Tjoc: Difference between revisions

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Revision as of 22:53, 18 November 2012

Tjoc
Tjoc
Pronunciation[[Help:IPA|'tjo:tʃ]]
Created by
Native toKingdom of Angelkinn
Native speakers30 millions (2012)
Official status
Official language in
Kingdom of Angelkinn
Language codes
ISO 639-1tj
ISO 639-2tjo
ISO 639-3tjo
Angelkinn.gif
Kingdom of Angelkinn

General informations

Tjoc is a language spoken in the Ljoshare af Angelkinn (= Country of Angelkinn), a country that corresponds to Modern England on a parallel timeline, where the United Kingdom doesn't exist. This language has evolved from the Anglo-Saxon with a scarce influence of Latin, while one can appreciate a Scandinavian influence. Thus Tjoc is a Germanic language that is strongly linked to Modern English.

Phonology

Alphabet

Tjoc alphabet uses letters from Latin alphabet and contains 24 characters:

Letters Pronunciation Further informations
a [a] short 'a'
å [ɑ:] long 'a'
b [b] -
c [tʃ] -
d [d] it can be realized as both a dental and an alveolar
e [ɛ] / [e:] in plural cluster -es it is not pronounced
f [f] -
g [g] it is always pronunced as in the English word "get"
h [h] in the digraph 'hv' it is read [k]
i [ɪ] short 'i'
j [j] it corresponds to y in English you
k [k] -
l [l] -
m [m] -
n [n] -
o [ɔ] / [o:] -
p [p] -
r [r] trilled just as in Italian
s [s] always voiceless
t [t] it can be realized as both a dental and an alveolar
u [ʊ] short 'u'
ů [u:] long 'u'
w [v] it was [w] in Old English, then this sound evolved into [v], but the grapheme <w> remained
y [i:] long 'i'

The letter 'c' had two different sounds in Old English: [tʃ] or [k], but when <k> was generalised to express the sound [k], <c> remained to express the sound [tʃ], as in the Old English word ic, "I".

Consonantic phonemes

Tjoc language has the following consonantic phonemes:

Phonemes Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop p b (t̯) (d̯) t d k g
Affricate
Nasal m (ɱ) n (ŋ)
Fricative f v s ʃ h
Approximant r j (w)
Lateral approximant l

In the South the final postvocalic <f> is not pronunced, ex.: stof is read as [sto:], wouf is read as ['vɔu̯], and so on. The [w] phoneme is found as a glide in words like wouen, wolves, that is pronounced as ['vɔu̯wɛn].

Vocalic phonemes

In Tjoc there are the following vowels:

Phonemes Short Long
Front Back Front Back
Closed ɪ ʊ i: u:
Mid-closed e: o:
Mid-open ɛ ɔ
Open a ɑ:

The 'a' is realized not precisely in the front of mouth, but in the mid between the front and centre of the mouth, wehereas the 'å' [ɑ:] is realized in the mid between the back and the centre of mouth.

Vowel length

The short vowels 'a', 'i' and 'u' have got a long counterpart: 'å', 'y' and 'ů'. Only the vowels 'e' and 'o' can be either short or long, but they are written always in one way. The pronunciation of these two vowels, however, seems not to be more relevant in the language. Actually there are words that differ in the pronunciation of these vowels, such as wjor, that means both "far", when it is pronounced ['vjɔr], and "four", when it is pronounced ['vjo:r]. Anyway in the present language the context has become more important than the correct pronunciation of 'e' and 'o'.

Diphthongs and digraphs

Tjoc has got also twenty diphthongs, that is clusters of two vowels pronounced with a single emission of air. These diphthongs are:

Diphthongs Pronunciation
aj - åj [aɪ] - [ɑ:ɪ]
au - åu [aʊ] - [ɑ:ʊ]
ej [ɛɪ] - [e:ɪ]
eu [ɛʊ] - [e:ʊ]
ja - jå [ja] - [jɑ:]
je [jɛ] - [je:]
jo [jɔ] - [jo:]
ju - jů [jʊ] - [ju:]
oj [ɔɪ] - [o:ɪ]
ou [ɔʊ] - [o:ʊ]

Tjoc has got two digraphs too: <hw>, that is pronounced [hv] or [kv] depending on the speaker, and <sh>, that is pronounced [ʃ].

