Luthic

Luthic
Lûthica
Flag of the Luthic-speaking Ravenna
Pronunciation	[ˈlu.ti.xɐ]
Created by	Lëtzelúcia
Date	2023
Setting	Alternative history Italy
Native to	Ravenna; Ferrara and Bologna
Ethnicity	Luths
Native speakers	149,500 (2020)
Language family	Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Italo-Western Gotho-Romance Italo-Luthian Romance Luthic
Early forms	Proto-Luthic Gothic Luthic Mediaeval Luthic Late Mediaeval Luthic
Dialects	Upper Luthic (Altalûthica), Ferraresi Luthic (Lûthica Estense) Standard Bolognese Luthic (Lûthica Bolognesa) Paulistan Luthic (Lûthica Paülista)
Writing systems	Latin Braille
Official status
Recognised minority language in	Italy (recognised by the Luthic Community of Ravenna) Brazil (recognised in São Paulo)
Regulated by	Council for the Luthic Language
The areas where Luthic (red and orange) is spoken.

Luthic (/ˈluːθ.ɪk/ LOOTH-ik, less often /ˈlʌθ.ɪk/ LUTH-ik, also Luthish; endonym: Lûthica [ˈlu.ti.xɐ] or Rasda Lûthica [ˈraz.dɐ ˈlu.ti.xɐ]) is an Italic language that is spoken by the Luths, with strong East Germanic influence. Unlike other Romance languages, such as Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, Occitan and French, Luthic has a large inherited vocabulary from East Germanic, instead of only proper names that survived in historical accounts, and loanwords. About 250,000 people speak Luthic worldwide.

Luthic is the result of a prolonged contact among members of both regions after the Gothic raids towards the Roman Empire began, together with the later West Germanic merchants’ travels to and from the Western Roman Empire. These connections, the interactions between the Papal States and the conquest by the Germanic dynasties of the Roman Empire slowly formed a creole as a lingua franca for mutual communication.

As a standard form of the Gotho-Romance language, Luthic has similarities with other Italo-Dalmatian languages, Western Romance languages and Sardinian. The status of Luthic as the regional language of Ravenna and the existence there of a regulatory body have removed Luthic, at least in part, from the domain of Standard Italian, its traditional Dachsprache. It is also related to the Florentine dialect spoken by the Italians in the Italian city of Florence and its immediate surroundings.

Luthic is an inflected fusional language, with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter); and two numbers (singular, plural).

Classification

Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria, not on socio-functional ones. FP: Franco-Provençal, IR: Istro-Romanian.

Luthic is an Indo-European language that belongs to the Gotho-Romance group of the Italic languages, however Luthic has great Germanic influence; where the Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: North Germanic, East Germanic, and West Germanic. The first of these branches survives in modern Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Elfdalian, Faroese, and Icelandic, all of which are descended from Old Norse. The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts; Luthic is the only surviving Indo-European language with extensive East Germanic derived vocabulary. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch, Yiddish, Afrikaans, and others.

Among the Romance languages, its classification has always been controversial, for example, it is one of the Italo-Dalmatian languages and most closely related to Istriot on the one hand and Tuscan-Italian on the other. Some authors include it among the Gallo-Italic languages, and according to others, it is not related to either one. Although both Ethnologue and Glottolog group Luthic into a new language group, the Gotho-Romance (opere citato) family is still somewhat dubious.

Luthic has been influenced by Italian, Frankish, Gothic and Langobardic since its first attestation, the great influence of these languages on the vocabulary and grammar of Modern Luthic is widely acknowledged. Most specialists in language contact do consider Luthic to be a true mixed language. Luthic is classified as a Romance langauge because it shares innovations with other Romance languages such as Italian, French and Spanish.

East Germanic cognates

Biblical Gothic	Crimean Gothic¹	Luthic	English
ahtau /ˈax.tɔː/	athe /ˈa.te/	attau [ˈat.tɔ]	eight
baur /bɔr/ barn /barn/	baar /bar/ *ba(a)rn /barn/?	baure [ˈbɔ.re] barno [ˈbar.no]	child
brōþar /ˈbroː.θar/	bruder /'bru.der/	broþar [ˈbro.θɐr]	brother
wair /wɛr/	fers /fers/	vaere [ˈvɛ.re]	were- (as in werewolf)
handus /ˈhan.dus/	handa /ˈan.da/	handu [ˈan.du] (archaic or obsolete)	hand
haubiþ /ˈhɔː.βiθ/	hoef (for *hoeft) /oft/	hauviþo [ˈɔ.βi.θo] (archaic or obsolete)	head
qiman /ˈkʷi.man/	kommen /'ko.men/	qemare [kᶣeˈma.re]	to come
hlahjan /'hlax.jan/	lachen /'la.xen/ (/'la.ɣen/?)	clare [ˈkla.re]	to laugh
augō /ˈɔː.ɣoː/	oeghene /ˈo.ɣe.ne/	augono [ˈɔ.ɣo.no]	eye

¹ Discussions cover the different versions of Busbecq’s report, including scribal emendation and errors in printing and subsequent corrections. It seems that Busbecq’s understanding and documentation of Crimean Gothic were influenced by his Flemish background and possibly by German. He obtained his information from a Crimean Greek source who was knowledgeable in Crimean Gothic. The individual from Crimea who supplied the language information was either originally Greek or fluent in Crimean Gothic but more proficient in Greek than their own native language. In both cases, it’s likely that the pronunciation of Crimean Gothic words was influenced to some extent by the phonetics of the Greek language spoken in that area and time.

History

The Luthic philologist Aþalphonsu Silva divided the history of Luthic into a period from 500 AD to 1740 to be “Mediaeval Luthic”, which he subdivided into “Gothic Luthic” (500–1100), “Mediaeval Luthic” (1100–1600) and “late Mediaeval Luthic” (1600–1740).

An additional period was later created by Lucia Giamane, from c. 325 AD to 500 AD to be called “Proto-Luthic”, which she believes to be an Vulgar Latin ethnolect, spoken by the early Goths during its period of co-existence with the Roman Empire, no written records from such an early period survive, and if any ever existed, it was fully lost during the Gothic War (376–382) and during the Sack of Rome (410). Proto-Luthic ultimately is the result of the Romano-Germanic culture.

Europe in 305 AD

The term Romano-Germanic describes the conflation of Roman culture with that of various Germanic peoples in areas successively ruled by the Roman Empire and Germanic “barbarian monarchies”. These include the kingdoms of the Visigoths (in Hispania and Gallia Narbonensis), the Ostrogoths (in Italia, Sicilia, Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia and Dacia), the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in Sub-Roman Britain, and finally the Franks who established the nucleus of the later “Holy Roman Empire” in Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Lugdunensis, Gallia Belgica, Germania Superior and Inferior, and parts of the previously unconquered Germania Magna. Additionally, minor Germanic tribes – the Vandals, the Suebi, the Burgundians, the Alemanni, and later the Lombards − also established their kingdoms in Roman territory in the West.

Romano-Germanic cultural contact begins as early as the first Roman accounts of the Germanic peoples. Roman influence is perceptible beyond the boundaries of the empire, in the Northern European Roman Iron Age of the first centuries AD. The nature of this cultural contact changes with the decline of the Roman Empire and the beginning Migration period in the wake of the crisis of the third century: the “barbarian” peoples of Germania Magna formerly known as mercenaries and traders now came as invaders and eventually as a new ruling elite, even in Italy itself, beginning with Odoacer’s rise to the rank of Dux Italiae in 476 AD.

The cultural syncretism was most pronounced in Francia. In West Francia, the nucleus of what was to become France, the Frankish language was eventually extinct, but not without leaving significant traces in the emerging Romance language. In East Francia on the other hand, the nucleus of what was to become the kingdom of Germany and ultimately German-speaking Europe, the syncretism was less pronounced since only its southernmost portion had ever been part of the Roman Empire, as Germania Superior: all territories on the right hand side of the Rhine remain Germanic-speaking. Those parts of the Germanic sphere extends along the left of the Rhine, including the Swiss plateau, the Alsace, the Rhineland and Flanders, are the parts where Romano-Germanic cultural contact remains most evident.

Early Germanic law reflects the coexistence of Roman and Germanic cultures during the Migration period in applying separate laws to Roman and Germanic individuals, notably the Lex Romana Visigothorum (506), the Lex Romana Curiensis and the Lex Romana Burgundionum. The separate cultures amalgamated after Christianisation, and by the Carolingian period the distinction of Roman vs. Germanic subjects had been replaced by the feudal system of the Three Estates of the Realm.

With a renewed close attention to the history and literature of ancient Rome in the 12th century, the mediaeval aristocracy saw itself mirrored in the accounts of ancient Roman nobility. Some made doubtful claims to direct descent from Roman aristocracy. In the 19th century, German, Luth and French mediaevalists worried about the origins of the great mediaeval families. Did the great families descend from the aristocracy of the Roman Empire or from the barbarian chieftains who invaded the Roman Empire between 400 and 600? Did the families originate in the Latin or Germanic world? Both, it seems. Mediaeval Western Europe was an amalgam of Roman and ‘Barbarian’ bloodlines. The cultural and genetic influence of the Visigoths, Franks, et al. is readily apparent in the socio-cultural and political framework of Mediaeval Europe. In spite of this, the legacy of Rome, both social-cultural and genetic pervaded every aspect of Mediaeval society – this was of course greatly assisted by the mediaeval Church.

The initial trouble for the later Roman Empire came from East Germanic speakers, with various tribal groups such as the Vandals and Burgundians traversing Europe. However, it was the Goths who notably contributed to the linguistic record of the East Germanic languages. Originating from the lower Vistula, they migrated to present-day Ukraine. Later, facing pressure from the Huns, they moved into the Balkans and eventually into Western Europe. Among them, the Visigoths settled in Spain, shaping its post-Roman state, while the Ostrogoths became custodians of the last Roman emperors in Italy. By the eighth century, linguistic assimilation into Romance-speaking populations had largely absorbed the Goths of Spain and Italy. Wulfila, a prominent Christian missionary and later bishop of the Visigoths, translated the Bible into Gothic while they resided in the northeast Balkans, providing a significant linguistic record of Gothic and East Germanic. A small group of Ostrogoths left in Crimea resurfaced in the sixteenth century through a wordlist compiled by Ogier de Busbecq, the Holy Roman Emperor’s ambassador to the Sublime Porte. However, these Crimean Gothic speakers disappeared linguistically shortly after Busbecq documented their vocabulary.

Gothic Luthic

The earliest varieties of a Luthic language, collectively known as Gothic Luthic or “Gotho-Luthic”, evolved from the contact of Latin dialects and East Germanic languages. A considerable amount of East Germanic vocabulary was incorporated into Luthic over some five centuries. Approximately 1,200 uncompounded Luthic words are derived from Gothic and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European. Of these 1,200, 700 are nouns, 300 are verbs and 200 are adjectives. Luthic has also absorbed many loanwords, most of which were borrowed from West Germanic languages of the Early Middle Ages.

Only a few documents in Gothic Luthic have survived – not enough for a complete reconstruction of the language. Most Gothic Luthic-language sources are translations or glosses of other languages (namely, Greek and Latin), so foreign linguistic elements most certainly influenced the texts. Nevertheless, Gothic Luthic was probably very close to Gothic (it is known primarily from the Codex Argenteus, a 6th-century copy of a 4th-century Bible translation, and is the only East Germanic language with a sizeable text corpus). These are the primary sources:

• Codex Luthicus (Ravenna), two parts: 87 leaves

It contains scattered passages from the New Testament (including parts of the gospels and the Epistles), from the Old Testament (Nehemiah), and some commentaries. The text likely had been somewhat modified by copyists. It was written using the Gothic alphabet, an alphabet used for writing the Gothic language. It was developed in the 4th century AD by Ulfilas (or Wulfila), a Gothic preacher of Cappadocian Greek descent, for the purpose of translating the Bible.

Detail of the Codex Luthicus, the word Luþiks is attested, referring to the Luths

• Codex Ravennas (Ravenna), four parts: 140 leaves

A civil code enacted under Theodoric the Great. The code covered the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy, but mainly Ravenna, as Theodoric devoted most of his architectural attention to his capital, Ravenna. Codex Ravennas was also written using the Gothic alphabet. The text likely had been somewhat modified by copyists. Together with four leaves, fragments of Romans 11–15 (a Luthic–Latin diglot).

Mediaeval Luthic

In the mediaeval period, Luthic emerged as a separate language from Gothic. The main written language was Latin, and the few Luthic-language texts preserved from this period are written in the Latin alphabet. From the 7th to the 16th centuries, Mediaeval Luthic gradually transformed through language contact with Old Italian, Langobardic and Frankish. During the Carolingian Empire (773–774), Charles conquered the Lombards and thus included northern Italy in his sphere of influence. He renewed the Vatican donation and the promise to the papacy of continued Frankish protection. Frankish was very strong, until Louis’ eldest surviving son Lothair I became Emperor in name but de facto only the ruler of the Middle Frankish Kingdom.

After the fall of Middle Francia and the rise of Holy Roman Empire, Louis II conquered Bari in 871 led to poor relations with the Eastern Roman Empire, which led to a lesser degree of the Greek influence present in Luthic.

The first sentence is: “Luthica unsara rasda ist, e scolamos defendere unsarǫ raihtǫ di usare la rasda fremente, l’italiano nogca sarat l’unsara rasda fragca, car gli italiani non unse rispetanno.”
English: “Luthic is our language, and we must defend our right to use it freely, Italian will never be our language, as the Italians don’t respect us”

Late Mediaeval Luthic

Fraugiani e Narri hanno rasda fre.
“Lords and jesters have free speech.”

“

”

Giuseppe il Lûthico, proverbs

Following the first Bible translation, the development of Luthic as a written language, as a language of religion, administration, and public discourse accelerated. In the second half of the 17th century, grammarians elaborated grammars of Luthic, first among them Þiudareico Biagci’s 1657 Latin grammar De studio linguæ luthicæ.

