /
|-
|-
| 3SG || - (radical) || kalûa /kaɾa/
| 3SG || -at /a/ || -et / /
|-
|-
| 1PL || -cÿcq /sɛsʃ/ || kalûacÿcq /kaɾasɛsʃ/
| 1PL || -aos /aw/ || -tte /t/
|-
|-
| 2PL || -tts /t/ || kalûatts /kaɾat/
| 2PL || -ais /ai/ (/aj/) || -ttez /t/
|-
|-
| 3PL || -me /mə/ || kalûame /kaɾamə/
| 3PL || -aat /a:/ || -ttet /t/
|-
|-
| 2POLITE || -i /i/ || kalûai /kaɾai/
| 2POLITE || -ae /ɛ/ ; -aae /aɛ/ || -ez / / ; -ttez / /
|}
|}
The progressive (or continuous) present of a verb is built analytically with the present participle of the auxiliary verb "to have" followed with the infinitive of the verb.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Indicative present of the second group : "kavaver", ''to have''
|+ Indicative simple past
|-
|-
! Person !! Ending !! Example
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
|-
| 1SG || - (radical) || kav /kav/
| 1SG || -od /o/ || -de /d/
|-
|-
| 2SG || -s (unpronounced) || kavavs /kavav/
| 2SG || -id /i/ || -des /d/
|-
|-
| 3SG || - (radical) || kavav /kavav/
| 3SG || -ad /a/ || -det /d/
|-
|-
| 1PL || -m /m/ || kavavm /kavavm/
| 1PL || -aod /aw/ || -ttde /t/
|-
|-
| 2PL || -ês /ja/ || kavavês /kavavja/
| 2PL || -aid /ai/ (/aj/) || -ttdes /t/
|-
|-
| 3PL || -n /n/ || kavavn /kavavn/
| 3PL || -aad /a:/ || -ttdet /t/
|-
|-
| 2POLITE || -i /i/ || kavi /kavi/
| 2POLITE || -ade /ad/ ; -aade /a:d/ || -dez /ɥa/ ; -ttdez /t/
|}
|}
Note : the first and seventh persons are irregular in this case.


The verb kalûaë, being a high frequency verb, also has contracted, less formal forms :
The so-called "foregone past" is built analytically with the auxiliary verb "to be" in the general past and the past participle of the verb.
 
The so-called "descriptive past" (imperfect) is built analytically with the auxiliary verb "to have" in the general past followed with the present participle of the verb.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Informal indicative present of kalûaë, "to be"
|+ Indicative simple future
|-
|-
! Person !! Kalûaë
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
|-
| 1SG || kaqni /kaʃni/  
| 1SG || -(i)ros /(i)ʁo/ || -re /ʁ/
|-
|-
| 2SG || kaqniî /kaʃnij/  
| 2SG || -(i)ris /(i)ʁi/ || -res /ʁ/
|-
|-
| 3SG || kaq /kaʃ/  
| 3SG || -(i)rat /(i)ʁa/ || -ret /ʁ/
|-
|-
| 1PL || kacÿcq /kasɛsʃ/  
| 1PL || -aros /aʁo/ || -ttre /tʁ/
|-
|-
| 2PL || katts /kat/  
| 2PL || -aris /aʁi/ || -ttres /tʁ/
|-
|-
| 3PL || kame /kamə/  
| 3PL || -arat /aʁa/ || -ttret /tʁ/
|-
|-
| 2POLITE || kai /kai/  
| 2POLITE || -(i)rae /(i)ʁɛ/ ; -arae /-aʁɛ/|| -rez /ʁ/ -ttrez /tʁ/
|}
|}


====Participle====
The so-called "retrospective future" (future perfect) is built analytically with the auxiliary verb "to be" in the future followed by the past participle of the verb.