Stress

The position of stress in this language is quite regular, because it falls on the root and thus there are few rules to observe:

  • In substantives (and in adjectives and adverbs) the stress generally falls on the first syllable, but if they are compound nouns / adjectives, formed by prefix + noun / adjective, the stress falls on the root syllable of the noun / adjective, ex.: jarjewels, "forgiveness", is read as [var'jɛvɛls]. In compounds which are formed by noun / adjective + noun / adjective, the various words are read as if they were written separately, ex.: lerstof, "school", is read as ['le:r 'sto:f];
  • In verbs the stress falls always on the root, even if they are compounds, ex.: iwacan, "to wake up", is read as [ɪ'vatʃan].

Grammar

Nouns, gender and number

Tjoc language has got only two genders: common gender (or uter gender) and neuter gender. The previously masculine and feminine words have merged into the uter gender, whereas neuter words have remained neuter, even if in some cases there has been a gender switch.

Nouns can be both singular (denoting just one object) and plural (denoting more than one object). The formation of plural is not always so simple, because there are four ways to form it:

1) Some uter nouns take -es suffix, the <e> in this suffix is generally not pronounced; 2) some uter nouns take -(e)n suffix; 3) some uter nouns take no suffix, some of these undergo a root vowel change too; 4) neuter nouns take no suffix, that is singular and plural forms are identical.

Generally uter nouns ending in -ing or consonant have the first kind of plural, whereas uter nouns ending in -e have the second kind of plural. Some monosyllabic uter nouns ending in consonant experiment a root vowel modification, but they are just few. Endly some uter words have got two kinds of plural: a regular one (in -es or -en) and an irregular one (with no ending at all or/and a root vowel change). Some nouns with their plural form and meaning

Here is a list of nouns of both genders with their plural form, their gender and their meaning:

Singular Plural Gender Meaning
stån stånes uter stone
wot wet uter foot
lond lond neuter land
hjoun hjounes uter sky, heaven
sho shon uter shoe
ljot ljot neuter light
lyf lyen uter life
språc språcen uter language
djor djor neuter animal
bok bek uter book
frywe - uter love
frjå frjån uter lord
frjåstre frjåstren uter lady
mann menn uter man
wyf wyen uter woman
wouf wouen uter wolf
hjort hjort neuter heart
håle hålen uter head
stof sten uter place
tyd tyd neuter time
merjen merjen neuter morning
dag dages uter day
åfning åfninges uter afternoon
hwiltyd hwiltyd neuter evening
nyt nyten uter night
mone monen uter moon
atelkund atelkundes uter nobleman
atlestre atlestren uter noblewoman
trjo trjo neuter tree
hann hannen uter hand
shor shor neuter star
jaw jawen uter eye
lerend lerend / lerend uter teacher
frjond frjondes / frynd uter friend
wjond wjondes / wynd uter enemy
lynd lyndes / lynd uter lover
hůnn hůnnes uter dog

The nouns ending in '-nd' are present participles and have two kinds of plural:

  • '-es' plural, that is quite spread;
  • zero plural, that is quite literary.

Though the nouns in '-ȝond' have got both an '-es' plural and a zero plural with a vowel change from '-jo-' to '-y-'. In this case the second form is the most spread.

The nouns ending in vowel + 'f' lose final 'f' when forming plural.

Formation of feminine

Distinguishing between nouns that indicate a feminine being and those that indicate a masculine being can be very difficult in a language that has a common gender for both masculine and feminine. However distinguishing is not always so difficult as one could think, because Tȝoch language has a suffix with that the feminine form of a noun can be formed: -estre (pl. -estren).

Usually this suffix causes no changes in root, but some times it is used with a modified root:

  • frjå - frjåstre;
  • lerend - lerendstre;
  • frjond - fryndstre;
  • wjond - wyndstre;
  • lynd - lyndstre.