De Studio Linguæ Luthicæ

De Studio Linguæ Luthicæ (English: On Study of the Luthic Language) often referred to as simply the Luthicæ (/lʌˈθiˌki, lʌθˈaɪˌki/ lu-THEE-KEE), is a book by Þiudareico Biagci that expounds Luthic grammar. The Luthicæ is written in Latin and comprises two volumes, and was first published on 9 September 1657.

Book 1, De grammatica

Book 1, subtitled De grammatica (On grammar) concerns fundamental grammar features present in Luthic. It opens a collection of examples and Luthic–Latin diglot lemmata.

Book 2, De orthographia

Book 2, subtitled De orthographia (On orthography), is an exposition of the many vernacular orthographies Luthic had, and eventual suggestions for a universal orthography.

Etymology

The name of the Luths is hugely linked to the name of the Goths, itself one of the most discussed topics in Germanic philology. The autonym is attested as 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰 (gutþiuda) (the status of this word as a Gothic autonym prior to the Ostrogothic period is disputed) on the Gothic calendar (in the Codex Ambrosianus A): þize ana gutþiudai managaize marwtre jah friþareikeikeis. However, on the basis of parallel formations in Germanic (svíþjóð; angelþēod) and non-Germanic (Old Irish cruithen-tuath) indicates that it means “land of the Goths, Gothia”, instead of a more literal translation “Gothpeople”. The first element however may be also the same element attested on the Ring of Pietrossa ᚷᚢᛏᚨᚾᛁ (gutanī). Roman authors of late antiquity did not classify the Goths as Germani. While the Gutones, the Pomeranian precursors of the Goths, and the Vandili, the Silesian ancestors of the Vandals, were still considered part of Tacitean Germania, the later Goths, Vandals, and other East Germanic tribes were differentiated from the Germans and were referred to as Scythians, Goths, or some other special names. The sole exception are the Burgundians, who were considered German because they came to Gaul via Germania. In keeping with this classification, post-Tacitean Scandinavians were also no longer counted among the Germans, even though they were regarded as close relatives. The word for Luthic is first attested as 𐌻𐌿𐌸𐌹𐌺𐍃 (luþiks) on the Codex Luthicus, named after so. The name was probably first recorded via Greco-Roman writers, as *Luthae, a formation similar to Getae, itself derived from *leuhtą. Ultimately meaning the lighters. 𐌻𐌿𐌸𐌹𐌺𐍃 is probably a corruption *leuhtą, *leuthą, *Luthae, influenced by gothus, then reborrowed via a Germanic language, where *-th- > -þ-.

Geographical distribution

Ravèna Emilian, Ravêna Romagnol Ravenna Italian, Ravenna Luthic Ravenna
Flag
Motto: “Semper vigil, nunquam dormiens” Latin “Aeve allerta, nogca dormindo” Luthic “Always aware, never sleeping”
Location	44°24′58″N 12°12′06″E
Official languages	Luthic, Emilian, Romagnol, Italian
Ethnic groups	Luths, Italians
Religion	Christianity
Demonym	Ravennate, Ravennese
Population
• Estimate	158,784 (1 January 2014)
Currency	Euro (€)
Time zone	CET
Date format	dd.mm.yyyy
Calling code	+39-544
Patron saints	Saint Apollinaris
Website Official website

Map of languages and dialect groups of Italy

Luthic is spoken mainly in Emilia-Romagna, Italy, where it is primarily spoken in Ravenna and its adjacent communes. Although Luthic is spoken almost exclusively in Emilia-Romagna, it has also been spoken outside of Italy. Luth and general Italian emigrant communities (the largest of which are to be found in the Americas) sometimes employ Luthic as their primary language. The largest concentrations of Luthic speakers are found in the provinces of Ravenna, Ferrara and Bologna (Metropolitan City of Bologna). The people of Ravenna live in tetraglossia, as Romagnol, Emilian and Italian are spoken in those provinces alongside Luthic.

According to a census by ISTAT (The Italian National Institute of Statistics), Luthic is spoken by an estimated 250,000 people, however only 149,500 are considered de facto natives, and approximately 50,000 are monolinguals.

Status and usage

As in most European countries, the minority languages are defined by legislation or constitutional documents and afforded some form of official support. In 1992, the Council of Europe adopted the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe.

Luthic is regulated by the Council for the Luthic Language (Luthic: Gafaurdu faul·la Rasda Lûthica [ɡɐˈɸɔr.du fɔl‿lɐ ˈraz.dɐ ˈlu.ti.xɐ]) and the Luthic Community of Ravenna (Luthic: Gamaenescape Lûthica Ravennae [ɡɐˌmɛ.neˈska.ɸe ˈlu.ti.xɐ rɐˈβẽ.nɛ]). The existence of a regulatory body has removed Luthic, at least in part, from the domain of Standard Italian, its traditional Dachsprache, Luthic was considered an Italian dialect like many others until about World War II, but then it underwent ausbau.

Luthic geographical distribution in the commune of Ravenna

Diglossia and code-switching

Luthic is recognised as a minor language in Ravenna. Italy’s official language is Italian, as stated by the framework law no. 482/1999 and Trentino Alto-Adige’s special Statute, which is adopted with a constitutional law. Around the world there are an estimated 64 million native Italian speakers and another 21 million who use it as a second language. Italian is often natively spoken in a regional variety, not to be confused with Italy’s regional and minority languages; however, the establishment of a national education system led to a decrease in variation in the languages spoken across the country during the 20th century. Standardisation was further expanded in the 1950s and 1960s due to economic growth and the rise of mass media and television (the state broadcaster RAI helped set a standard Italian).

Code-switching between Luthic, Emilian dialects and Italian is frequent among Luthic speakers, in both informal and formal settings (such as on television).

Education

Education in Italy is free and mandatory from ages six to sixteen, and consists of five stages: kindergarten (scuola dell’infanzia), primary school (scuola primaria), lower secondary school (scuola secondaria di primo grado), upper secondary school (scuola secondaria di secondo grado), and university (università). Although mostly in Italian, education is Luthic has been implemented in 2018 by Ravenna University. In 2018, the Italian secondary education was evaluated as below the OECD average. Italy scored below the OECD average in reading and science, and near OECD average in mathematics. Mean performance in Italy declined in reading and science, and remained stable in mathematics. Trento and Bolzano scored at an above the national average in reading. Compared to school children in other OECD countries, children in Italy missed out on a greater amount of learning due to absences and indiscipline in classrooms. A wide gap exists between northern schools, which perform near average, and schools in the South, that had much poorer results. The 2018 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study ranks children in Italy 16th for reading. Compared to school children in other OECD countries, children in Italy missed out on a greater amount of learning due to absences and indiscipline in classrooms.

Propaganda poster of Mussolini

Most of the Luths also speak Italian, this is commoner for Luth elders, and most of the Luth elders may speak only Italian because of the influence from the Fascist period, as the Fascist government endorsed a stringent education policy in Italy aiming at eliminating illiteracy, which was a serious problem in Italy at the time, as well as improving the allegiance of Italians to the state. The Fascist government’s first minister of education from 1922 to 1924 Giovanni Gentile recommended that education policy should focus on indoctrination of students into Fascism and to educate youth to respect and be obedient to authority. In 1929, education policy took a major step towards being completely taken over by the agenda of indoctrination.> In that year, the Fascist government took control of the authorization of all textbooks, all secondary school teachers were required to take an oath of loyalty to Fascism and children began to be taught that they owed the same loyalty to Fascism as they did to God. In 1933, all university teachers were required to be members of the National Fascist Party. From the 1930s to 1940s, Italy’s education focused on the history of Italy displaying Italy as a force of civilization during the Roman era, displaying the rebirth of Italian nationalism and the struggle for Italian independence and unity during the Risorgimento. In the late 1930s, the Fascist government copied Nazi Germany’s education system on the issue of physical fitness and began an agenda that demanded that Italians become physically healthy. Intellectual talent in Italy was rewarded and promoted by the Fascist government through the Royal Academy of Italy which was created in 1926 to promote and coordinate Italy’s intellectual activity.

Films and music

Most films and songs are in vernacular Italian, Luthic is seldom spoken in television and radio. Some educational shows hosted by the Luthic Community of Ravenna and Ravenna University are often in Standard Luthic. Italian folk music is an important part of the country’ musical heritage, and spans a diverse array of regional styles, instruments and dances. Instrumental and vocal classical music is an iconic part of Italian identity, spanning experimental art music and international fusions to symphonic music and opera. Italian music has been held up in high esteem in history and many pieces of Italian music are considered high art. More than other elements of Italian culture, music is generally eclectic, but unique from other nations’ music. The country’s historical contributions to music are also an important part of national pride. The relatively recent history of Italy includes the development of an opera tradition that has spread throughout the world; prior to the development of Italian identity or a unified Italian state, the Italian peninsula contributed to important innovations in music including the development of musical notation and Gregorian chant.

Similar to the Canzone Napoletana, Lae Canzoni Lûthicae, sometimes referred to as Luthic songs, became a formal institution in the 1990s as Luthic became more researched by Ravenna University, a generic term for a traditional form of music sung in the Luthic language, ordinarily for male and female voice singing solo. An important factor in defining what makes a Luthic song is the matter of language. All these songs are written and performed in the Luthic language. Although the music is sung by a few non-Luthic singers, it is difficult to sing correctly without knowledge of the Luthic continua, which is crucial in obtaining the correct inflection.

Written media

Luthic is mostly found as written media, However newspapers usually use Italian and reserve Luthic for sarcastic commentaries and caricatures. Headlines in Luthic are common. The letter to the editor section often includes entire paragraphs in Luthic. Many newspapers also regularly publish personal columns in Luthic. Most comedies are written in Luthic. Comic books are often written in Luthic instead of Italian. In novels and short stories, most of the Luth authors, write the dialogues in their Luthic dialects.

Luthic regarded as an Italian dialect

Luthic is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Luthic lexicon is discrepant from those of other Romance languages, since most of the words present in Modern Luthic are ultimately of Germanic origin. The lexical differentiation was a big factor for the creation of an independent regulatory body. There were many attempts to assimilate Luthic into the Italian dialect continuum, as in recent centuries, the intermediate dialects between the major Romance languages have been moving toward extinction, as their speakers have switched to varieties closer to the more prestigious national standards. That has been most notable in France, owing to the French government’s refusal to recognise minority languages. For many decades since Italy’s unification, the attitude of the French government towards the ethnolinguistic minorities was copied by the Italian government. A movement called “Italianised Luthic Movement” (Luthic: Movimento Lûthicae Italianegiatae; Italian: Movimento per il Lutico Italianeggiato) tried to italianase Luthic’s vocabulary and reduce the inherited Germanic vocabulary, in order to assimilate Luthic as an Italian derived language; modern Luthic orthography was affected by this movement.

Almost all of the Romance languages spoken in Italy are native to the area in which they are spoken. Apart from Standard Italian, these languages are often referred to as dialetti “dialects”, both colloquially and in scholarly usage; however, the term may coexist with other labels like “minority languages” or “vernaculars” for some of them. Italian was first declared to be Italy's official language during the Fascist period, more specifically through the R.D.l., adopted on 15 October 1925, with the name of Sull'Obbligo della lingua italiana in tutti gli uffici giudiziari del Regno, salvo le eccezioni stabilite nei trattati internazionali per la città di Fiume. According to UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, there are 31 endangered languages in Italy.

Standard Luthic

The basis of Standard Luthic was developed by the popular language spoken by the Ravennese people, whose was highly influenced by Gothic, together with other East Germanic substrate, such as Vandalic and Burgundian and other ancient West Germanic languages, mainly Frankish and Langobardic. Standard Luthic orthography was further influenced by Italian. Increasing mobility of the population and the dissemination of the language through mass media such as radio and television are leading to a gradual standardisation towards a “Standard Luthic” through the process of koineization.

Alphabet

Luthic has a shallow orthography, meaning very regular spelling with an almost one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds. In linguistic terms, the writing system is close to being a phonemic orthography. The most important of the few exceptions are the following (see below for more details):

• The letter ⟨c⟩ represents the sound /k/ at the end of words and before the letters a, o, and u but represents the sound /t͡ʃ/ before the letters e and i.
• The letter ⟨g⟩ represents the sound /ɡ/ at the end of words and before the letters a, o, and u but represents the sound /d͡ʒ/ before the letters e and i. It also represents the sound /ŋ/ before c, q or g.
  • Velar plosives after /ŋ/ are not further palatalised to /t͡ʃ/ or /d͡ʒ/.
  • /ɡʷ/ only happens before a nasal and is spelled as ggu /ŋɡʷ/, or inherited from Gothic -ggw- as a regular outcome of Germanic *ww: 𐍄𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍅𐍃 [triɡʷːs], tregguo [ˈtrɛɡ.ɡʷu]. The spelling gg stands for both /ŋɡ/ and /dd͡ʒ/, making it further confunsing.
• The cluster sc /sk/ before the letters e and i represents the sound /ʃ/, geminate if intervocalic.
• The spellings ⟨ci⟩ and ⟨gi⟩ before another vowel represent only /t͡ʃ/ or /d͡ʒ/ with no /i/ ~ /j/ sound.
  • Unless c or g precede stressed /i/ (pharmacia /fɐr.mɐˈtʃi.ɐ/ ‘pharmacy’, biologia /bjo.loˈdʒi.ɐ/ ‘biology’), these may be optionally spelt as cï and gï (pharmacïa, biologïa).
• The letter h is always silent. It is used to form a digraph with c or g to represent /k/ or /g/ before i or e. It is also used with p to represent /ɸ/ and is found in some Greco-Roman words with t for /t/ for aesthetics only.
• The spelling ⟨ch⟩ and ⟨gh⟩ always represent the sounds /k/ and /ɡ/.
• The spelling ⟨gl⟩ and ⟨gn⟩ represent the palatals /ʎ/ and /ɲ/ retrospectively; always geminate if intervocalic.
  • If the clusters /ɡl/ and /ɡn/ are needed, they are spelt as ⟨ghl⟩ and ⟨ghn⟩ retrospectively.

