Thulean: Difference between revisions

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===Introduction===


Thulean is the sole surviving member of the Insular branch of the Hercynian language family. It has an estimated 33 million speakers. The language is agglutinative and polysynthetic with an active-stative morphosyntax of the fluid-S subtype. It is written using the Latin alphabet as is universal amongst Western European languages.


<!--
===Phonology===


This is a short reminder of the language format policy.
A) PHONEME INVENTORY


I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration, ideas, and so on).
1) CONSONANTS
II. Write a short introduction to your language. (Who speaks it? When was it created? By whom? or what? are some example questions that can be answered here)
III. Once done, try making sure everything is properly spelt so as to avoid unnecessary reader fatigue.


-->
NASAL:


==Introduction==
-fortis: /mb, nd, Ng/


===Description===
-lenis: /m, n, N/
The Thulean language (endonym: Migkatsi) has an agglutinative and polysynthetic morphology. Its morphosyntactic alignment is split intransitive with the fluid-S subtype. It is left-branching and double-marking. Thulean is a language isolate and has not been proven to belong to any established language family, although speculative suggestions of links between it and Uralic or Uralo-Siberian have been made in the past. It is spoken by the Selhat or Thuleans and has a total number of speakers exceeding 30 million.


===The Thurse===
LIQUID:


Thurse is the collective name in English of the pygmy European phenotype. Thurse males and females are similar in stature and have an average height of between 135 to 140 cm. They are pale-skinned with dark stripes and have straight or wavy hair. Red hair is more common among the Thurse than any other phenotypical group. Androgeny and neoteny are also notable traits. The Thurse belong to several ethnic groups, the largest of which is the Selhat or Thuleans who occupy Thule (endonym: Telku) the northernmost of the British Isles. The Thurse phenotype is believed to have diverged from other Palaeolithic populations in Europe approximately 10,000 BP, originating in the Hercynian forest zone of central Europe.
-fortis: /rd, ld/


===Influences===
-lenis: /r, l/


The phonology is inspired by Finnish and Quenya phonaesthetics but twisted towards my sensibilities. I just love lateral obstruents, you know?. The morphology is heavily influenced by Yupik and Inuktitut.
PLOSIVE:


-->
-fortis: /pp, tt, kk/


<!-- ***Phonology*** -->
-lenis: /p, t, k/
<!-- What sounds does your language use? -->
<!-- Here are some example sub-/other categories:


Vowel inventory
FRICATIVE:
Consonant inventory
Syllable structure
Stress
Intonation


-->
-fortis: /ss, xx/


==Phonology==
-lenis: /s, x/
===Orthography===
Thulean is written in the Latin script. It is phonemic but does show the effects of sandhi and consonant gradation. The current alphabet was adopted in 1898 and underwent its last revision in 1965. The orthography is listed in the table below:


[INSERT ORTHOGRAPHY TABLE HERE]
APPROXIMANT: /v, D, j/


===Consonants===
2) VOWELS


Thulean has 35 consonant phonemes which according to WALS is a large inventory. These are listed in the table below:
a) MONOPHTHONGS: /i, u, a/


[INSERT CONSONANT TABLE HERE]
b) DIPHTHONGS: /@U, OI, aI, aU/


===Vowels===
B) ALLOPHONES


Thulean has 4 vowel phonemes which according to WALS is a small inventory. There are also 2 diphthongs. These are listed in the table below:
1) /N/ is realised as [g] in word-initial position and in onset position following a coda consonant.


[INSERT VOWEL TABLE HERE]:
2) All fortis obstruents are realised as lenis plosives in intervocalic position.


===Allophony===
3) All lenis plosives and /s/ are voiced in intervocalic position.
1) Fortis obstruents are realised as their corresponding lenis obstruents in intervocalic position.


2) /p, t, tS, k, k_w, s, S, x, x_w/ are voiced in intervocalic position.
4) /x/ is realised as [Z] in intervocalic position.


3) /tK/ is realised as [dð] in intervocalic position.
5) /D/ is realised as [T] in word-final position.


4) /ɬ/ is realised as [θ] in onset position following a coda consonant of /n, r/.
6) /i, u/ are realised as [E, O] when preceding a liquid coda or fortis liquid.


5) /ɬ/ is realised as [ð] in intervocalic position.
7) /i, u/ are reslised as [E, O] when adjacent to /v, j/.