Articles

Two kinds of article exist in Tjoc: indefinite and definite article.

The indefinite article has got no plural form and the singular one is the same for all the genders: an. This article is used to talk about things, facts, beings that are introduces for the first time into the conversation, that is we use the indefinite article to talk about new and not known informations, to talk about undetermined informations.

The definite article is used to talk about well known things, facts, beings instead. These informations are familiar to the speakers, because they are already talking about them, or because they belong to the experiences baggage of the speakers, that is we use the definite article to talk about known informations, to talk about determined informations.

Even if Tjoc has lost nouns inflection, the definite article has three cases, in addition to the plural forms:

Definite article Uter Neuter Plural
Nom. / Acc. se tat te
Gen. tes tes tejr
Dat. tem tem ten

The nominative case refers to the subject of a sentence; the accusative case, that is identical to the nominative, refers to the object of a sentence or to the complements that indicate movement; the genitive case refers to possession and the dative case refers to the addressee or to the complements that indicate state. The plural forms are the same for both uter and neuter gender.

Often it is sufficient to use this inflection to express syntactic functions of the elements of a sentence or a phrase, ex.:

  • Se språc tes mann - The language of the man;
  • Jef het tem frjåstre - Give it to the lady.

Adjectives

The adjectives generally precede the noun to whom they refer, but in some case they follow the noun. In Tjoc the adjectives have two different forms: one for the singular (without ending) and one for the plural (with '-e' ending). Moreover the form ending in '-e' is used for both singular and plural when the nouns to whom the adjective refers is preceded by a determiner, that is a possessive, a demonstrative or the definite article, this form of the adjective is called weak form.

If the substantive is not preceded by a determiner (remember that the indefinite article is not a determiner), than it is used the adjective without ending for the singular and that with '-e' ending for the plural, this form is called strong form.

Adjectives in predicative position, that is after a verb, are never inflected.

Here is a list of adjectives with the two forms:

Strong singular Strong plural / Weak Meaning
goj goje good
iwel iwele bad
glåj glåje happy
sari sari (!) sad
hjå hjå tall / high
skam skame short
shen shene beautiful / goodlooking
unfawer unfawre (!) ugly
grjat grjate big / great
litel lille (!) little / small
gemel gemle (!) old
jong jonge young
strong stronge strong
wåk wåke weak
håt håte hot
call calle cold
joker jokre (!) terrible
njå njå near / close
wjor wjorre far / distant

As it can be seen, adjectives ending with '-i' or with a long vowel don't take the '-e' ending in the weak forms and in the plural form. An example of use:

  • An litel katt - A little cat;
  • Se lille katt - The little cat.

Comparative

The higher degree comparative is formed with the suffix '-ar' (some irregular adjectives form it with '-er'). The second term of comparation is introduced by als and is in the same case of the first, ex.:

  • An blosne shenar als an trjo - A flower more beautiful than a tree.

The same degree comparative is formed with the periphrasis så + adjective + hů, ex.:

  • An blosne så shen hů an trjo - A flower as beautiful as a tree.

The lower degree comparative is formed with the periphrasis lass + adjective + als, ex.:

  • An blosne lass shen als an trjo - A flower less beautiful than a tree.

Adjectives with an irregular higher degree comparative

Some adjectives have got an irregular form of higher degree comparative:

Positive Strong comparative Weak comparative
goj beter betre
iwel wyrs wyrse
litel småler smålre
grjat gryter grytre
gemel eller elre
jong jenger jengre
hjå hyr hyrre
strong strenger strengre
njå nyr nyrre
wjor wyr wyrre

Irregular higher degree comparatives are used as normal comparatives, ex.:

  • Tů jart hyr als y (jom) - You are taller than I (am).

Superlative

The superlative degree is formed with the suffix '-ast' (some irregular adjectives form it with '-est'). The relative superlative is the same form of the absolute superlative, but it is preceded by the definite article and is generally followed by a limitation, that is expressed with i + dative case, ex.:

  • Se shenast blosne i tem werl - The most beautiful flower in the world.