The Luthic alphabet is considered to consist of 24 letters; j, k, w, x, y are excluded, and often avoided in loanwords, as tassi vs taxi, cenophobo vs xenofobo, geins vs jeans, Giorche vs York, Valsar vs Walsar:

• The circumflex accent is used over vowels to indicate irregular stress.
  • The digraphs ⟨ae, au, ei⟩ are used to indicate /ɛ ɔ i/ retrospectively; /ɛ/ ⟨ae⟩ is in free variation with /e/ word terminally.
  • /e/ and /o/ are often lowered to /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ in VCC.
• The diaeresis accent is used to distinguish from a digraph or a diphthong.
• The letter ⟨s⟩ can symbolise voiced or voiceless consonants. ⟨s⟩ symbolises /s/ onset before a vowel, when clustered with a voiceless consonant (⟨p, f, c, q⟩), and when doubled (geminate); it symbolises /z/ when between vowels and when clustered with voiced consonants.
  • Similarly, the letter ⟨z⟩ can symbolise voiced or voiceless consonants. ⟨z⟩ symbolises /t͡s/ onset before a vowel, when clustered with a voiceless consonant (⟨p, f, c, q⟩), and when doubled (geminate); it symbolises /d͡z/ when between vowels and when clustered with voiced consonants. However, ⟨zz⟩ stands for both /tt͡s/ and /dd͡z/.
• The letter ⟨þ⟩ can symbolise voiced or voiceless consonants. ⟨þ⟩ symbolises /θ/ in all cases, except when clustered with a voiced consonant, standing for /ð/.

Standard Luthic Alphabet

Letter	Name	Historical name	IPA	Diacritics
A, a	a [ˈa]	asga [ˈaz.ɡɐ]	/ɐ/ or /a/	â
B, b	bi [ˈbi]	baerca [ˈbɛr.kɐ]	/b/ or /β/	—
C, c	ci [ˈt͡ʃi]	cauno [ˈkɔ.no]	/k/, /t͡ʃ/ or /x/	—
D, d	di [ˈdi]	dagu [ˈda.ɣu]	/d/	—
Ð, ð	eððe [ˈɛð.ðe]	∅	/ð/	—
E, e	e [ˈɛ]	aeqqu [ˈɛk.kʷu]	/e/ or /ɛ/	ê
F, f	effe [ˈɛɸ.ɸe]	faeu [ˈfɛ.u]	/ɸ/ or /f/	—
G, g	gi [ˈd͡ʒi]	geva [ˈd͡ʒe.βɐ]	/ɡ/, /d͡ʒ/, /ɣ/ or /ŋ/	—
H, h	acca [ˈak.kɐ]	haglu [ˈaʎ.ʎu]	∅	—
I, i	i [ˈi]	eissu [ˈis.su]	/i/ or /j/	ï
L, l	elle [ˈɛl.le]	lagu [ˈla.ɣu]	/l/	—
M, m	emme [ˈẽ.me]	mannu [ˈmɐ̃.nu]	/m/	—
N, n	enne [ˈẽ.ne]	nauþu [ˈnɔ.θu]	/n/	—
O, o	o [ˈɔ]	oþalo [oˈθa.lo]	/o/ or /ɔ/	ô
P, p	pi [ˈpi]	paerþa [ˈpɛr.θɐ]	/p/ or /ɸ/	—
Q, q	qoppa [ˈkʷɔp.pɐ]	qaerþa [ˈkᶣɛr.θɐ]	/kʷ/	—
R, r	erre [ɛrˈre]	raeða [ˈrɛ.ðɐ]	/r/	—
S, s	esse [ɛsˈse]	sauila [ˈsɔj.lɐ]	/s/ or /z/	—
T, t	ti [ˈti]	teivu [ˈti.βu]	/t/ or /θ/	—
Þ, þ	eþþe [ˈɛθ.θe]	þaurnu [ˈθɔr.nu]	/θ/ or /ð/	—
U, u	u [ˈu]	uru [ˈu.ru]	/u/ or /w/	û, ü
V, v	vi [ˈvi]	vigna [ˈviɲ.ɲɐ]	/β/ or /v/	—
Z, z	zi [ˈt͡si]	zetta [ˈt͡sɛt.tɐ]	/t͡s/ or /d͡z/	—

A Luthic computer keyboard layout.

Luthic has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by length and intensity. Length is distinctive for all consonants except for /d͡z/, /ʎ/, /ɲ/, which are always geminate when between vowels, and /z/, which is always single. Geminate plosive and affricates are realised as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and /l/ are realised as lengthened continuants. When triggered by Gorgia Toscana, voiceless fricatives are always constrictive, but voiced fricatives are not very constrictive and often closer to approximants.

Phonology

There is a maximum of 8 oral vowels, 5 nasal vowels, 2 semivowels and 31 consonants; though some varieties of the language have fewer phonemes. Gothic, Frankish, northern Suebi, Langobardic, Lepontic and Cisalpine Gaulish (Roman Gaul) influences were highly absorbed into the local Vulgar Latin dialect. An early form of Luthic was already spoken in the Ostrogothic Kingdom during Theodoric’s reign and by the year 600 Luthic had already become the vernacular of Ravenna. Luthic developed in the region of the former Ostrogothic capital of Ravenna, from Late Latin dialects and Vulgar Latin. As Theodoric emerged as the new ruler of Italy, he upheld a Roman legal administration and scholarly culture while promoting a major building program across Italy, his cultural and architectural attention to Ravenna led to a most conserved dialect, resulting in modern Luthic.

Vowels

Vowel phonemes of Standard Luthic

	Front		Central		Back
	oral	nasal	oral	nasal	oral	nasal
Close	i	ĩ			u	ũ
Close-mid	e	ẽ			o	õ
Open-mid	ɛ		ɐ	ɐ̃	ɔ
Open			a

Notes

Oral monophthongs of Standard Luthic

Nasal monophthongs of Standard Luthic

When the mid vowels /ε, ɔ/ precede a nasal, they become close [ẽ] rather than [ε̃] and [õ] rather than [ɔ̃].

• /i/ is close front unrounded [i]. f1 =337 y f2 =2300; f1 =400 y f2 =2600 hz.
• /ĩ/ is close front unrounded [ĩ]. f1 =337 y f2 =2300; f1 =400 y f2 =2600 hz.
• /u/ is close back rounded [u]. f1 =350 y f1 =1185; f1 =400 y f2 =925 hz.
• /ũ/ is close back rounded [ũ]. f1 =350 y f1 =1185; f1 =400 y f2 =925 hz.
• /e/ is close-mid front unrounded [e]. f1 =475 hz y f2 =1700 hz.
• /ẽ/ is close-mid front unrounded [ẽ]. f1 =475 hz y f2 =1700 hz.
• /o/ is close-mid back rounded [o]. f1 =490 y f2 =1015; f1 =500 y f2=1075.
• /õ/ is close-mid back rounded [õ]. f1 =490 y f2 =1015; f1 =500 y f2=1075.
• /ɛ/ has been variously described as mid front unrounded [ɛ̝] and open-mid front unrounded [ɛ]. f1 =700 hz y f2 =1800 hz.
• /ɔ/ is somewhat fronted open-mid back rounded [ɔ̟]. f1 =555 hz y f2 =1100; f1 =600 hz y f2 =1100 hz.
• /ɐ/ is near-open central unrounded [ɐ]. f1 =700 y f2 =1300 hz; f1 =715 hz y f2 =1400 hz.
• /ɐ̃/ is near-open central unrounded [ɐ̃]. f1 =700 y f2 =1300 hz; f1 =715 hz y f2 =1400 hz.
• /a/ has been variously described as open front unrounded [a] and open central unrounded [ä]. f1 =700 y f2 =1350 hz; f1 =750 y f2 =1500 hz.

Diphthongs and triphthongs

Rising diphthongs of Standard Luthic

Rising	je	jɛ	jɔ		jɐ	ju
	we	wɛ	wo	wɔ	wɐ	wi

Falling diphthongs of Standard Luthic

Falling	ej	ɛj	oj	ɔj	ɐj
	ew	ɛw	ow	ɔw	ɐw

Rising triphthongs of Standard Luthic

Rising	jwo

Falling triphthongs of Standard Luthic

Falling	jɛj	jɔj	jɐj
	wɛj	wɔj	wɐj

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Standard Luthic

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar
						plain	labialized
Nasal		m	n		ɲ	ŋ	(ŋʷ)
Plosive	voiceless	p	t			k	kʷ
	voiced	b	d			ɡ	ɡʷ
Fricative	voiceless	ɸ (f)	s θ	ʃ		(x)
	voiced	β (v)	z ð			(ɣ)
Affricate	voiceless		t͡s	t͡ʃ
	voiceless		d͡z	d͡ʒ
Approximant	semivowel				j		w
	lateral		l		ʎ
Trill			r

Notes

• Nasals:
  • /n/ is laminal alveolar [n̻].
  • /ɲ/ is alveolo-palatal, always geminate when intervocalic.
  • /ŋ/ has a labio-velar allophone [ŋʷ] before labio-velar plosives.
    • [ŋʷ] may be further palatalised to a palato-labialised velar nasal [ŋᶣ] before /i, e, ɛ, j/.
  • /ŋ/ is pre-velar [ŋ˖] before [k̟, ɡ̟].
  • /ŋ/ is post-velar [ŋ˗] before [k̠, ɡ˗], it may also be described as an uvular [ɴ].

• Plosives:
  • /p/ /b/ are purely bilabial.
  • /t/ and /d/ are laminal dentialveolar [t̻, d̻].
  • /k/ and /ɡ/ are pre-velar [k̟, ɡ̟] before /i, e, ɛ, j/.
  • /k/ and /ɡ/ are post-velar [k̠, ɡ˗] before /o, ɔ, u/, they may also be described as uvulars [q, ɢ]​.
  • /kʷ/ and /ɡʷ/ are palato-labialised [kᶣ, ɡᶣ] before /i, e, ɛ, j/.

• Affricates:
  • /t͡s/ and /d͡z/ are dentalised laminal alveolar [t̻͡s̪, d̻͡z̪].
  • /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/ are strongly labialised palato-alveolar [t͡ʃʷ, d͡ʒʷ].

• Fricatives:
  • /ɸ/ and /β/ are bilabial.
  • /f/ and /v/ are labiodental and only happens as an allophone of /ɸ/ and /β/ word-initially and postconsonantal.
  • /θ/ and /ð/ are laminal dentialveolar.
  • /s/ and /z/ are laminal alveolar [s̻, z̻].
  • /ʃ/ is strongly labialised palato-alveolar [ʃʷ].
  • /x/ and /ɣ/ are velar, and only found when triggered by Gorgia Toscana.

• Approximants, trill and laterals:
  • /j/ and /w/ are always geminate when intervocalic.
  • /r/ is alveolar [r].
  • /l/ is laminal alveolar [l̻].
  • /ʎ/ is alveolo-palatal, always geminate when intervocalic.

Historical phonology

The phonological system of the Luthic language underwent many changes during the period of its existence. These included the palatalisation of velar consonants in many positions and subsequent lenitions. A number of phonological processes affected Luthic in the period before the earliest documentation. The processes took place chronologically in roughly the order described below (with uncertainty in ordering as noted).

Vowel system

The most sonorous elements of the syllable are vowels, which occupy the nuclear position. They are prototypical mora-bearing elements, with simple vowels monomoraic, and long vowels bimoraic. Latin vowels occurred with one of five qualities and one of two weights, that is short and long /i e a o u/. At first, weight was realised by means of longer or shorter duration, and any articulatory differences were negligible, with the short:long opposition stable. Subtle articulatory differences eventually grow and lead to the abandonment of length, and reanalysis of vocal contrast is shifted solely to quality rather than both quality and quantity; specifically, the manifestation of weight as length came to include differences in tongue height and tenseness, and quite early on, /ī, ū/ began to differ from /ĭ, ŭ/ articulatorily, as did /ē, ō/ from /ĕ, ŏ/. The long vowels were stable, but the short vowels came to be realised lower and laxer, with the result that /ĭ, ŭ/ opened to [ɪ, ʊ], and /ĕ, ŏ/ opened to [ε, ɔ]. The result is the merger of Latin /ĭ, ŭ/ and /ē, ō/, since their contrast is now realised sufficiently be their distinct vowel quality, which would be easier to articulate and perceive than vowel duration.

Gotho-Romance vowel changes from Latin.

Vowels phoneme in Classical Latin

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i iː ĩː		u uː ũː
Mid	e eː ẽː		o oː õː
Open		ä äː ä̃ː

Vowels phoneme in Early Spoken Latin

	Front	Central	Back
Close	ɪ iː ĩː		ʊ uː ũː
Mid	ε eː ẽː		ɔ oː õː
Open		ä äː ä̃ː

Unstressed a resulted in a slightly raised a [ɐ]. In hiatus, unstressed front vowels become /j/, while unstressed back vowels become /w/. Unlike other Romance languages, the Luthic vowel system was not so affected by metaphony, such as /e/ raising to /i/ or /ɛ/ raising to /e/:

• Latin vī̆ndēmia [u̯i(ː)n̪.ˈd̪eː.mi.ä] > Vulgar Latin *[benˈde.mja] > Spanish [bẽn̪ˈd̪i.mja], but the Luthic cognate vendemia [venˈde.mjɐ]

In addition to monophthongs, Luthic has diphthongs, which, however, are both phonemically and phonetically simply combinations of the other vowels. None of the diphthongs are, however, considered to have distinct phonemic status since their constituents do not behave differently from how they occur in isolation, unlike the diphthongs in other languages like English and German. Grammatical tradition distinguishes “falling” from “rising” diphthongs, but since rising diphthongs are composed of one semiconsonantal sound [j] or [w] and one vowel sound, they are not actually diphthongs. The practice of referring to them as “diphthongs” has been criticised by phoneticians like Alareicu Villavolfu.