6) /x/ is realised as [ʃ] in coda position.
C) ORTHOGRAPHY


7) The geminate clusters /mm, nn, JJ, ŋŋ, NN_w, rr, ll, LL/ realised as [mb, nd, ndZ, ŋg, Ng_w, rd, ld, ldZ].
"a" = /a/


8) /A/ is realised as [O] before a liquid coda.
"ai" = /aI/


===Prosody===
"au" = /aU/
====Stress====
Thulean has stress accent. Primary stress falls within the root. Open syllables without a diphthong are light; open syllables with a diphthong or closed syllables are heavy. Fortis obstruents close the syllable preceding them. If the first syllable of a root is heavy then the primary stress falls there otherwise it falls upon the second syllable of the root. In compound nouns, the primary stress falls within the second root.The stress placement within a root is fixed.


====Intonation====
"g" = /N/
Secondary stress falls upon every alternate syllable after the primary stress. This gives Thulean a broadly iambic rhythm. Thulean does not have phonemic tone.


===Phonotactics===
"gg" = /Ng/
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
1) The syllable template in Thulean is CV(C).


2) Permitted syllable codas:
"h" = /x/


a) Morpheme-medial only: /J, N, l, L, p, s/
"hh" = /xx/


b) Morpheme-medial and morpheme-final: /m, n, t, k, x/
"i" = /i/


3) Fortis obstruents may not occur in word-initial position.
"iu" = /@U/


4) Fortis plosives may not occur in the onset of closed syllables.
"j" = /j/


5) Consonant clusters may have no more than two segments.
"k" = /k/


6) Consonant clusters may only occur across syllable boundaries.
"kk" = /kk/


7) But suffixes may begin with a consonant cluster.
"l" = /l/


8) Permitted consonant clusters:
"ll" = /ld/


a) Geminates: /mm, nn, JJ, NN, NN_w, rr, ll, LL/
"m" = /m/


b) /m/ + /p, ?, v/
"mm" = /mb/


c) /n/ + /t, tK, ?, s, S/
"n" = /n/


d) /J/ + /tS, S/
"nn" = /nd/


e) /ŋ/ + /k, k_w, ?, x, x_w, h/
"p" = /p/


f) /r/ + /p, t, tK, tS, k, k_w, ?, s, K, S, x, x_w, v, j, h, w/
"pp" = /pp/


g) /l/ + /p, t, k, k_w, ?, s, x, x_w, v, h, w/
"q" = /D/


h) /L/ + /tS, S/
"r" = /r/


h) /p, t, k/ + /s, x/
"rr" = /rd/


i) /s, x/ + /p, t, tK, tS, k, k_w/
"s" = /s/


[INSERT CLUSTER TABLE HERE]
"ss" = /ss/


9) High vowels may not occur before a liquid coda.
"t" = /t/


10) /i/ may not occur after an onset of /j/.
"tt" = /tt/


11) /u/ may not occur after an onset of /w/.
"u" = /u/


12) Diphthongs may not occur in a closed syllable.
"ui" = /OI/


13) Diphthongs may not precede a fortis obstruent.
"v" = /v/


14) Diphthongs may not precede /j, w/.
Historical note: /D/ was originally written with "þ". However, when printing was introduced to Thule, no type was available for that letter so "q" was substituted instead.


===Morphophonology===
The spelling of Thulean is generally phonemic except that the effects of consonant gradation and sandhi are indicated.
===Consonant Gradation===


1) Consonant gradation is word-internal lenition that effects the following:
D) PROSODY


a) Fortis obstruents
Thulean has fixed initial primary stress. Secondary stress falls on every alternate syllable following the primary stress. Rhythm type is trochaic.


b) Lenis plosives following a sonorant coda or a vowel
E) PHONOTACTICS


2) Consonant gradation is triggered by the closing of a syllable which begins with the above classes of obstruents.
1) The syllable template is (C)V(C).