Adjectives with an irregular superlative

The same adjectives that have an irregular higher degree comparative have got also an irregular superlative form:

Positive Strong superlative Weak superlative
goj best beste
iwel wyst wyste
litel smålst smålste
grjat gryst gryste
gemel ellest elste
jong jengst jengste
hjå hyst hyste
strong strengst strengste
njå nyrst nyrste
wjor wyrst wyrste

Numerals

Numerals don't inflect. Here are the numerals from 0 to 100:

Number Cardinal Ordinal
0 naut -
1 ån wirst
2 twejn twejd
3 try trid
4 wjor wjort
5 wy wift
6 sys syst
7 sjoun sjount
8 jåt jåtet
9 nejn nejnt
10 ten tent
11 elljoun elljount
12 twelf twelft
13 trjotin trjotint
14 wjortin wjortint
15 wiftin wiftint
16 systin systint
17 sjountin sjountint
18 jåttin jåttint
19 nejntin nejntint
20 twejnti twejntit
21 twejnti-ån twejnti-wirst
22 twejnti-twejn twejnti-twejnt
30 tryti trytit
40 wjorti wjortit
50 wifti wiftit
60 systi systit
70 sjounti sjountit
80 jåtti jåttit
90 nejnti nejntit
100 hůdre hůdret

Units are written linked to the tens with a hyphen, while tens and hundreds are written detached, ex.: 195 hůdre nejnti-wy.

From 100 on, numerals are formed with a suffix '-od': 200 twåod, 300 tryod, 400 wjorod, 500 wyod, 600 sysod, 700 sjounod, 800 jåtod, 900 nejnod. This form is the evolution of a former juxtaposition, ex.: try hůd > tryod.

Please note that the numeral 200 is irregular, because an alternative form of 2, that is twå, is used. Also the form for hundred in compounds is irregular: hůd, this form is quite archaic nowadays.

The ordinals of the numbers from 200 to 900 are obtained by substituting the final '-d' for '-t', ex.: 200 twåod > 200th twåot.

A thousand is said tusenn and its ordinal form is tusent. The numbers from 1000 on are expressed with a hypen, ex.: 2000 twejn-tůsenn, 5000 wy-tůsenn, 9000 nejn-tůsenn and so on.

The word for a million is miklenn (< O.E. miclung, "greatness" × Ti. tůsenn) and it behaves as tůsenn.

A thousand million is an tůsenn miklenn. A billion (in the sense of a million million) is biklenn, from the French "bi- + million", that has been substituted for "bi- + miklenn".

Pronouns and kinds of adjectives

Personal pronouns

In Tjoc personal pronouns inflect according the four cases that have been seen for the definite article: nominative, accusative, dative and genitive.

Case 1st person
Singular Plural
Nominative y we
Accusative mek ůs
Dative me ůs
Genitive myn ůr
Case 2nd person
Singular Plural
Nominative je
Accusative tek jou
Dative te jou
Genitive tyn jower
Case 3rd person
Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural
Nominative he hjo het hy
Accusative hin hir het hy
Dative him hir him hem
Genitive his hjos his heras

Please note that the dative form of the 2nd person singular, te, is the same as the nominative form of the plural definite article. In a sentence the pronouns in dative case are positioned before of those in accusative case, so prepositions could be omitted, ex.:

  • Jef me het - Give it to me.

When there are a pronoun and a noun, the pronoun always precedes the noun, ex.:

  • Jef het tem frjåstre - Give it to the lady;
  • Jef hir se hůnn - Give her the dog.