=====Present participle=====
The so-called "proximity future" (inchoative, ''I am going to ...'', ''Je vais ...'') is built analytically with the auxiliary verb "to be" in the present, followed by the present participle of the auxiliary verb "to have", followed by the infinitive of the verb.
There are two different kinds of present participles ; the regular present participle, and a so-called substantival present participle (''participe présent substantivé'').
*Regular present participle :
It is built by adding either the ending -klûenat /kɾna/ or the ending -kvi /gvi/ to the verb radical. These endings correspond directly to the present participles of the verb kalûaë : klûenat, and of the verb kavaver : kvi.
Example : çctekvi /estegvi/, "losing".
*Substantival present participle :
It is used for instance for expressing continuing action (''Il sert par exemple à transcrire l'idée d'action continue : en français, "être en train de..."''). It is built by adding the ending -m to the infinitive form.
Example : kavaverm /kavavm/ "having", kalûaëm /kaɾam/ "being", çctÿeëm /estɛbɾəm/ "losing".
Example : Êü kavaqni çcteëm nda tÿmg kabbhe, "I am wasting my time"
Subject pronoun "I" + verb "to have" + substantival present participle of the verb "to lose" + particle "in, from, of" + "time" + possessive pronoun "mine".
 
=====Past participle=====
 
The past participle is built by adding the ending -ut /y/ to the verb radical, for verbs of the first group ; and by adding the ending -ç /e/ to the verb radical, for verbs of the second group.
Exceptions : kalûaë : klûu /kɾy/ (or /kɾu/ ?), "been" ; kavaver : avvç /av:e/.
The past participle agrees in gender and number with the object of the verb :


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Past participle
|+ Conditional present
|-
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
|-
!  !! first group !! second group
| 1SG || -(i)rios /(i)ʁjo/ || -red /ʁ/
|-
|-
| Masculine singular || -ut /y/ || -ç /e/
| 2SG || -(i)riis /(i)ʁji/ || -reds /ʁ/
|-
|-
| Neuter singular || -ut /y/ || -ç /e/
| 3SG || -(i)riat /(i)ʁja/ || -redt /ʁ/
|-
|-
| Feminine singular || -uet /y/ || -çe /e/
| 1PL || -arios /aʁjo/ || -ttre /tʁ/
|-
|-
| Masculine plural || -uts /y/ || -çs /e/
| 2PL || -ariis /aʁji/ || -ttreds /tʁ/
|-
|-
| Neuter plural || -uts /y/ || -çs /e/
| 3PL || -ariat /aʁja/ || -ttredt /tʁ/
|-
|-
| Feminine plural || -uets /y/ || -çes /e/
| 2POLITE || -(i)riae /(i)ʁjɛ/ ; -ariae /aʁjɛ/ || -redz /ʁɛ/ ; -ttredz /tʁɛ/
|}
|}


Example : çcteut, çcteuts, çcteuet, çcteuets /esty/.
The conditional past is built analytically with the auxiliary verb "to have" in the present conditional followed with the past participle of the verb.
 
===Adjectives===
 
Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they qualify. It is marked with a prefix that changes depending on the beginning of the neuter singular form.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective starts with a vowel
|+ Imperative
|-
|-
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
| 1SG || -e / / || -e / /
|-
| 2SG || -e / / || -e / /
|-
| 3SG || - / / || - / /
|-
|-
| Neuter || - || es- /əθ/
| 1PL || -ae /a/ /j/ || -ae /a/
|-
|-
| Masculine || a- /a/ || ai- /aj/
| 2PL || -ae /a/ || -ae /a/
|-
|-
| Feminine || e- /ə/ || es- /əθ/
| 3PL || -a /a/ || -a /a/
|}
|}
There is no imperative form for the person of politeness.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective starts with h-, t-, x-, z-, ö-,ñ-
|+ Absolute
|-
! Person !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
| 1SG || -ha /ha/ || -h /h/ (or unpronounced ?)
|-
| 2SG || -ex /əθ/ || -x /θ/
|-
| 3SG || -etû /ət̚/ || -tû /t̚/
|-
|-
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
| 1PL || -epħ /əf/ || -îfè /ɸɛ/
|-
| 2PL || -ebħ /əv/ || -îvè /βɛ/
|-
| 3PL || -edû /əd̚/ || -dû /d̚/
|-
|-
| Neuter || - || cs- /s/
| 2POLITE || -èîq /ɛɧ̙ʷ/ || -îq /ɧ̙ʷ/
|}
 