3) The sequences of consonant gradation are as per the tables below:
2) Consonant clusters only occur at syllable boundaries.


a)Fortis obstruents, and lenis plosives following a liquid:
3) Permitted consonant clusters:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
a) /m/ + /p/
! GRADE I !! GRADE II !! GRADE III
|-
| pp || p || v
|-
| tt || t || r
|-
| ttɬ || tɬ || l
|-
| tʧ || ʧ || j
|-
| kk || k || h
|-
| kkʷ || kʷ || w
|-
| ss || s || style = "background: silver" |
|-
| ɬɬ || ɬ || style = "background: silver" |
|-
| ʃʃ || ʃ || style = "background: silver" |
|-
| xx || x || style = "background: silver" |
|-
| xxʷ || xʷ || style = "background: silver" |
|}


b) Lenis obstruents following a nasal:
b) /n/ + /t, s/
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
! GRADE I !! GRADE II
|-
| mp || mb
|-
| nt || nd
|-
| ntɬ || ld
|-
| nʧ || nʤ
|-
| ŋk || ŋg
|-
| ŋkʷ || ŋgʷ
|}


c) /N/ + /k, x/


d) /r/ + /m, N, p, t, k, s, x, v, j/


4) Consonant gradation occurs after metathesis from sandhi but before sandhi proper.
e) /l/ + /m, N, p, t, k, s, x, v, j/


===Sandhi===
f) /p, t, k/ + /s/


1) Sandhi is the term given to interactions between consonants at morpheme boundaries.
g) /s/ + /p, t, k/


2) If a triconsonantal cluster should result from suffixation then an epenthetic /E/ is inserted after the first segment of the triconsonantal cluster.
4) Permitted word-final codas: /m, n, t, k, s, D/


3) All other sandhi interactions are resolved as per the table below:
5) Vowels in hiatus do not occur.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 660px; text-align:center;"
6) Diphthongs may not occur in a closed syllable, before a fortis consonant or before /P, j/.
!
! m
! n
! ɲ
! ŋ
! ŋʷ
! r
! l
! ʎ
! p
! t
! tɬ
! ʧ
! k
! kʷ
! ʔ
! s
! ɬ
! ʃ
! x
! xʷ
! v
! j
! h
! w
|-
! m
| rowspan ="2"| mb || rowspan ="2"| nd || rowspan ="2"| ɲʤ || rowspan ="2"| ŋg || rowspan ="2"| ŋgʷ || rowspan ="2"| rd || rowspan ="2"| ld || rowspan ="2"| lʤ || rowspan ="2"| mp || rowspan ="2"| nt || rowspan ="2"| ntɬ || rowspan ="2"| ɲʧ || rowspan ="2"| ŋk || rowspan ="2"| ŋkʷ || mʔ || rowspan ="2"| ns || rowspan ="2"| nθ || rowspan ="2"| ɲʃ || rowspan ="2"| ŋx || rowspan ="2"| ŋxʷ || rowspan ="2"| mv || rowspan ="2"| ɲ || rowspan ="2"| ŋh || rowspan ="2"| ŋʷ
|-
! n
| nʔ
|-
! t
| colspan = "2" | nt || rowspan = "2" | ɲʧ || nt || rowspan = "2" | ŋkʷ || rt || tɬ || rowspan = "2"| lʧ || rowspan = "2"| pp || rowspan = "2"| tt || rowspan = "2"| ttɬ || rowspan = "2"| tʧ || rowspan = "2"| kk || rowspan = "2"| kkʷ || tt || ts || rowspan = "2"| tɬ || rowspan = "2"| ʧ|| tx || rowspan = "2"| kkʷ|| rowspan = "2"| kʷ || rowspan = "2"| ʧ || tx || rowspan = "2" | kʷ
|-
! k
| colspan = "2" | ŋk || ŋk || rk || lk || kk || ks || kx || kx
|-
! x
| colspan = "2" | ŋx || nʃ || ŋx || ŋxʷ || rx || lx || lʃ || ʃp || ʃt || ʃtɬ || ʃʧ || ʃk || ʃkʷ || xʔ || ss || ɬɬ || ʃʃ || xx || colspan = "2" | xxʷ || ʃ || xx || xʷ
|}


F) SANDHI


4) If owing to suffixation a high vowel should precede a liquid coda then it is lowered to its corresponding low vowel.
1) Sandhi occurs at morpheme boundaries as a result of suffixation.