Tjoc has also preserved two ancient 2nd person pronouns which indicate a couple, they are the dual pronouns wit and jit, respectively we two and you two. Even if they are quite old, they are still very used:

Case Wit Jit
Nominative wit jit
Accusative unk ink
Dative unk ink
Genitive unker inker

Nowadays the difference between we and wit and between je and jit is fading and is losing its original number distinction: wit and jit are more and more used to express a higher grade of intimacy and informality, whereas we and je are acquiring a shade of formality and politeness. It is to be said that in the West zone of Angelkinn also the forms ůnk/ynk and ůnker/ynker are found, probably due to a contamination with the plural pronoun we (acc. ůs/gen. ůr) and to a generalisation of the long vowel.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives are formed with the three place adverbs her (here, "near to the speaker"), ter (there, but in Tjoc meaning "near to the listener") and jon (yon, but in Tjoc meaning "far from both speaker and listener"). These pronouns match perfectly the three persons:

Person Adverb Demonstrative Meaning
1st her se / tat ... her this one
2nd ter se / tat ... ter that one (near you)
3rd jon se / tat ... jon that one (over there)

If a noun is inserted between the definite article and the adverb, the demonstrative functions as an adjective, ex.:

  • Se her - This one (here), but Se katt her - This cat (here).

As the place adverbs inflect, even the demonstratives "inflect". In fact the place adverbs take three kind of suffix to show if the indicate state, movement towards or movement from a definite place. So it is possible, with verbs denoting movement or state, to indicate this aspect with the demonstrative:

Relation Her Ter Jon
State tem ... her tem ... ter tem ... jon
Movement from tem ... hens tem ... tens tem ... jons
Movement towards se / tat ... heder se / tat ... teder se / tat ... jonner

This use of the demonstrative allows us not to use prepositions, ex.:

  • Y jom tem hůs her means "I'm in this house" and there's no need to use the preposition i (= in);
  • Y kume tem hůs tens means "I come from that house" without using af (= from);
  • Y gå tat hůs jonner means "I go to that house over there" without using to (= to).

But it is true that these three sentences show a particularly refined language, colloquially speaking, these sentences become respectively:

  • Y jom i tem hůs her;
  • Y kume af tem hůs ter;
  • Y gå to tat hůs jon.

People tend not to inflect demonstratives (nor place adverbs).

Possessives

Possessives are the same when they're used as both adjectives and pronouns and, while possessive adjectives don't need article before, possessive pronouns need it:

Person Singular Plural
y myn myne
tyn tyne
he / het syn syne
hjo hirs hirs
wit unker unkre
jit inker inkre
we ůr ůre
je jower jowre
hy heras heras

Possessives derive from the genitive of the personal pronouns, except for the 3rd masculine and neuter singular. Hirs and heras only have a single form for both singular and plural. Here are some examples:

  • Myn katt > Se myn - My cat > Mine;
  • Tyn hůnn > Se tyn - Your dog > Yours;
  • Syn wyf > Se syn - His wife > His;
  • Hirs mann > Se hirs - Her man > Hers;
  • Ůr djor > Tat ůr - Our animal > Ours;
  • Jower frjond > Se jower - Your friend > Yours;
  • Heras hjort > Tat heras - Their heart > Theirs.

Plural forms:

  • Myne kattes > Te myne - My cats > Mine;
  • Tyne hůnnes > Te tyne - Your dogs > Yours;
  • Syne ƿyen > Te syne - His wifes > His;
  • Hirs menn > Te hirs - Her men > Hers;
  • Ůre djor > Te ůre - Our animals > Ours;
  • Jowre frynd > Te jowre - Your friends > Yours;
  • Heras hjort > Te heras - Their hearts > Theirs.

Relatives and 'interro-exclamatories'

Interrogative pronouns, which are used also to make exclamations, function also as relatives:

Case Hwå (who) Hwat (what)
Nominative hwå hwat
Accusative hwan hwat
Dative hwam hwam
Genitive hwas hwas
Instrumental - hwy

Ex.:

  • Hwå is he? - Who is he?
  • Hwat an shen hůnn! - What a beautiful dog!
  • Hwas is se bok her? - Whose is this book?
  • Hwam hafstů isagd het? - Whom have you said it to?
  • Se jon is se wyf ƕan y frjowe - That there is the woman whom I love.

Instrumental case hwy corresponds perfectly to English "why" (but also to the English "because"!), ex.:

  • Hwy haftů iskån se metning ter? - Why have you made that painting?