====Participle====
 
=====Present participle=====
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Present Participle
|-
|-
| Masculine || q- /ʃ/ || qs- /ʃ/
! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
|-
| Feminine || c- /s/ || cs- /s/
| -ent /ɑ̃/ || -öħt / /
|}
|}
=====Past participle=====


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective starts with b-, d-, g-, p-, q-, w-, ü-, k
|+ Past participle
|-
! Gender/Number !! Consonant ending !! Vowel ending
|-
|-
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
| Masculine singular || -öi /i/ || -t / /
|-
| Neuter singular || -i /i/ || -t / /
|-
| Feminine singular || -ie /i/ || -te /t/
|-
|-
| Neuter || - || hm- /hm/
| Masculine plural || -öis /i/ || -ts / /
|-
|-
| Masculine || m- /m/ || ebm- /ɛjm/
| Neuter plural || -is /i/ || -ts / /
|-
|-
| Feminine || hm- /hm/ || hebm- /hɛjm/
| Feminine plural || -ies /i/ || -tes /t/
|}
|}
===Adjectives===
Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they qualify. Agreement is marked with a suffix, that varies depending on the ending in the neuter singular form, which is the radical form of the adjective. When in a nominal phrase, the adjective can be placed both before or after the noun it qualifies, though collocations can exist (''sous réserve de virtuelles évolutions de la langue qui, pour des raisons x ou y, pourrait préférer pour tel adjectif ou tel autre un emplacement particulier'').


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective starts with s-, r-
|+ Adjective ends with a vowel
|-
|-
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
|-
|-
| Neuter || - || kbett- /kbət/
| Neuter || - || -z / /
|-
|-
| Masculine || kbet- /kbət/ || kbest- /kbət/
| Masculine || -lö /l/ || -löz /l/
|-
|-
| Feminine || kbeat- /kbɛt/ || kbeast- /kbɛt/
| Feminine || -là /la/ || -làz /la/
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Adjective starts with c-, f-, j-, l-, m-, n-, v-, û-, ë-
|+ Adjective ends with a consonant
|-
|-
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
! Gender / Number !! Singular !! Plural
|-
|-
| Neuter || - || atûïve- /at̚ɨvə/
| Neuter || - || -s / /
|-
|-
| Masculine || etûove- /ət̚ovə/ || etûïve- /ət̚ɨvə/
| Masculine || -ö / / || -ös / /
|-
|-
| Feminine || atûova- /at̚ova/ || atûïva- /at̚ɨva/
| Feminine || -ÿ / / || -ÿs / /
|}
|}


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Particles are function words that include prepositions, postpositions, conjunction words, etc.  
Particles are function words that include prepositions, postpositions, conjunction words, etc.  
*One notable particle is the so-called subject particle, which is used with stative verbs to introduce the subject's attribute. It can take two different forms, usually depending on whether the subject is animate (particle "tke?") or inanimate (particle "ke?"), but also potentially on whether the relationship between subject and attribute is perceived as "temporary" or "eternal".
*One notable particle is the so-called subject particle, which is used with stative verbs to introduce the subject's attribute. It can take two different forms, usually depending on whether the subject is animate (particle "tke?") or inanimate (particle "ke?"), but also potentially on whether the relationship between subject and attribute is perceived as "temporary" or "eternal".
*Another notable particle is the "possessive" particle, which is suffixed to the noun that represents a "possessor", akin to a genitive marking. It can be used instead of possessive pronouns, when suffixed to a personal subject pronoun : for instance, the personal pronoun "êü" + the possessive particle "-dô" becomes "êüdô", ''my''. On the other hand, when using one of the possessive pronouns, a so-called "possessed particle" is placed in front of the "possessed" noun.
*Another notable particle is the "possessive" particle, which is suffixed to the noun that represents a "possessor", akin to a genitive marking. It can be used instead of possessive pronouns, when suffixed to a personal subject pronoun : for instance, the personal pronoun "êü" + the possessive particle "-dô" becomes "êüdô", ''my''.  
*Some particles are more like traditional prepositions ; for instance, "nda" means ''in, from, of''.
*Most particles are more like traditional prepositions.
 