Cluster smoothing

Clusters such as -p.t- -k.t- -x.t- are always smoothed to -t.t-.

• Latin aptus [ˈäp.t̪us̠ ~ ˈäp.t̪ʊs̠] > Luthic attu [ˈat.tu]
• Latin āctuālis [äːk.t̪uˈäː.lʲis̠ ~ äːk.t̪uˈäː.lʲɪs̠] > Luthic attuale [ɐtˈtwa.le]
• Gothic ahtau [ˈax.tɔː] > Luthic attau [ˈat.tɔ]
• Gothic nahts [naxts] > Luthic nattu [ˈnat.tu]

This is also valid for other CC clusters with similar manner or place.

Absorption of nasals before fricatives

This is the source of such alterations as modern Standard Luthic fimfe [ˈfĩ.ɸe] “five”, monþu [ˈmõ.θu] “mouth” versus Gothic 𐍆𐌹𐌼𐍆 [ˈɸimɸ] “id.”, 𐌼𐌿𐌽𐌸𐍃 [ˈmunθs] “id.” and German fünf [fʏnf] “id.”, Mund [mʊnt] “id.”.

Monophthongization

The diphthongs au, ae and oe [au̯, ae̯, oe̯] were monophthongized (smoothed) to [ɔ, ɛ, e] by Gothic influence, as the Germanic diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ appear as digraphs written ⟨ai⟩ and ⟨au⟩ in Gothic. Researchers have disagreed over whether they were still pronounced as diphthongs /ai̯/ and /au̯/ in Ulfilas' time (4th century) or had become long open-mid vowels: /ɛː/ and /ɔː/: 𐌰𐌹𐌽𐍃 (ains) [ains] / [ɛːns] “one” (German eins, Icelandic einn), 𐌰𐌿𐌲𐍉 (augō) [auɣoː] / [ɔːɣoː] “eye” (German Auge, Icelandic auga). It is most likely that the latter view is correct, as it is indisputable that the digraphs ⟨ai⟩ and ⟨au⟩ represent the sounds /ɛː/ and /ɔː/ in some circumstances (see below), and ⟨aj⟩ and ⟨aw⟩ were available to unambiguously represent the sounds /ai̯/ and /au̯/. The digraph ⟨aw⟩ is in fact used to represent /au/ in foreign words (such as 𐍀𐌰𐍅𐌻𐌿𐍃 (Pawlus) “Paul”), and alternations between ⟨ai⟩/⟨aj⟩ and ⟨au⟩/⟨aw⟩ are scrupulously maintained in paradigms where both variants occur (e.g. 𐍄𐌰𐌿𐌾𐌰𐌽 (taujan) “to do” vs. past tense 𐍄𐌰𐍅𐌹𐌳𐌰 (tawida) “did”). Evidence from transcriptions of Gothic names into Latin suggests that the sound change had occurred very recently when Gothic spelling was standardised: Gothic names with Germanic au are rendered with au in Latin until the 4th century and o later on (Austrogoti > Ostrogoti).

Palatalisation

Early evidence of palatalized pronunciations of /tj kj/ appears as early as the 2nd–3rd centuries AD in the form of spelling mistakes interchanging ⟨ti⟩ and ⟨ci⟩ before a following vowel, as in ⟨tribunitiae⟩ for tribuniciae. This is assumed to reflect the fronting of Latin /k/ in this environment to [c ~ t͡sʲ]. Palatalisation of the velar consonants /k/ and /ɡ/ occurred in certain environments, mostly involving front vowels; additional palatalisation is also found in dental consonants /t/, /d/, /l/ and /n/, however, these are often not palatalised in word initial environment.

• Latin amīcus [äˈmiː.kus̠ ~ äˈmiː.kʊs̠], amīcī [äˈmiː.kiː] > Luthic amicu [ɐˈmi.xu], amici [ɐˈmi.t͡ʃi].
• Gothic giba [ˈɡiβa] > Luthic geva [ˈd͡ʒe.βɐ].
• Latin ratiō [ˈrä.t̪i.oː] > Luthic razione [rɐˈd͡zjo.ne]
• Latin fīlius [ˈfiː.li.us̠ ~ ˈfiː.lʲi.ʊs̠] > Luthic figlu [ˈfiʎ.ʎu].
• Latin līnea [ˈliː.ne.ä ~ ˈlʲiː.ne.ä] , pugnus [ˈpuŋ.nus̠ ~ ˈpʊŋ.nʊs̠], ācrimōnia [äː.kriˈmoː.ni.ä ~ äː.krɪˈmoː.ni.ä] > Luthic ligna [ˈliɲ.ɲɐ], pognu [ˈpoɲ.ɲu], acremogna [ɐ.kreˈmoɲ.ɲɐ].

Labio-velars remain unpalatalised, except in monosyllabic environment:

• Latin quis [kʷis̠ ~ kʷɪs̠] > Luthic ce [t͡ʃe].
• Gothic qiman [ˈkʷiman] > Luthic qemare [kʷeˈma.re ~ kᶣeˈma.re].

In some cases, palatalisation occurs word initially, mainly if /kn/ is the initial cluster:

• Gothic knōþs [knoːθs] > Luthic gnoðe [ˈɲo.ðe].
• Gothic kunnan [ˈkunːan], influenced by Latin (co)gnōscere [koŋˈnoːs̠.ke.re ~ kɔŋˈnoːs̠.kɛ.rɛ] and later Langobardic *knājan */ˈknaːjan/ > Luthic gnoscere [ɲoʃˈʃe.re]
• Langobardic *knohha /ˈknoxːa ~ ˈknɔxːa/ > Luthic gnoccu [ˈɲɔk.ku].

It may not happen if intervocalic:

• Gothic kēlikn [ˈkeːlikn] > Luthic celecna [t͡ʃeˈlek.nɐ].
• Gothic auknan [ˈɔːknan] > Luthic aucnare [ɔkˈna.re].

Lenition

The Gotho-Romance family suffered very few lenitions, but in most cases the stops /p t k/ are lenited to /b d ɡ/ if not in onset position, before or after a sonorant or in intervocalic position as a geminate. A similar process happens with /b/ that is lenited to /v ~ β/ in the same conditions. The unstressed labio-velar /kʷ/ delabialises before hard vowels, as in:

• Gothic ƕan [ʍan] > *[kʷɐn] > Luthic can [kɐn].
• Latin nunquam [ˈnuŋ.kʷä̃ː ~ ˈnʊŋ.kʷä̃ː] > Luthic nogca [ˈnoŋ.kɐ].

Luthic is further affected by the Gorgia Toscana effect, where every plosive is spirantised (or further approximated if voiced). Plosives, however, are not affected if:

• Geminate.
• Labialised.
• Nearby another fricative.
• Nearby a rhotic, a lateral or nasal.
• Stressed and anlaut.

Fortition

In every case, /j/ and /w/ are fortified to /d͡ʒ/ and /v ~ β/, except when triggered by hiatus collapse. The Germanic /xʷ ~ hʷ ~ ʍ/ is also fortified to /kʷ/ in every position; which can be further lenited to /k ~ t͡ʃ/ in the environments given above. The Germanic /h ~ x/ is fortified to /k/ before a rhotic or a lateral, as in:

• Gothic hlaifs [ˈhlɛːɸs] > Luthic claefu [ˈklɛ.ɸu].
• Gothic hriggs [ˈhriŋɡs ~ ˈhriŋks] > Luthic creggu [ˈkreŋ.ɡu].

Coda consonants with similar articulations often sandhi, triggering a kind of syntactic gemination, it also happens with oxytones:

• Ed þû, ce taugis? [e‿θˈθu | t͡ʃe ˈtɔ.d͡ʒis].
• La cittâ stâþ sporca [lɐ t͡ʃitˈta‿sˈsta‿sˈspor.kɐ].

Deletion

In some rare cases, the consonants are fully deleted (elision), as in the verb havere, akin to Italian avere, which followed a very similar paradigm and evolution:

• 1st person indicative present: Latin habeō, Gothic haba, Luthic hô, Italian ho.
• 2nd person indicative present: Latin habēs, Gothic habais, Luthic hais, Italian hai.
• 3rd person indicative present: Latin habet, Gothic habaiþ, Luthic hâþ, Italian ha.

Vowels other than /a/ are often syncopated in unstressed word-internal syllables, especially when in contact with liquid consonants:

• Latin angulus [ˈäŋ.ɡu.ɫ̪us̠ ~ ˈäŋ.ɡʊ.ɫ̪ʊs̠] > Luthic agglu [ˈaŋ.ɡlu].
• Latin speculum [ˈs̠pɛ.ku.ɫ̪ũː ~ ˈs̠pɛ.kʊ.ɫ̪ũː] ~ Luthic speclo [ˈspɛ.klo].
• Latin avunculus [äˈu̯uŋ.ku.ɫ̪us̠ ~ äˈu̯ʊŋ.kʊ.ɫ̪ʊs̠] > Luthic avogclu [ɐˈβoŋ.klu].

Phonotactics

Luthic allows up to three consonants in syllable-initial position, though there are limitations. The syllable structure of Luthic is (C)(C)(C)(G)V(G)(C)(C). As with English, there exist many words that begin with three consonants. Luthic lacks bimoraic (diphthongs and long vowels), as the so-called diphthongs are composed of one semiconsonantal (glide) sound [j] or [w].

Onset

C₁	C₂	C₃
f ~ ɸ v ~ β p b t d k ɡ	r	j w
s	p k	r l
s	f ~ ɸ t	r
z	b	l
z	d ɡ	r
z	m n v ~ β d͡ʒ r l	—
p b f ~ ɸ v ~ β k ɡ	r l	—
ɡ	n l	—
p t k d	r	—
θ ð	v ~ β r	—
t	v ~ β	—
kʷ ɡʷ t͡s t͡ʃ d͡ʒ ʃ r ɲ l ʎ	—	—

CC

• /s/ + any voiceless stop or /f ~ ɸ/;
• /z/ + any voiced stop, /v ~ β d͡ʒ m n l r/;
• /f ~ ɸ v ~ β/, or any stop + /r/;
• /f ~ ɸ v ~ β/, or any stop except /t d/ + /l/;
• f ~ ɸ v ~ β s z/, or any stop or nasal + /j w/;
• In Graeco-Roman words origin which are only partially assimilated, other combinations such as /pn/ (e.g. pneumaticu), /mn/ (e.g. mnemonicu), /tm/ (e.g. tmesi), and /ps/ (e.g. pseudo-) occur.

As an onset, the cluster /s/ + voiceless consonant is inherently unstable. Phonetically, word-internal s+C normally syllabifies as [s.C]. A competing analysis accepts that while the syllabification /s.C/ is accurate historically, modern retreat of i-prosthesis before word initial /s/+C (e.g. miþ isforzȧ “with effort” has generally given way to miþ sforza) suggests that the structure is now underdetermined, with occurrence of /s.C/ or /.sC/ variable “according to the context and the idiosyncratic behaviour of the speakers.”

CCC

• /s/ + voiceless stop or /f ~ ɸ/ + /r/;
• /z/ + voiced stop + /r/;
• /s/ + /p k/ + /l/;
• /z/ + /b/ + /l/;
• /f ~ ɸ v ~ β/ or any stop + /r/ + /j w/.

Nucleus

V₁	V₂	V₃
a ɐ e ɛ	i [j] u [w]	—
o ɔ	i [j]	—
i [j]	e o	—
i [j]	ɐ ɛ ɔ	i [j]
i [j]	u [w]	o
u [w]	ɐ ɛ ɔ	i [j]
u [w]	e o	—
u [w]	i	—

The nucleus is the only mandatory part of a syllable and must be a vowel or a diphthong. In a falling diphthong the most common second elements are /i̯/ or /u̯/. Combinations of /j w/ with vowels are often labelled diphthongs, allowing for combinations of /j w/ with falling diphthongs to be called triphthongs. One view holds that it is more accurate to label /j w/ as consonants and /jV wV/ as consonant-vowel sequences rather than rising diphthongs. In that interpretation, Luthic has only falling diphthongs (phonemically at least, cf. Synaeresis) and no triphthongs.

Coda

C₁	C₂
m n l r	Cₓ
Cₓ	—

Luthic permits a small number of coda consonants. Outside of loanwords, the permitted consonants are:

• The first element of any geminate.
• A nasal consonant that is either /n/ (word-finally) or one that is homorganic to a following consonant.
• /r/ and /l/.
• /s/ (though not before fricatives).

Prosody

Luthic is quasi-paroxytonic, meaning that most words receive stress on their penultimate (second-to-last) syllable. Monosyllabic words tend to lack stress in their only syllable, unless emphasised or accentuated. Enclitic and other unstressed personal pronouns do not affect stress patterns. Some monosyllabic words may have natural stress (even if not emphasised), but it is weaker than those in polysyllabic words.

• rasda (ʀᴀ-sda ~ ʀᴀs-da) /ˈra.zdɐ ~ ˈraz.dɐ/;
• Italia (i-ᴛᴀ-lia) /iˈta.ljɐ/;
• approssimativamente (ap-pros-si-ma-ti-va-ᴍᴇɴ-te) /ɐp.pros.si.mɐ.θi.βɐˈmen.te/.

Compound words have secondary stress on their penultimate syllable. Some suffixes also maintain the suffixed word secondary stress.

• panzar + campo + vagnu > panzarcampovagnu (ᴘᴀɴ-zar-ᴄᴀᴍ-po-ᴠᴀ-ġnu) /ˌpan.t͡sɐrˌkam.poˈβaɲ.ɲu/;
• broþar + -scape > broþarscape (ʙʀᴏ-þar-sᴄᴀ-pe) /ˌbro.θɐrˈska.ɸe/.

Secondary stress is however often omitted by Italian influence. Tetrasyllabic (and beyond) words may have a very weak secondary stress in the fourth-to-last syllable (i.e. two syllables before the main or primary stress).