==Morphology==
2) The resulting sandhi transformations are as follows:
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->


<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
a) /m, n, N/ + /m, n, N/ > [mb, nd, Ng]


Nouns
b) /m, n, N/ + /r/ > [rd, rd, rd]
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology


-->
c) /m, n, N/ + /l/ > [ld, ld, ld]


===General Notes===
d) /m, n, N/ + /v, D, j/ > [mb, nd, Ng]


Thulean morphology has the following constituents:
e) /m, N/ + /t, s/ > [nt, ns]


1) Roots: these are divided into nominal and verbal roots. The latter are divided into transitive and intransitive categories.
f) /m, n/ + /k, x/ > [Nk, Nx]


2) Postbases: these are derivational or adjunctival suffixes which directly follow the root. They are scope-ordered.
g) /n, N/ + /p/ > [mp]


3) Inflectional affixes: these bear functions such as case, number, possession, agent, patient, tense amongst others. The usual bread and butter, nuts and bolts stuff that inflection does.
h) /r, l/ + /n/ > [nd]


4) Particles: Conjunctions, interjections and other miscellany that do not fit into the above categories.
i) /r, l/ + /r, l/ > [rd, ld]


===Nominal Morphology===
j) /r, l/ + /D/ > [rd, ld]
===Nominal Structure===
1) Noun template:


case prefix + nominal or verbal root + postbase(s) + number suffix + possessive suffix or indefinite suffix + demonstrative suffix
k) /p, t, k/ + /p, t, k/ > [pp, tt, kk]


2) A minimally inflected noun has a case prefix and a number suffix.
l) /p, t, k, s/ + /v/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]


===Cases===
m) /p, t, k, s/ + /D/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|+ '''Nominal Case Declension'''
|-
! Case
! Prefix
! Function
! Examples
|-
!Absolutive
| Ø-
|
*Marks the nominal citation form
*Marks the O argument of a transitive verb
*Marks the stative S argument of an intransitive verb
*Marks the recipient of a ditransitive verb
|
|-
! Ergative
|a-
|
*Marks the A argument of a transitive verb
*Marks the active S argument of an intransitive verb
*Marks the possessor of a possessive noun phrase
|
|-
! Instrumental
|ki-
|
*Indicates the use of an instrument or tool
*Marks the the focus of an intransitive verb of perception, cognition or affection of stative S arguments
*Marks direct causal arguments
*Marks the theme of a ditransitive verb
|
|-
! Locative
|jet-
|
*Indicates location or place
*Indicates time, event, or occasion
*Marks the locative comitative
*Marks the verbal infinitive in periphrastic constructions
|
|- 
! Allative
|nu-
|
*Indicates direction, goal, or destination
*Marks the focus of an intransitive verb of perception, cognition or affection of active S arguments
*Encodes spatial or temporal relations in conjunction with terminative markers (e.g. up to, until, as far as)
*Marks the beneficiary of an action
|
|-
! Ablative
| pik-
|
*Indicates motion away from
*Indicates origin
*Indicates distance from a reference point
*Indicates time since an event occurred
*Marks the focus of intransitive malefactive/adversarial verbs
*Encodes aversive case relations (for fear of, lest, in case of)
|
|- 
! Perlative
| me-
|
*Indicates motion through, across or along
*Indicates path, means or mode of transport or transmission
*Indicates duration
*Marks the instrumental or collaborative comitative
*Marks indirect causal arguments
|
|-
! Equative
| sin-
|
*Indicates similarity in manner or likeness
*Indicates composition
*Encodes comparative marking (as, than)
*Serves as a topicalizer (e.g. regarding, concerning, about, as for)
|
|}


<!--
n) /p, t, k, s/ + /j/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]
1) Case prefixes:


ABS(olutive): Ø-
G) CONSONANT GRADATION


NOM(inative): a-
1) This process affects fortis consonants and lenis plosives following a nasal, liquid or vowel.


INST(rumental): ki-
2) It is triggered if the consonants in question form the onset of a closed syllable due to suffixation.


LOC(ative): jet-
3) The gradation sequences are as follows:


ALL(ative): nu-
a) /mp/ > /mb/ > /m/


ABL(ative): pik-
b) /nt/ > /nd/ > /n/


PER(lative): me-
c) /Nk/ > /Ng/ > /N/


EQU(ative): sin-
d) /rp/ > /rP/


e) /rt/ > /rd/ > /r/


2) Case Functions:
f) /rk/ > /rj/


a) Absolutive Case:
g) /lp/ > /lP/


i) Marks the citation form of a noun.
h) /lt/ > /ld/ > /ll/


ii) Marks the O argument of a transitive verb.
i) /lk/ > /lj/


iii) Marks the stative S argument of an intransitive verb.
j) /pp/ > /p/ > /P/


iv) Marks the recipient of a ditransitive verb.
k) /tt/ > /t/ > /D/


b) Nominative Case:
l) /kk/ > /k/ > /j/


i) Marks the A argument of a transitive verb.
m) /ss/ > /s/


ii) Marks the active S argument of an intransitive verb.
n) /xx/ > /x/


iii) Marks the possessor of a possessive noun phrase


c) Instrumental Case:


i) Marks the use of an instrument or tool.
[[Category:Sketchlangs]]
 
ii) Marks the the focus of an intransitive verb of perception, cognition or affection if the S argument is stative.
 