Indefinites

Indefinites give us incomplete informations, because they don't define the precise quantity or the identity:

Indefinite Meaning
ålcen someone/anyone
ålcet something/anything
nån nobody
nåt nothing
åwilk each
jall all
oter / o'r other

The indefinite jall and oter have got also a plural form: jallen and oteren/o'ren.

Indefinites can be formed also with the word elles:

  • Elles hwå / elshwå - Someone else;
  • Elles hwat / elshwat - Something else;
  • Te elles - The others.

In elshwå and elshwat 'sh' isn't a digraph, 's' and 'hw' have to be read separately!

If these indefinites are used as interrogatives, than elles follows the pronouns:

  • Tjarftů hwat elles? - Do you need something else?
  • Knaut hjo hwan elles? - Does she know someone else?

Adverbs

Usually adverbs in Tjoc are formed by suffixation: many adverbs derive from adjectives, to that the suffix -lic is added. Some examples:

  • glåj > glåjlic (happy - happily);
  • sari > sarilic (sad - sadly);
  • grjat > gryllic (great - greatly);
  • strong > strenglic (strong - strongly);
  • wåk > wåklic (weak - weakly).

Some adverbs have got suppletive forms, ex.: goj > jarwe; iwel > lyter.

Adverbs can be positioned wherever we want, but it is necessary to remember these rules:

1) adverbs can be positioned between subject and verb, but if this verb is the verb bjon, then the adverb is positioned after the verb;

2) adverbs can be positioned between auxiliary verbs and the taken verbs.

Place adverbs

As it has been seen in the chapter about demonstratives, some place adverbs - her, ter and jon - inflect to indicate a state, a movement towards or a movement from. Also the adverb hwer, "where", inflects:

Form Hwer Her Ter Jon
State hwer her ter jon
Movement to hweder heder teder jonner
Movement from hwens hens tens jons

The adverb hwer / hweder / hwens can be used also as a relative, ex.:

  • Se stof her is se tůn, hwens y kume - This place is the town where I come from;
  • Kerdit was se tůn, hweder y skolle gån - Cardiff was the town where I had to go to.

The adverb hwer also has the form hwerjen, but it is used only in the expression elles hwerjen, "elsewhere".

When hweder and hwens are used as interrogative adverbs, they can be written separately, ex.:

  • Hwens kimtů? or Hwer kimtů hinnes? - Where do you come from?
  • Hweder gåtů? or Hwer gåtů hider? - Where are you going to?

Other place adverbs are: ålhwer, "somewhere", and nålhwer, "nowhere".

Time adverbs

The adverb hwonne, "when", can be used both as interrogative and relative. Other time adverbs are:

  • - now;
  • tann - then;
  • iworn - before;
  • eften - after;
  • ålhwon - some times;
  • injaklic - usually;
  • jaltyd - always;
  • åfre - ever;
  • nåfre - never;
  • elles tyd / elstyd - another time.

Frequency can be expressed also with numerals and -nes suffix, ex.:

  • ån > ånnes - once;
  • twejn > twejnnes - twice;
  • try > trynes - thrice;
  • wjor > wjornes - four times;
  • wy > wifnes (!) - five times;
  • sys > sysnes - six times...

Expressions such as "Eight times a week" are translated as Jåtens an wuke.

Manner adverbs

Manner adverbs are created from adjectives with the suffix -lic. The interrogative and relative manner adverb is , "how". Some times manner adverbs inflect and have a higher degree comparative and a superlative, ex.:

  • glåjlic - glåjlicar - glåjlicast (happily - happilier - happiliest);
  • strenglic - strenglicar - strenglicast (strongly - stronglier - strongliest).

Some adverbs have an irregular comparative and superlative form:

  • jarwe - beter - best;
  • lyter - wyrs - wyrst;
  • micel - mår - måst (much - more - most);
  • (an) lit / liten - lass - last (little - less - least).

Both gryllic and micel can be used to mean "very", ex.: tů jart gryllic / micel shen - You are very beautiful.