Research

Ravenna University’s arms

Luthic is a well-studied language, and multiple universities in Italy have departments devoted to Luthic or linguistics with active research projects on the language, mainly in Ravenna, such as the Linguistic Circle of Ravenna (Luthic: Creizzo Rasdavitascapetico Ravennae; Italian: Circolo Linguistico di Ravenna) at Ravenna University, and there are many dictionaries and technological resources on the language. The language council Gafaurdu faul·la Rasda Lûthica also publishes research on the language both nationally and internationally. Academic descriptions of the language are published both in Luthic, Italian and English. The most complete grammar is the Grammatica gli Lûthicae Rasdae (Grammar of the Luthic Language) by Alessandro Fiscar & Luca Vagnar, and it is written in Luthic and contains over 800 pages. Multiple corpora of Luthic language data are available. The Luthic Online Dictionary project provides a curated corpus of 35,000 words.

History

The Ravenna School of Linguistics evolved around Giuvanni Laggobardi and his developing theory of language in linguistic structuralism. Together with Soġnafreþo Rossi he founded the Circle of Linguistics of Ravenna in 1964, a group of linguists based on the model of the Prague Linguistic Circle. From 1970, Ravenna University offered courses in languages and philosophy but the students were unable to finish their studies without going to Accademia della Crusca for their final examinations.

• Ravenna University Circle of Phonological Development (Luthic: Creizzo Sviluppi Phonologici gia Accademia Ravenna) was developed in 1990, however very little research has been done on the earliest stages of phonological development in Luthic.
• Ravenna University Circle of Theology (Luthic: Creizzo Theologiae gia Accademia Ravenna) was developed in 2000 in association with the Ravenna Cathedral or Metropolitan Cathedral of the Resurrection of Our Lord Jesus Christ (Luthic: Cathedrale metropolitana deï Osstassi Unsari Signori Gesusi Christi; Italian: Cattedrale metropolitana della Risurrezione di Nostro Signore Gesù Cristo; Duomo di Ravenna).

Phonological development

Phonological development refers to how children learn to organize sounds into meaning or language (phonology) during their stages of growth.

Phoneme inventory and phonotactics

Word-final consonants are rarely produced during the early stages of word production. Consonants are usually found in word-initial position, or in intervocalic position. At 6 months, infants are also able to make use of prosodic features of the ambient language to break the speech stream they are exposed to into meaningful units, e.g., they are better able to distinguish sounds that occur in stressed vs. unstressed syllables. This means that at 6 months infants have some knowledge of the stress patterns in the speech they are exposed and they have learned that these patterns are meaningful.

10 months

Most consonants are word-initial only: They are voiced stops /d/, /b/ and the nasal /m/. A presence of voiceless stops is also found as /t/, /p/ and rarely /k/; who can be allphones of each other. A preference for a front place of articulation is present. Clicks are also present, although mostly for imitative suckling sounds.

Babbling becomes distinct from previous, less structured vocal play. Initially, syllable structure is limited to CVCV, called reduplicated babbling. Consonant clusters are still absent. Children’s first ten words appear around month 12, and take CVCV format, such as mama “mother”, papa “father” and dada “give me!”.

21 months

More phones now appear: the nasal /n/, the voiceless fricative /t͡ʃ/, who can be an allphone of /t ~ d/; as voice is still not a distinctive feature, and the liquid /l/. The preference for front articulation is still present, triggering palatalisation.

24 months

Fricatives may appear: /f ~ v/ and /s/ (who can be further palatalised to /ʃ/), primarily at intervocalic position. Voice may become a distinctive feature at this stage. Onomatopoeiae are also produced, such as /aw aw/ for dog’s barking; /ow/, or preferably /aj/ for denoting pain. Production of trisyllabic words begins, such as C₁VC₂VC₃V. Consonant clusters are now present and are often subject to consonant harmony, such as -mb-, -nd- and -dr-; however voiced-voiceless clusters are still rare, such as -mp- and -tr-.

30 months

Approximately equal numbers of phones are now produced in word-initial and intervocalic position. Additions to the phonetic inventory are the voiced stop /ɡ/ and a few consonant clusters. Co-articulations are perceived, such as labio-velar plosives. Alveolars and bilabials are the two most common places of articulation. Labiodental and postalveolar production increases throughout development, while velar production decreases. Luthic lenitions also become evident, as more fricatives and approximants are produced. Children develop syllabic segmentation awareness earlier than phonemic segmentation awareness.

Word processes

These phonological processes may happen within a range of 3 to 6 years.

• Nasal assimilation: non-nasal sounds often become nasal sound due to a nasal sound in the word [ˈʁɛn.dɐ] > [ˈnen.nɐ];
• Weak syllable deletion: word-initial and word-terminal unstressed syllables are often omitted [bɐˈna.nɐ] > [ˈna.nɐ];
• Coda deletion: omission of general coda consonant and the final consonant in the word [kɐr] > [kɐ], [ˈbro.θɐr] > [ˈbro.θɐ] ([ˈbro]);
• Consonant harmony: a target word consonant takes on features of another target word consonant , [kɐn] > [kɐŋ], [ˈstɛk.kɐ] > [ˈstɛt.tɐ] ([ˈstɛt ~ ˈstɛ]);
• Coalescence: adjacent consonants are merged into one with similar features [ˈzbaɸ.ɸu] > [ˈβaɸ.ɸu] ([ˈvaɸ.ɸu]);
• Cluster reduction: consonant clusters are often simplifed into a single consonant [oˈrek.klɐ] > [oˈrel.lɐ] ([ˈrel.lɐ]);
• Velar fronting: velar plosives are often replaced by alveolar ones nearby a front vowel [ki] > [ti];
• Stopping or affrication: fricatives are often fortified nearby a front vowel [si] > [ti ~ t͡ʃi];
• Gliding: taps and liquids are replaced by a glide [ˈka.ru] > [ˈka.wu], [ˈaʎ.ʎo] > [ˈaj.jo].

6 years

Children produce mostly adult-like segments. Their ability to produce complex sound sequences and multisyllabic words continues to improve throughout middle childhood.

Typology

Luthic’s link to other Indo-European languages

Luthic has right symmetry, as other VO languages (verb before object) like English.

Correlation	VO language	Examples
Adposition type	prepositions	of..., than..., on...
Order of noun and genitive	noun before genitive	father + of John
Order of adjective and standard of comparison	adjective before standard	taller + than Bob
Order of verb and adpositional phrase	verb before adpositional phrase	slept + on the floor
Order of verb and manner adverb	verb before manner adverb	ran + slowly
Order of copula and predicative	copula before predicate	is + a teacher
Order of auxiliary verb and content verb	auxiliary before content verb	want + to see Mary
Place of adverbial subordinator in clause	clause-initial subordinators	because + Bob has left
Order of noun and relative clause	noun before relative clause	movies + that we saw

WALS

The Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) is a large database of structural (phonological, grammatical, lexical) properties of languages gathered from descriptive materials (such as reference grammars) by a team of 55 authors.

Morphophonological WALS Features

	WALS	Luthic	Italian¹	Romanian¹	English	German	Icelandic¹
Headed		Mixed	Mixed	Mixed	Mixed	Mixed	Mixed
Typology		Analytic (partially)	Analytic (partially)	Analytic (partially)	Analytic (partially)	Analytic (partially)	Analytic (partially)
Isochrony		Syllable	Syllable	Stress	Stress	Stress	Syllable
Pro-drop		Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Mostly (colloquial)	No
Consonant Inventories	1A	Large	Average	Average	Average	Average	Average
Vowel Quality Inventories	2A	Large (7-14)	Average (5-6)	Large (7-14)	Large (7-14)	Large (7-14)	Large (7-14)
Consonant-Vowel Ratio	3A	Moderately high	Average	Average	Low	Low	Low
Voicing in Plosives and Fricatives	4A	In both plosives and fricatives	In both plosives and fricatives	In both plosives and fricatives	In both plosives and fricatives	In both plosives and fricatives	In both plosives and fricatives
Voicing and Gaps in Plosive Systems	5A	None missing in /p t k b d g/	None missing in /p t k b d g/	None missing in /p t k b d g/	None missing in /p t k b d g/	None missing in /p t k b d g/	None missing in /p t k b d g/
Uvular Consonants	6A	Uvular continuants only	None	None	None	Uvular continuants only	None
Glottalised Consonants	7A	No glottalised consonants	No glottalised consonants	No glottalised consonants	No glottalised consonants	No glottalised consonants	No glottalised consonants
Lateral Consonants	8A	/l/, no obstruent laterals	/l/, no obstruent laterals	/l/, no obstruent laterals	/l/, no obstruent laterals	/l/, no obstruent laterals	/l/, no obstruent laterals
The Velar Nasal	9A	No initial velar nasal	No velar nasal	No velar nasal	No initial velar nasal	No initial velar nasal	No initial velar nasal
Vowel Nasalisation	10A	Contrast present	Contrast absent	Contrast absent	Contrast absent	Contrast absent	Contrast absent
Front Rounded Vowels	11A	None	None	None	None	High and mid	High and mid
Syllable Structure	12A	Complex	Moderately complex	Moderately complex	Complex	Complex	Complex
Fixed Stress Locations	14A	No fixed stress	No fixed stress	No fixed stress	No fixed stress	No fixed stress	Initial
Weight-Sensitive Stress	15A	Right-oriented: One of the last three	Right-edge: Ultimate or penultimate	Right-edge: Ultimate or penultimate	Right-oriented: One of the last three	Right-oriented: One of the last three	Fixed stress (no weight-sensitivity)
Weight Factors in Weight-Sensitive Stress Systems	16A	Lexical stress	Lexical stress	Lexical stress	Long vowel or coda consonant	Coda consonant	No weight
Rhythm Types	17A	Undetermined	Undetermined	Undetermined	Trochaic	Trochaic	Trochaic
Absence of Common Consonants	18A	All present	All present	All present	All present	All present	All present
Presence of Uncommon Consonants	19A	‘Th’ sounds	None	None	‘Th’ sounds	None	‘Th’ sounds
Fusion of Selected Inflectional Formatives	20A	Exclusively concatenative	Exclusively concatenative	Exclusively concatenative	Exclusively concatenative	Exclusively concatenative	Exclusively concatenative
Exponence of Tense-Aspect-Mood Inflection	21B	TAM+agreement	TAM+agreement	TAM+agreement	Monoexponential TAM	Monoexponential TAM	Monoexponential TAM
Inflectional Synthesis of the Verb	22A	4-5 categories per word	4-5 categories per word	4-5 categories per word	2-3 categories per word	2-3 categories per word	2-3 categories per word
Locus of Marking in the Clause	23A	Double marking	Double marking	Double marking	Dependent marking	Dependent marking	Dependent marking
Locus of Marking in Possessive Noun Phrases	24A	Dependent marking	Dependent marking	Dependent marking	Dependent marking	Dependent marking	Dependent marking
Locus of Marking: Whole-language Typology	25A	Inconsistent or other	Inconsistent or other	Inconsistent or other	Dependent-marking	Dependent-marking	Dependent-marking
Zero Marking of A and P Arguments	25B	Non-zero marking	Non-zero marking	Non-zero marking	Non-zero marking	Non-zero marking	Non-zero marking
Prefixing vs. Suffixing in Inflectional Morphology	26A	Strongly suffixing	Strongly suffixing	Strongly suffixing	Strongly suffixing	Strongly suffixing	Strongly suffixing
Reduplication	27A	No productive reduplication	No productive reduplication	No productive reduplication	No productive reduplication	No productive reduplication	No productive reduplication
Case Syncretism	28A	Core and non-core	Core and non-core	Core and non-core	Core cases only	Core and non-core	Core and non-core
Syncretism in Verbal Person/Number Marking	29A	Syncretic	Syncretic	Syncretic	Syncretic	Syncretic	Syncretic

¹ Some features and values are stipulated due to lack of resources.

Information rate

The concept of “information density” relates to how languages convey semantic information within the speech signal. Essentially, a language is considered dense if it uses fewer speech elements to convey a given amount of semantic meaning compared to a sparser language. Units such as features or articulatory gestures involve complex multidimensional patterns (such as gestural scores or feature matrices) that are unsuitable for computing average information density during speech communication. In contrast, each speech sample can be described in terms of discrete sequences of segments or syllables, which are potential candidates, although their exact significance and role in communication remain uncertain. Therefore, this study opts to utilise syllables for both methodological and theoretical reasons.

Assuming that for each text T_k, composed of σ_k(L) syllables in language L, the over-all semantic content S_k is equivalent from one language to another, the average quantity of information per syllable for T_k and for language L is calculated as in 1.

Since S_k is language-independent, it was eliminated by computing a normalised information density (ID) using Vietnamese (VI) as the benchmark. For each text T_k and language L, ID^k_L resulted from a pairwise comparison of the text lengths (in terms of syllables) in L and VI respectively.

Next, the average information density ID_L (in terms of linguistic information per syllable) with reference to VI is defined as the mean of ID^k_L evaluated for the K texts.

Language	IDL	Syllabic rate	Information rate
English	0.91	6.19	1.08
French	0.74	7.18	0.99
Italian	0.72	6.99	0.96
Spanish	0.63	7.82	0.98
German	0.79	5.67	0.90
Luthic	0.81	6.45	0.97
Vietnamese	1 (reference)	5.22	1 (reference)

Another factor is the syllabic complexity index, being measured in two ways: type and token.

1. Type complexity: considers each unique syllable only once when calculating the average complexity.
2. Token complexity: takes into account the frequency of occurrence of each unique syllable in the corpus by weighting the complexity accordingly.

Language	Syllable inventory size	Type complexity	Token complexity
English	7,931	3.70	2.48
French	5,646	3.50	2.21
Italian	2,719	3.50	2.30
Spanish	1,593	3.30	2.40
German	4,207	3.70	2.68
Luthic	4,129	3.60	2.40

The Handbook of Luthic Linguistics, Culture and Religion

Aena lettura essenziale summa importanza, inu andarogiugga.
“An essential lecture, of the highest importance, without equivalents.”