iii) Marks direct causation.
 
iv) Marks the theme of a ditransitive verb.
 
d) Locative Case:
 
i) Marks location or place.
 
ii) Marks occasion, time or event.
 
iii) Marks the locative comitative.
 
iv) Marks the infinite form of the verb in periphrastic constructions.
 
e) Allative Case:
 
i)Marks destination or motion towards.
 
ii) Marks the focus of an intransitive verb of an intransitive verb of perception, cognition or affection if the S argument is active.
 
iii) Marks terminative relations (up to, until, as far as) spatially and temporarally.
 
iv) Marks benefactive relations (for, on behalf of).
 
f) Ablative Case:
 
i) Marks origin or motion away from.
 
ii) Marks distance from, time since.
 
iii) Marks the focus of intransitive verbs of opposition or repulsion.
 
iv) Marks aversive functions (for fear of, lest, in case of).
 
g) Perlative Case:
 
i) Marks motion through, across or along.
 
ii) Marks duration.
 
iii) Marks path, means or mode of transport or transmission.
 
iv) Marks the instrumental or collaborative comitative.
 
v) Marks indirection causation.
 
h) Equative Case:
 
i) Marks similarity in manner, likeness or composition.
 
ii) Marks comparative functions (as, than).
 
iii) Marks topical functions (re, regarding, concerning, about, as for).
-->
 
===Number===
1) For the purposes of number, Thulean nouns are divided into count nouns and mass nouns.
 
2) For count nouns there are two systems of number:
 
a) singular-plural
 
b) collective-singulative
 
3) The singular-plural system works as it does in most European languages, the singular form of the noun is default and marks a single instance of that noun. The plural form marks multiple instances of that noun. Eg:
 
SG: kattu = cat
 
PL: katar = cats
 
4) With the collective-singulative system the collective form of the noun is default and marks multiple instances of that noun. The singulative form marks a single instance of that noun. Collective nouns usually indicate entities that are found in groups. Eg:
 
COL: makku = pigs
 
SGV: makan = pig
 
5) Mass nouns are considered to be pluralia tanta and thus use the collective-singulative system. The collective form indicates a lump or mass and the singulative form indicates a part of that lump or mass. Eg:
 
COL: ninta = water
 
SGV: ninnan = a drop or sip of water
 
6) Number suffixes:
 
a) After vowel:
 
PL: -r
 
SGV: -n
 
b) After consonant or before suffix:
 
PL: -ra
 
SGV: -ne
 
===Possession===
1) Pronominal Possession:
 
This is indicated by the following set of suffixes:
 
1SG: -nne
 
2SG: -gke
 
3SG ANIM: -nte
 
3SG INAN: -mme
 
4SG ANIM: -lle
 
4SG INAN: -ghe
 
1PL EXCL: -gka
 
1PL INCL: -ppa
 
2PL: -kka
 
3PL ANIM: -tta
 
3PL INAN: -mma
 
4PL ANIM: -tla
 
4PL INAN: -kha
 
2) Nominal Possession:
 
This is indicated by the following construction:
 
NOM + possessor possessum + pronominal possessive suffix eg:
 
akimex katunte = the woman's cat
 
===The Indefinite===
 
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
 
==Example texts==
==Other resources==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
 
<!-- Template area -->
 
 
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Latest revision as of 14:07, 6 June 2017

Introduction

Thulean is the sole surviving member of the Insular branch of the Hercynian language family. It has an estimated 33 million speakers. The language is agglutinative and polysynthetic with an active-stative morphosyntax of the fluid-S subtype. It is written using the Latin alphabet as is universal amongst Western European languages.