===Derivational morphology===
 
====Adjectives====
 
Adjectives can be derived from nouns by adding the suffix -ke. The resulting adjective agrees in gender and number with the noun it qualifies, following the regular agreement rules for adjectives.
Example : "tolsian", neuter singular : tolqjimke, masculine singular : qtolqjimke.
 
====Nouns====
Nouns can be derived from adjectives or past participles by adding the suffix -ctadû /stad̚/. The resulting noun is usually masculine. According to documentation, if a noun is derived from an adjective that was itself derived from a noun with the suffix -ke, then this suffix should be dropped, which sure sounds a lot like we're back to deriving a noun from a noun.
Example : (the) Tolsian (language) : pna Qtolqjimctadû.
 
====Verbs====
 
Verbs can most likely be derived from nouns by adding either the suffix -ë (probably if the noun ends in a vowel) or the suffix -er (if it ends in a consonant).


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
*Sentences with a stative verbs have a different constituent order depending on whether the attribute is an adjective or a noun phrase ; in the first case, it is akin to a SVO order, in the second, to an OSV order :
*The basic constituent order of a declarative sentence is SVO (Subject - Verb - Object).
 
*questions are formed by inversing verb and subject (VSO).
"I am Tolsian" (the speaker is a woman) : êü kalûaqni tke? ctolqjimke.
 
Subject + "to be" + subject particle + "Tolsian" (f.sg.)
 
"I am a (Tolsian) woman" : Ad tke? mqarea (ctolqjimke) êü kalûaqni.
 
Article + subject particle + "woman" (+ "Tolsian") + subject + "to be".
 
*The basic constituent order of a declarative sentence is SVO.
Example : "I am wasting my time" : Êü kavaqni çcteëm nda tÿmg kabbhe. 
 
Subject pronoun + "to have" + substantival present participle of the verb "to lose" + particle "in, from, of" + "time" + possessive pronoun "mine".


===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
If there is a determiner (for example, a definiteness article), it is placed at the beginning of the noun phrase. If there is an adjective, it can be placed either right before, or right after, the noun it qualifies. Most particles are placed between a determiner and the adjective + noun (or noun + adjective) group. A prepositional phrase or clause comes after.
If there is a determiner (for example, a definiteness article), it is placed at the beginning of the noun phrase. If there is an adjective, it can be placed either right before, or right after, the noun it qualifies. Most particles are placed between a determiner and the adjective + noun (or noun + adjective) group. A prepositional phrase or clause comes after.
 
*Sentences with a stative verb use the so-called subject particle, which is used with stative verbs to introduce the subject's attribute. It can take two different forms, usually depending on whether the subject is animate (particle "tke?") or inanimate (particle "ke?"), but also potentially on whether the relationship between subject and attribute is perceived as "temporary" or "eternal".
Example :
 
"I am Tolsian" (the speaker is a woman) : êü kalûaqni tke? ctolqjimke.
 
Subject + "to be" + subject particle + "Tolsian" (f.sg.)
 
*Genitive phrase :
*Genitive phrase :


"My mother" : (Pnÿ) êüdô maîha.
"My mother" : (article) êüdô maîha.


(Definite article) + Subject pronoun + possessive particle suffix + "mother".
(Definite article) + Subject pronoun + possessive particle suffix + "mother".
"My mother" : Ne maîha kabħa.
"Possessed" particle + "mother" + possessive pronoun.
"This is my mother" : Fe kalûa ne maîha kabħa.
Demonstrative pronoun + "to be" + "possessed" particle + "mother" + possessive pronoun.
"Mine" : Pnÿ kabħa.
Definite article + possessive pronoun.
"It is mine" : Fe kalûa pnÿ kabħa.
Demonstrative pronoun + "to be" + definite article + possessive pronoun.


===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
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