“

”

Lucia Giamane

In 2012, a collaboration of the Circle of Linguistics, the Circle of Phonological Development and the Circle of Theology resulted in The Handbook of Luthic Linguistics, Culture and Religion (Luthic: Il Handobuoco Rasdavitascapeticae, Colturae e Religioni Lûthicae) initiated in 2005 by Lucia Giamane, designed to illuminate an area of knowledge that encompasses both general linguistics and specialised, philologically oriented linguistics as well as those fields of science that have developed in recent decades from the increasingly extensive research into the diverse phenomena of communicative action.

Mnemonics

A mnemonic device (/nɪˈmɒnɪk/ nih-MON-ik) or memory device is any learning technique that aids information retention or retrieval in the human memory, often by associating the information with something that is easier to remember.

A Luthic mnemonic verse or mnemonic rhyme is a mnemonic device for teaching and remembering Luthic grammar. Such mnemonics have been considered by teachers to be an effective technique for schoolchildren to learn the complex rules of Luthic accidence and syntax. Mnemonics may be helpful in learning foreign languages, for example by transposing difficult foreign words with words in a language the learner knows already, also called “cognates” which are very common in Romance languages and other Germanic languages. A useful such technique is to find linkwords, words that have the same pronunciation in a known language as the target word, and associate them visually or auditorially with the target word; such tecniques have been applied into Luthic learning for children, Italian and other dialleti speakers.

A Luthic rhyme for remembering the masculine nominative singular, masculine accusative singular and neuter nominato-accusative singular is given by many teachers during school first years:

buonu: veglo vessare
buono: veglo stare
ac e buono? veglo mangiare!

Translated it into English as follows:

good: I want to be
in a good place: I want to be in
but what about a good food? I want to eat!

The Ravenna University Circle of Phonological Development also found out that mnemonics can be used in aiding children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other neurodevelopmental disorders, patients with memory deficits that could be caused by head injuries, strokes, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis and other neurological conditions, however, in the case of stroke patients, the results did not reach statistical significance.

Grammar

Luthic Grammar is the body of rules describing the properties of the Luthic language. Luthic words can be divided into the following lexical categories: articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

Nouns

Luthic grammar is almost typical of the grammar of Romance languages in general. Cases exist for personal pronouns (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive), and unlike other Romance languages (except Romanian), they also exist for nouns, but are often ignored in common speech, mainly because of the Italian influence, a language who lacks noun cases. There are three basic classes of nouns in Luthic, referred to as genders, masculine, feminine and neuter. Masculine nouns typically end in -u, with plural marked by -i, feminine nouns typically end in -a, with plural marked by -ae, and neuter nouns typically end in -o, with plural marked by -a. Some feminine nouns, together with masculine nouns, the so called u-stems may also typically end in -u, with the plural marked by -us, while neuter u-stems have the plural marked by -ua. A fifth category of nouns is unmarked for gender, ending in -e in the singular and -i in the plural; a variant of the unmarked declension is found ending in -r in the singular and -i in the plural, it lacks neuter nouns:

Examples:

Definition	Gender	Singular nominative	Plural nominative
Son	Masculine	Figlu	Figli
Flower	Feminine	Blomna	Blomnae
Fruit	Neuter	Acrano	Acrana
Port	Masculine	Portu	Portus
Hand	Feminine	Manu	Manus
Wealth	Neuter	Faeu	Faeua
Love	Masculine	Amore	Amori
Art	Feminine	Crafte	Crafti
Water	Neuter	Vadne	Vadni
King	Masculine	Rege	Regi
Heart	Neuter	Haertene	Haerteni
Father	Masculine	Faðar	Faðari
Mother	Feminine	Moðar	Moðari

Declension paradigm in formal Standard Luthic:

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n	i-stem unm	r-stem unm
Singular	nom.	dagu	geva	hauviþo	crafte	broþar
	acc.	dago	geva	hauviþo	crafte	broþare
	dat.	daga	geva	hauviþa	crafti	broþari
	gen.	dagi	gevae	hauviþi	crafti	broþari
Plural	nom.	dagi	gevae	hauviþa	crafti	broþari
	acc.	dagos	gevas	hauviþa	craftes	broþares
	dat.	dagom	gevam	hauviþom	craftivo	broþarivo
	gen.	dagoro	gevaro	hauviþoro	craftem	broþarem

The declension paradigm of u-stems nouns is simplier than other nouns, since the nominative is identical to the accusative.

Number	Case	u-stem m	u-stem f	u-stem n
Singular	nom.	portu	manu	faeu
	acc.	portu	manu	faeu
	dat.	portau	manau	faeau
	gen.	portaus	manaus	faeaus
Plural	nom.	portus	manus	faeua
	acc.	portus	manus	faeua
	dat.	portum	manum	faeum
	gen.	portivo	manivo	faeivo

A small class of quasi-irregular nouns is found, itself being a variant of the unmarked class. The nominative forms always are oxytones and hide their consonant stem -d-. These are often called d-stem:

Number	Case	d-stem unm	d-stem unm	d-stem unm
Singular	nom.	piê	fê	-tâ
	acc.	piede	fede	-tade
	dat.	piedi	fedi	-tadi
	gen.	piedi	fedi	-tadi
Plural	nom.	piedi	fedi	-tadi
	acc.	piedes	fedes	-tades
	dat.	piedivo	fedivo	-tadivo
	gen.	piedem	fedem	-tadem

Pronouns

Luthic, like Latin and Gothic, inherited the full set of Indo-European pronouns: personal pronouns (including reflexive pronouns for each of the three grammatical persons), possessive pronouns, both simple and compound demonstratives, relative pronouns, interrogatives and indefinite pronouns. Each follows a particular pattern of inflection (partially mirroring the noun declension), much like other Indo-European languages. Although Luthic inherited a paradigm extremely close to Gothic (and Common Germanic), the Italic influence is visible in the genitive and plural formations.

PIE	Latin	Gothic	German	Luthic
*u̯ei̯ nom, *n̥s acc	nōs nom/acc	𐍅𐌴𐌹𐍃 nom, 𐌿𐌽𐍃 acc	wir nom, uns acc	vi nom, unse acc

Personal pronouns of Standard Luthic

Number	Case	1st person	2st person	3rd person			reflexive
				masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	ic	þû	is	ia	ata	—
	acc.	mic	þuc	inȯ	ina	ata	sic
	dat.	mis	þus	ia	ia	ia	sis
	dat.	meina	þeina	eis	isae	eis	seina
Singular	nom.	vi	gi	eis	isae	ia	—
	acc.	unse	isve	eis	isas	ia	sic
	dat.	unsis	isvis	eis	eis	eis	sis
	gen.	unsara	isvara	eisôro	eisâro	eisôro	seina

Pronouns often a clitic with imperative or after non-finite forms of verbs, being applied as enclitics.

Clitic pronouns

Number	Case	1st person	2st person	3rd person			reflexive
				masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	acc.	mi	þi ti¹ di²	lo	la	lo	si
	dat.	mi	þi ti¹ di²	gli	gle	gli	si
	gen.	—	—	ne	ne	ne	ne
Plural	acc.	ci	vi	los	las	la	si
	dat.	ci	vi	li	li	li	si
	gen.	—	—	ne	ne	ne	ne

¹ before voiceless fricatives

² before voiced fricatives or sonorants

• These forms are often ignored or regarded as hypercorrection, commoner in Italian influenced sociolects.

Poetic variants

Number	Case	1st person	2st person	3rd person			reflexive
				masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	io	þû	is	ia	ata	—
	acc.	mi	þi	ino	ina	ata	si
	dat.	mi	þi	ia	ia	ia	si
	dat.	meina	þeina	eis	isae	eis	seina
Singular	nom.	nôi	vôi	eis	isae	ia	—
	acc.	nôi	vôi	eis	isas	ia	si
	dat.	ci	vi	eis	eis	eis	si
	gen.	nosâra	vosâra	eisôro	eisâro	eisôro	seina

• These forms are also common in everday speech due to Italian influence. Nevertheless, both declension paradigmata are considered to be correct. Main differences are emphasised.

Some Luthic speakers may have T–V distinction (the contextual use of different pronouns that exists in some languages and serves to convey formality or familiarity).

Unequal authority		Equal authority
Employer	Costumer	Parent	Elder sibling
T↓V ↑V	T↓V ↑V	T↓↑V	T↓↑V
Employee	Waiter	Child	Younger sibling

The superior has choice on T–V while the subordinate has not; except if talking to one another, then both subordinates can choice. In Luthic, þû is only used as an informal pronoun. It is only addressed to persons that one knows well, like family members and friends. It is also most commonly used among peers as a sign of equality, especially among young people. In formal situations with strangers and acquaintances, vôi is used instead. The pronoun gi was used in formal situations; this was once the abundant usage, but it has completely fallen out of use. In the plural form, gi is a T pronoun.

Possessive pronouns of Standard Luthic

Number	Case	1st person singular			2st person singular			3rd person singular
		masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	meinu	meina	meino	þeinu	þeina	þeino	seinu	seina	seina
	acc.	meino	meina	meino	þeino	þeina	þeino	seino	seina	seino
	dat.	meina	meina	meina	þeina	þeina	þeina	seina	seina	seina
	gen.	meini	meinae	meini	þeini	þeinae	þeini	seini	seinae	seini
Plural	nom.	meini	meinae	meina	þeini	þeinae	þeina	seini	seinae	seina
	acc.	meinos	meinas	meina	þeinos	þeinas	þeina	seinos	seinas	seina
	dat.	meinom	meinam	meinom	þeinom	þeinam	þeinom	seinom	seinam	seinom
	gen.	meinoro	meinaro	meinoro	þeinoro	þeinaro	þeinoro	seinoro	seinaro	seinoro

Possessive pronouns of Standard Luthic

Number	Case	1st person plural			2st person plural			3rd person plural
		masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	unsar	unsara	unsaro	isvar	isvara	isvaro	seinu	seina	seino
	acc.	unsare	unsara	unsaro	isvare	isvara	isvaro	seino	seina	seino
	dat.	unsari	unsara	unsara	isvari	isvara	isvara	seina	seina	seina
	gen.	unsari	unsarae	unsari	isvari	isvarae	isvari	seini	seinae	seini
Plural	nom.	unsari	unsarae	unsara	isvari	isvarae	isvara	seini	seinae	seina
	acc.	unsares	unsaras	unsara	isvares	isvaras	isvara	seinos	seinas	seina
	dat.	unsarivo	unsaram	unsarom	isvarivo	isvaram	isvarom	seinom	seinam	seinom
	gen.	unsarem	unsararo	unsaroro	isvarem	isvararo	isvaroro	seinoro	seinaro	seinoro

The pronouns unsar, isvar have an irregular declension, being declined like an unmarked adjective in the masculine gender and marked in the other genders. Every possessive pronoun is declined like an o-stem adjective for masculine and neuter gender, while its feminine counterpart is declined as an a-stem adjective

Poetic variants

Number	Case	1st person singular			2st person singular			3rd person singular
		masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	miu	mia	mio	þuu¹	þua	þuo	suu²	sua	suo
	acc.	mio	mia	mio	þuo	þua	þuo	suo	sua	suo
	dat.	mia	mia	mia	þua	þua	þua	sua	sua	sua
	gen.	miei³	miae	miei³	þui	þuae	þui	sui	suae	sui
Plural	nom.	miei³	miae	mia	þui	þuae	þua	sui	suae	sua
	acc.	mios	mias	mia	þuos	þuas	þua	suos	suas	sua
	dat.	miom	miam	miom	þuom	þuam	þuom	suom	suam	suom
	gen.	mioro	miaro	mioro	þuoro	þuaro	þuoro	suoro	suaro	suoro

¹ pronounced [ˈθu.u]

² pronounced [ˈsu.u]

³ pronounced [miˈi]

Poetic variants

Number	Case	1st person plural			2st person plural			3rd person plural
		masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	nostru	nostra	nostro	vostru	vostra	vostro	suu	sua	suo
	acc.	nostro	nostra	nostro	vostro	vostra	vostro	suo	sua	suo
	dat.	nostra	nostra	nostra	vostra	vostra	vostra	sua	sua	sua
	gen.	nostri	nostrae	nostri	vostri	vostrae	vostri	sui	suae	sui
Plural	nom.	nostri	nostrae	nostra	vostri	vostrae	vostra	sui	suae	sua
	acc.	nostros	nostras	nostra	vostros	vostras	vostra	suos	suas	sua
	dat.	nostrom	nostram	nostrom	vostrom	vostram	vostrom	suom	suam	suom
	gen.	nostroro	nostraro	nostroro	vostroro	vostraro	vostroro	suoro	suaro	suoro

Interrogative and indefinite pronouns are indeclinable by case and number:

Interrogative pronouns of Standard Luthic

Interrogative pronouns	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
What	ce	ce	ce
What (archaic or dialectical)	che	che	che
Who	qu	qa	qo
Whom	ci	ci	ci
Which	carge	carge	carge
Whose	cogiu	cogia	cogio

Indefinite pronouns of Standard Luthic

Indefinite pronouns	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Each	casu	casa	caso
Every	cargisu	cargisa	cargiso
Whoever/Whatever	þecargisu	þecargisa	þecargiso

The relative pronoun ei is fully indeclinable, it is sometimes called “common relative particle”.