Phonology

A) PHONEME INVENTORY

1) CONSONANTS

NASAL:

-fortis: /mb, nd, Ng/

-lenis: /m, n, N/

LIQUID:

-fortis: /rd, ld/

-lenis: /r, l/

PLOSIVE:

-fortis: /pp, tt, kk/

-lenis: /p, t, k/

FRICATIVE:

-fortis: /ss, xx/

-lenis: /s, x/

APPROXIMANT: /v, D, j/

2) VOWELS

a) MONOPHTHONGS: /i, u, a/

b) DIPHTHONGS: /@U, OI, aI, aU/

B) ALLOPHONES

1) /N/ is realised as [g] in word-initial position and in onset position following a coda consonant.

2) All fortis obstruents are realised as lenis plosives in intervocalic position.

3) All lenis plosives and /s/ are voiced in intervocalic position.

4) /x/ is realised as [Z] in intervocalic position.

5) /D/ is realised as [T] in word-final position.

6) /i, u/ are realised as [E, O] when preceding a liquid coda or fortis liquid.

7) /i, u/ are reslised as [E, O] when adjacent to /v, j/.

C) ORTHOGRAPHY

"a" = /a/

"ai" = /aI/

"au" = /aU/

"g" = /N/

"gg" = /Ng/

"h" = /x/

"hh" = /xx/

"i" = /i/

"iu" = /@U/

"j" = /j/

"k" = /k/

"kk" = /kk/

"l" = /l/

"ll" = /ld/

"m" = /m/

"mm" = /mb/

"n" = /n/

"nn" = /nd/

"p" = /p/

"pp" = /pp/

"q" = /D/

"r" = /r/

"rr" = /rd/

"s" = /s/

"ss" = /ss/

"t" = /t/

"tt" = /tt/

"u" = /u/

"ui" = /OI/

"v" = /v/

Historical note: /D/ was originally written with "þ". However, when printing was introduced to Thule, no type was available for that letter so "q" was substituted instead.

The spelling of Thulean is generally phonemic except that the effects of consonant gradation and sandhi are indicated.

D) PROSODY

Thulean has fixed initial primary stress. Secondary stress falls on every alternate syllable following the primary stress. Rhythm type is trochaic.

E) PHONOTACTICS

1) The syllable template is (C)V(C).

2) Consonant clusters only occur at syllable boundaries.

3) Permitted consonant clusters:

a) /m/ + /p/

b) /n/ + /t, s/

c) /N/ + /k, x/

d) /r/ + /m, N, p, t, k, s, x, v, j/

e) /l/ + /m, N, p, t, k, s, x, v, j/

f) /p, t, k/ + /s/

g) /s/ + /p, t, k/

4) Permitted word-final codas: /m, n, t, k, s, D/

5) Vowels in hiatus do not occur.

6) Diphthongs may not occur in a closed syllable, before a fortis consonant or before /P, j/.

F) SANDHI

1) Sandhi occurs at morpheme boundaries as a result of suffixation.

2) The resulting sandhi transformations are as follows:

a) /m, n, N/ + /m, n, N/ > [mb, nd, Ng]

b) /m, n, N/ + /r/ > [rd, rd, rd]

c) /m, n, N/ + /l/ > [ld, ld, ld]

d) /m, n, N/ + /v, D, j/ > [mb, nd, Ng]

e) /m, N/ + /t, s/ > [nt, ns]

f) /m, n/ + /k, x/ > [Nk, Nx]

g) /n, N/ + /p/ > [mp]

h) /r, l/ + /n/ > [nd]

i) /r, l/ + /r, l/ > [rd, ld]

j) /r, l/ + /D/ > [rd, ld]

k) /p, t, k/ + /p, t, k/ > [pp, tt, kk]

l) /p, t, k, s/ + /v/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]

m) /p, t, k, s/ + /D/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]

n) /p, t, k, s/ + /j/ > [ps, ts, ks, ss]

G) CONSONANT GRADATION

1) This process affects fortis consonants and lenis plosives following a nasal, liquid or vowel.

2) It is triggered if the consonants in question form the onset of a closed syllable due to suffixation.

3) The gradation sequences are as follows:

a) /mp/ > /mb/ > /m/

b) /nt/ > /nd/ > /n/

c) /Nk/ > /Ng/ > /N/

d) /rp/ > /rP/

e) /rt/ > /rd/ > /r/

f) /rk/ > /rj/

g) /lp/ > /lP/

h) /lt/ > /ld/ > /ll/

i) /lk/ > /lj/

j) /pp/ > /p/ > /P/

k) /tt/ > /t/ > /D/

l) /kk/ > /k/ > /j/

m) /ss/ > /s/

n) /xx/ > /x/

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