Luthic has a Proximal-Medial-Distal demonstrative system:

Demonstrative pronouns of Standard Luthic

Number	Case	Proximal			Medial			Distal
		masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	su	sa	þata	este	esta	esto	giaenu	giaena	giaeno
	acc.	þo	þa	þata	este	esta	esto	giaeno	giaena	giaeno
	dat.	þammo	þisae	þammo	esti	esta	esta	giaena	giaena	giaena
	gen.	þis	þisae	þis	estis	estae	esti	giaeni	giaenae	giaeni
Plural	nom.	þi	þae	þa	esti	estae	esta	giaeni	giaenae	giaena
	acc.	þos	þas	þa	estes	estas	esta	giaenos	giaenas	giaena
	dat.	þom	þam	þom	estivo	estam	estom	giaenom	giaenam	giaenom
	gen.	þisaro	þisara	þisaro	estem	estaro	estoro	giaenoro	giaenaro	giaenoro

Articles

Luthic articles are used similarly to the English articles, a and the. However, they are declined differently according to the number, gender and case of their nouns.

Number	Case	Indefinite			Definite
		masculine	feminine	neuter	masculine	feminine	neuter
Singular	nom.	aenu	aena	aeno	il	la	lata, ata
	acc.	aeno	aena	aeno	lo	la	lata, ata
	dat.	aena	aena	aena	la	la	la
	gen.	aeni	aenae	aeni	gli, i	gli, i	gli, i
Plural	nom.	aeni	aenae	aena	gli, i	lae	la
	acc.	aenos	aenas	aena	los	las	la
	dat.	aenom	aenam	aenom	lom	lam	lom
	gen.	aenoro	aenaro	aenoro	loro	loro	loro

Adjectives

In Luthic, an adjective can be placed before or after the noun. The unmarked placement for most adjectives is after the noun. Placing the adjective after the noun can alter its meaning or indicate restrictiveness of reference.

• Aenu buocu rossu “a red book” (unmarked)
• Aenu rossu buocu “a book that is red” (marked)

Adjectives are inflected for case, gender and number, the paradigmata are identical to the nominal paradigmata.

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n	i-stem unm	r-stem unm
Singular	nom.	rossu	rossa	rosso	felice	polchar
	acc.	rosso	rossa	rosso	felice	polchare
	dat.	rossa	rossa	rossa	felici	polchari
	gen.	rossi	rossae	rossi	felici	polchari
Plural	nom.	rossi	rossae	rossa	felici	polchari
	acc.	rossos	rossas	rossa	felices	polchares
	dat.	rossom	rossam	rossom	felicivo	polcharivo
	gen.	rossoro	rossaro	rossoro	felicem	polcharem

Luthic has two grammatical constructions for expressing comparison: comparative and superlative. The suffixes -izo (the “comparative”) and -issimo (the “superlative”) are of Indo-European origin and are cognate with the Latin suffixes -ior and -issimus and Ancient Greek -ῑ́ων (-īōn) and -ῐστος (-istos). This system also contains a number of irregular forms, mainly because of suppletion.

Regular examples are:

• rossu' “red” > rossizu “redder”
• rossu “red” > rossissimu “reddest”
• polchar “beautiful” > polcharizu “more beautiful”
• polchar “beautiful” > polcharissimu “most beautiful”

Irregular examples are:

• buonu “good” > betizu “better”
• buonu “good” > betissimu “best”
• malu “bad” > vaersizu “worse”
• malu “bad” > vaersissimu “worst”

Comparative

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n
Singular	nom.	-izu	-iza	-izo
	acc.	-izo	-iza	-izo
	dat.	-iza	-iza	-iza
	gen.	-izi	-izae	-izi
Plural	nom.	-izi	-izae	-iza
	acc.	-izos	-izas	-iza
	dat.	-izom	-izam	-izom
	gen.	-izoro	-izaro	-izoro

Superlative

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n
Singular	nom.	-issimu	-issima	-issimo
	acc.	-issimo	-issima	-issimo
	dat.	-issima	-issima	-issima
	gen.	-issimi	-issimae	-issimi
Plural	nom.	-issimi	-issimae	-issima
	acc.	-issimos	-issimas	-issima
	dat.	-issimom	-issimam	-issimom
	gen.	-issimoro	-issimaro	-issimoro

Numerals

Standard Luthic numbers

#	Cardinal		Ordinal
	Word	Declension	Word	Declension
0	zephero	o-stem adjective, singulare tantum	zepherêsimo	o-stem adjective
1	aenu	o-stem adjective	fromu	o-stem adjetive
2	tvi	o-stem adjective, plurale tantum	anþar	r-stem adjetive
3	þreis	indeclinable	þrigiane	i-stem adjetive
4	fidvor	indeclinable	fidvorêsimu	o-stem adjective
5	fimfe	indeclinable	fimfêsimu	o-stem adjective
6	sê	indeclinable	sestu	o-stem adjective
7	siu	indeclinable	siudu	o-stem adjective
8	attau	indeclinable	attudu	o-stem adjective
9	niu	indeclinable	niudu	o-stem adjective
10	ziu	indeclinable	ziudu	o-stem adjective
11	aellefe	indeclinable	aelleftu	o-stem adjective
12	tvelefe	indeclinable	tveleftu	o-stem adjective
13	þreiziu	indeclinable	þreiziudu	o-stem adjective
14	fidvorziu	indeclinable	fidvorziudu	o-stem adjective
15	fimfeziu	indeclinable	fimfeziudu	o-stem adjective
16	seziu	indeclinable	seziudu	o-stem adjective
17	setteziu	indeclinable	setteziudu	o-stem adjective
18	tvedivinta	indeclinable	tvedivintêsimu	o-stem adjective
19	aendivinta	indeclinable	aendivintêsimu	o-stem adjective
20	vinta	indeclinable	vintêsimu	o-stem adjective
28	tvediþreinta	indeclinable	tvediþreintêsimu	o-stem adjective
29	aendiþreinta	indeclinable	aendiþreintêsimu	o-stem adjective
30	þreinta	indeclinable	þreintêsimu	o-stem adjective
38	tvedifidvorinta	indeclinable	tvedifidvorintêsimu	o-stem adjective
39	aendifidvorinta	indeclinable	aendifidvorintêsimu	o-stem adjective
40	fidvorinta	indeclinable	fidvorintêsimu	o-stem adjective
50	fimfinta	indeclinable	fimfintêsimu	o-stem adjective
60	sessanta	indeclinable	sessantêsimu	o-stem adjective
70	siunta	indeclinable	siuntêsimu	o-stem adjective
80	attanta	indeclinable	attantêsimu	o-stem adjective
90	niunta	indeclinable	niuntêsimu	o-stem adjective
98	tvedihondu	o-stem adjective	tvedihondêsimu	o-stem adjective
99	aendihondu	o-stem adjective	aendihondêsimu	o-stem adjective
100	hondu	o-stem adjective	hondêsimu	o-stem adjective

• Adverbial numbers are formed together with the noun vece: aena vece “once”, tvae veci “twice”.
• Multiplier numbers are formed together with the noun falþu: aenu falþu “single, onefold”, hondi falþi “centuple, hundredfold”. This noun was originally a suffix, compare Gothic 𐌰𐌹𐌽𐍆𐌰𐌻𐌸𐍃 (aenfalþs), English onefold, Icelandic einfaldur.
• Distributive numbers are formed together with the adjective falþoleicu: þreis falþoleici “triply”.
• Collective numbers are formed together with the adjective somu: tvelefe somi “dozen”.
• Fractional numbers are formed together with the adjective integru: fidvor integri “quarter”.

Standard Luthic large numbers

#	Cardinal		Ordinal
	Word	Declension	Word	Declension
200	tvihondi α	o-stem adjective, plurale tantum	tvihondêsimu β	o-stem adjective
500	fimfehondi γ	o-stem adjective, plurale tantum	fimfehondêsimu	o-stem adjective
1 000	mille	i-stem	millêsimu	o-stem adjective
2 000	tvimilli α	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	tvimillêsimu β	o-stem adjective
5 000	fimfemilli γ	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	fimfemillêsimu	o-stem adjective
10 000	ziumilli γ	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	ziumillêsimu	o-stem adjective
20 000	vintamilli γ	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	vintamillêsimu	o-stem adjective
50 000	fimfintamilli γ	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	fimfintamillêsimu	o-stem adjective
100 000	hondimilli α	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	hondimillêsimu β	o-stem adjective
200 000	tvihondimilli δ	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	tvihondimillêsimu β	o-stem adjective
500 000	fimfehondimilli ε	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	fimfehondimillêsimu β	o-stem adjective
106	millione	i-stem adjective	millionêsimu	o-stem adjective
2 x 106	tvimillioni α	i-stem adjective, plurale tantum	tvimillionêsimu β	o-stem adjective
109	milliarde	i-stem adjective	milliardêsimu	o-stem adjective
1012	billione	i-stem adjective	billionêsimu	o-stem adjective
1015	billiarde	i-stem adjective	billiardêsimu	o-stem adjective
1019	trillione	i-stem adjective	trillionêsimu	o-stem adjective

^α Both elements are declinable, e.g. tvaehondae, tvahonda;

^β Only the last element is declinable, e.g. tvihondêsima, tvihondêsimoro;

^γ The first element is indeclinable;

^δ All the three elements are declinable, e.g. tvarohondaromillem, tvoshondosmilles;

^ε Only the two last elements are declinable, e.g. fimfehondommillivo.

Luthic uses the long scale, unlike English that uses the short scale instead. The long and short scales are two of several naming systems for integer powers of ten which use some of the same terms for different magnitudes. Luthic has a verbal system similar to Italian, German, Dutch and French:

Short and long scale usage throughout the world

  Long scale

  Short scale

  Short scale with milliard instead of billion

  Both scales

  Other naming system

  No data

	Luthic	Italian	German	Dutch	French	English
106	millione	milione	Million	miljoen	million	million
109	milliarde	miliardo	Milliarde	miljard	milliard	billion
1012	billione	bilione	Billion	biljoen	billion	trillion

Combinations of a decade and a unit are constructed in a regular way: the decade comes first followed by the unit. No spaces are written between them. Vowel collision triggers an interpunct. For example:

• 28 vinta·attau (lit “twenty eight”)
• 73 siuntaþreis (lit “seventy three”)
• 82 attantatvi (lit “eighty two”)
• 95 niuntafimfe (lit “ninety five”)

Combinations of a hundred and a lower number are expressed by just placing them together, with the hundred coming first.

• 111 honduaellefe
• 164 hondusessantafidvor
• 225 tvihondivintafimfe
• 788 siuhondi·attanta·attau

Combinations of a thousand and a lower number are expressed by placing them together, with the thousand coming first. A space is written between them.

• 1 066 mille sessantasê
• 9 011 niumilli aellefe
• 61 500 sessanta·aenomilli fimfehondi
• 123 456 hondivintaþreismilli fidvorhondifimfintasê

For millions and above, combinations with lower numbers are much the same as with the thousands.

• 123 456 789 hondivintaþreis millioni fidvorhondifimfintasêhondi siuhondiniunta·attau
• 10 987 654 321 ziu milliardi niuhondi·attantasiumillioni sehondifimfintafidvorhondi þreishondivinta·aenu

When alone, numbers are always in the masculine gender, however numbers always agree in gender and in case (if declinable) with the head noun. For example:

• aenu vaere (“one man”)
• aena qena (“one woman”)
• aenu harge hondom vaerivo (“an army [composed] of hundred men”)
• il meinu hareme hâþ tvashondas qenas (“my harem has two hundred women”)

Compound numbers have both elements declined (if possible):

tvihondi, tvaehondae, tvahonda

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n
Plural	nom.	tvihondi	tvaehondae	tvahonda
	acc.	tvoshondos	tvashondas	tvahonda
	dat.	tvomhondom	tvamhondam	tvomhondom
	gen.	tvorohondoro	tvarohondaro	tvorohondoro

Verbs

Luthic verbs have a high degree of inflection, the majority of which follows one of three common patterns of conjugation. Luthic conjugation is affected by voice, mood, person, tense, number, aspect and occasionally gender.

The four classes of verbs (conjugation’s patterns) are distinguished by the infinitive’s endings form of the verb:

• 1st conjugation: -are (þagcare “to think”);
• 2nd conjugation: -ere (credere “to believe”);
• 3rd conjugation: -ore (holore “to accuse”);
• 4th conjugation: -ire (dormire “to sleep”).

Additionally, Luthic has a number of verbs that do not follow predictable patterns in all conjugation classes, most markedly the present and the past. Often classified together as irregular verbs, their irregularities occur to different degrees, with forms of vessare “to be”, and somewhat less extremely, havere “to have”, the least predictable. Others, such as ganare “to go”, stare “to stay, to stand”, taugiare “to do, to make”, and numerous others, follow various degrees of regularity within paradigms, largely due to suppletion, historical sound change or analogical developments.

Present

The present is used for:

• Events happening in the present;
• Habitual actions;
• Current states of being and conditions;
• Actions planned to occur in the future.

Active Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagco	credo	holo	dormo	im	hô	gô	stô	taugiȯ
þû	þagcas	credes	holos	dormis	is	hais	gâs	stais	taugis
is	þagcat	credet	holot	dormit	ist	hâþ	gâþ	stâþ	taugit
vi	þagcamos	credemos	holomos	dormimos	ismos	haemos	gamos	stamos	taugiamos
gi	þagcates	credetes	holotos	dormites	istes	haetes	gates	states	taugiates
eis	þagcanno	credonno	holonno	dormonno	sonno	hanno	ganno	stonno	taugionno

Passive Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcara	credera	holora	dormira	—	havara	andara	—	taugiara
þû	þagcasa	credesa	holosa	dormisa	—	havasa	andasa	—	taugiasa
is	þagcaða	credeða	holoða	dormiða	—	havaða	andaða	staða	taugiaða
vi	þagcanða	credenða	holonða	dorminða	—	havanða	andanða	—	taugianða
gi	þagcanða	credenða	holonða	dorminða	—	havanða	andanða	—	taugianða
eis	þagcanða	credenða	holonða	dorminða	—	havanða	andanða	stanða	taugianða

Present subjunctive

Used for subordinate clauses of the present to express opinion, possibility, desire, or doubt. The Subjunctive is almost always preceded by the common relative particle.

Active Subjunctive

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagci	creda	holuȯ	dorma	sia	abbia	vada	stia	taugia
þû	þagcis	credas	holuas	dormas	sias	abbias	vadas	stias	taugias
is	þagcit	credat	holuat	dormat	siaþ	abbiat	vadat	stiaþ	taugiat
vi	þagciamos	crediamos	holuamos	dormamos	siamos	abbiamos	andiamos	stiamos	taugiaumos
gi	þagciates	crediates	holuates	dormates	siates	abbiates	andiates	stiates	taugiautes
eis	þagcinno	credanno	holanno	dormanno	sianno	abbianno	vadanno	stianno	taugianno

Passive Subjunctive

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcira	credara	holuora	dormara	—	abbaera	vadara	—	taugiaura
þû	þagcisa	credasa	holuasa	dormasa	—	abbaesa	vadasa	—	taugiausa
is	þagciða	credaða	holuaða	dormaða	—	abbaeða	vadaða	stiaða	taugiauða
vi	þagcinða	credianða	holuonða	dormanða	—	abbaenða	andianða	—	taugiaunða
gi	þagcinða	credianða	holuonða	dormanða	—	abbaenða	andianða	—	taugiaunða
eis	þagcinða	credianða	holuonða	dormanða	—	abbaenða	andianða	stianða	taugiaunða

Present conditional

Used for events that are dependent upon another event occurring. The conditional is also used for politely asking for something (as in English: “could I please have a glass of water?”)

Active Conditinal

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagceria	crederia	holoria	dormiria	saria	haveria	garia	staria	tavaria
þû	þagcerias	crederias	holorias	dormirias	sarias	haverias	garias	starias	tavarias
is	þagceriat	crederiat	holoriat	dormiriat	sariat	haveriat	gariat	stariat	taveriat
vi	þagceriamos	crederiamos	holoriamos	dormiriamos	sariamos	haveriamos	gariamos	stariamos	tavariamos
gi	þagceriates	crederiates	holoriates	dormiriates	sariates	haveriates	gariates	stariates	tavariates
eis	þagcerianno	crederianno	holorianno	dormirianno	sarianno	haverianno	garianno	starianno	tavarianno

Passive Conditinal

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagceriara	crederiara	holoriara	dormiriara	—	haveriara	gariara	—	tavariara
þû	þagceriasa	crederiasa	holoriasa	dormiriasa	—	haveriasa	gariasa	—	tavariasa
is	þagceriaða	crederiaða	holoriaða	dormiriaða	—	haveriaða	gariaða	stariaða	taveriaða
vi	þagcerianða	crederianða	holorianða	dormirianða	—	haverianða	garianða	—	tavarianða
gi	þagcerianða	crederianða	holorianða	dormirianða	—	haverianða	garianða	—	tavarianða
eis	þagcerianða	crederianða	holorianða	dormirianða	—	haverianða	garianða	starianða	tavarianða

• vessare lacks a passive voice form;
• stare passive voice form is only impersonal.

Present perfect

The present perfect is used for single actions or events (sa maurgina im ganatu a scuola “I went to school this morning”), or change in state (sic ist þvaersotu can ata iȧ hô rogiatu “he got angry when I told him that”), contrasting with the imperfect which is used for habits (eggiavo bicicletta a scuola alla maurgina “I used to go to school by bike every morning”), or repeated actions, not happening at a specific time (sic þvaersovat alla vece ei, giuveðar can ata ia rogiavat “he got angry every time someone told him that”).

Past participle

The past participle is used to form the compound pasts (e.g. hô tavito “I have done”). Regular verbs follow a predictable pattern, but there are many verbs with an irregular past participle.

• 1st conjugation: -atu (þagcatu “thought”);
• 2nd conjugation: -utu (credutu “believed”);
• 3rd conjugation: -otu (holotu “accused”);
• 4th conjugation: -itu (dormitu “slept”);
• vessare and stare have both statu;
• qemare (“to come”) has qemutu;
• havere has havutu;
• taugiare has tavitu.

-ato, -uto, -oto, -ito declension

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n
Singular	nom.	-atu, -utu, -otu, -itu	-ata, -uta, -ota, -ita	-ato, -uto, -oto, -ito
	acc.	-ato, -uto, -oto, -ito	-ata, -uta, -ota, -ita	-ato, -uto, -oto, -ito
	dat.	-ata, -uta, -ota, -ita	-ata, -uta, -ota, -ita	-ata, -uta, -ota, -ita
	gen.	-ati, -uti, -oti, -iti	-atae, -utae, -otae, -itae	-ati, -uti, -oti, -iti
Plural	nom.	-ati, -uti, -oti, -iti	-atae, -utae, -otae, -itae	-ata, -uta, -ota, -ita
	acc.	-atos, -utos, -otos, -itos	-atas, -utas, -otas, -itas	-ata, -uta, -ota, -ita
	dat.	-atom, -utom, -otom, -itom	-atam, -utam, -otam, -itam	-atom, -utom, -otom, -itom
	gen.	-atoro, -utoro, -otoro, -itoro	-ataro, -utaro, -otaro, -itaro	-atoro, -utoro, -otoro, -itoro

Except with an immediately preceding third person pronominal direct object, the participle always ends in -u.

All transitive verbs and most intransitive verbs form the present perfect by combining the auxiliary verb havere “to have” in the present tense with the past participle of the transitive verb. A small number of intransitive verbs, namely vessare itself and verbs indicating motion (qemare “to come”, ganare “to go”, affargiare “to arrive”, etc.) use the auxiliary verb vessare instead of havere. The past participle in this agrees with gender and number of the subject. Passive forms always use havere.

Imperfect

The Imperfect fuses past tense with imperfective aspect and is used for:

• Repeated or habitual actions in the past;
• Ongoing actions in the past and ongoing actions in the past that are eventually interrupted;
• States of being and conditions in the past, including weather, time, age.

The difference between imperfective and perfective aspects can be illustrated clearly with the verb vitare “to know”. The Italian imperfect expresses being in possession of knowledge in the past, while the perfective expresses the moment of acquiring the knowledge.

Imperfective: Vitavo la vera. “I knew the truth.” Perfective: Hô vitatu la vera. “I found out the truth.”

The Imperfect is, in most cases, formed by taking the stem along with the thematic vowel and adding -v- + the ending of the -are verbs in the present tense (with -amos instead of -iamos). There are no irregular conjugations in the Imperfect except for a few forms inherited from Gothic weak verbs, suppletion, and vessare, which uses the stem er- and -v- appears only in 1st and 2nd person plurals.

Active Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcavo	credevo	holovo	dormivo	ero	havaeðo	eggiavo	stavo	taviðo
þû	þagcavas	credevas	holovas	dormivas	eras	havaeðas	eggiavas	stavas	taviðas
is	þagcavat	credevat	holovat	dormivat	erat	havaeðat	eggiavat	stavat	taviðat
vi	þagcavamos	credevamos	holovamos	dormivamos	eravamos	havaeðamos	eggiavamos	stavamos	taviðamos
gi	þagcavates	credevates	holovates	dormivates	eravates	havaeðates	eggiavates	stavates	taviðates
eis	þagcavanno	credevanno	holovanno	dormivanno	eranno	havaeðanno	eggiavanno	stavanno	taviðanno

Passive Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcavara	credevara	holovara	dormivara	—	havaeðara	eggiavara	—	taviðara
þû	þagcavasa	credevasa	holovasa	dormivasa	—	havaeðasa	eggiavasa	—	taviðasa
is	þagcavaða	credevaða	holovaða	dormivaða	—	havaeðaða	eggiavaða	stavaða	taviðaða
vi	þagcavanða	credevanða	holovanða	dormivanða	—	havaeðanða	eggiavanða	—	taviðanða
gi	þagcavanða	credevanða	holovanða	dormivanða	—	havaeðanða	eggiavanða	—	taviðanða
eis	þagcavanða	credevanða	holovanða	dormivanða	—	havaeðanða	eggiavanða	stavanða	taviðanða

Subjunctive imperfect

Used for the subordinate clauses of the imperfect indicative or the conditional. For regular verbs, the subjunctive is formed by taking the infinitive and replacing -re with -ssi, -ssis, -ssit, -ssimos, -ssites, -ssero:

Active Subjunctive

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcassi	credessi	holossi	dormissi	fossi	havessi	eggissi	stessi	tavissi
þû	þagcassis	credessis	holossis	dormissis	fossis	havessis	eggissis	stessis	tavissis
is	þagcassit	credessit	holossit	dormissit	fossit	havessit	eggissit	stessit	tavissit
vi	þagcassimos	credessimos	holossimos	dormissimos	fossimos	havessimos	eggissimos	stessimos	tavissimos
gi	þagcassites	credessites	holossites	dormissites	fossites	havessites	eggissites	stessites	tavissites
eis	þagcassero	credessero	holossero	dormissero	fossero	havessero	eggissero	stessero	tavissero

Passive Subjunctive

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcassira	credessira	holossira	dormissira	—	havessira	eggissira	—	tavissira
þû	þagcassisa	credessisa	holossisa	dormissisa	—	havessisa	eggissisa	—	tavissisa
is	þagcassiða	credessiða	holossiða	dormissiða	—	havessiða	eggissiða	stessiða	tavissiða
vi	þagcassinða	credessinða	holossinða	dormissinða	—	havessinða	eggissinða	—	tavissinða
gi	þagcassinða	credessinða	holossinða	dormissinða	—	havessinða	eggissinða	—	tavissinða
eis	þagcassinða	credessinða	holossinða	dormissinða	—	havessinða	eggissinða	stessinða	tavissinða

Preterite

The preterite (or perfect) has a function distinct from the present perfect. It is used for events which are distant from the present and no longer directly affect it (e.g. telling a story), whereas the present perfect is used for more recent events which may have a direct impact on the present.

Active Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcai	credeï	holoi	dormei	fui	ebbi	gai	stetti	tavi
þû	þagcasti	credesti	holosti	dormisti	fosti	havesti	gasti	stesti	tavisti
is	þagcaut	credaet	holaut	dormeit	fuiþ	ebbet	gauþ	stettet	tavit
vi	þagcammos	credemmos	holommos	dormimmos	fomos	havemmos	gammos	stemmos	tavimmos
gi	þagcastes	credestes	holostes	dormistes	fostes	havestes	gastes	stestes	tavistes
eis	þagcaronno	crederonno	holoronno	dormironno	furonno	ebbero	garonno	stettero	tavironno

Passive Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcaera	credeira	holoira	dormeira	—	ebbira	gaira	—	tavira
þû	þagcasa	credessa	holossa	dormissa	—	havessa	gassa	—	tavessa
is	þagcauða	credaeða	holauða	dormeiða	—	ebbeða	gauða	stetteða	taveða
vi	þagcamma	credemma	holomma	dormimma	—	havemma	gamma	—	tavemma
gi	þagcamma	credemma	holomma	dormimma	—	havemma	gamma	—	tavemma
eis	þagcamma	credemma	holomma	dormimma	—	havemma	gamma	stettemma	tavemma

Subjunctive preterite

Used for subordinate clauses of the imperfect indicative or the conditional. The subjunctive preterite is formed the same as the present perfect, but with the auxiliary verb in the subjunctive present.

• Active

• abbia þagcatu;
• sia qemutu;
• sias affargiatu.

• Passive

• abbaera þagcatu;
• abbaera qemutu;
• abbaesa affargiatu.

Conditional preterite

Used for events that would, could or should have occurred or as a prospective past tense. The conditional preterite is formed the same as the present perfect, but with the auxiliary verb in the conditional.

• Active

• haveria dormitu;
• saria venutu.

• Passive

• haveriara dormitu;
• haveriara venutu.

Future

The future tense is used for events that will happen in the future. It is formed by adding the forms of havere to the infinitive (with haemos and haetes contracted to -êmos and -êtes respectively). Sometimes the infinitive undergoes some changes:

• It always loses its final -e;
• Verbs in -are end in -er, not in -ar (stare however retains star-);
• Most irregular verbs lose the vowel before the last r altogether (e.g. havr- for havere and andr- for ganare, suppletion from *andare). Clusters -mr-, -nr- and -lr- are simplified to -rr- (e.g. qerr- for qemare);
• vessare has sar-.

Active Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcerô	crederô	holorô	dormirô	sarô	havrô	andrô	starô	taugierô
þû	þagcerais	crederais	holorais	dormirais	sarais	havrais	andrais	starais	taugierais
is	þagcerât	crederât	holorât	dormirât	sarât	havrât	andrât	starât	taugierât
vi	þagcerêmos	crederêmos	holorêmos	dormirêmos	sarêmos	havrêmos	andrêmos	starêmos	taugierêmos
gi	þagcerêtes	crederêtes	holorêtes	dormirêtes	sarêtes	havrêtes	andrêtes	starêtes	taugierêtes
eis	þagceranno	crederanno	holoranno	dormiranno	saranno	havranno	andranno	staranno	taugieranno

Passive Indicative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
ic	þagcerâra	crederâra	holorâra	dormirâra	—	havrâra	andrâra	—	taugierâra
þû	þagcerâsa	crederâsa	holorâsa	dormirâsa	—	havrâsa	andrâsa	—	taugierâsa
is	þagcerâða	crederâða	holorâða	dormirâða	—	havrâða	andrâða	starâða	taugierâða
vi	þagcerânða	crederânða	holorânða	dormirânða	—	havrânða	andrânða	—	taugierânða
gi	þagcerânða	crederânða	holorânða	dormirânða	—	havrânða	andrânða	—	taugierânða
eis	þagcerânða	crederânða	holorânða	dormirânða	—	havrânða	andrânða	starânða	taugierânða

Future perfect

Used for events that will have happened when or before something else happens in the future. The future perfect is formed the same as the present perfect, but with the auxiliary verb in the future.

• Active

• havrô þagcatu;
• sarais holotu.

• Passive

• havrâra þagcatu;
• havrâsa holotu.

Imperative

The imperative is used for giving commands. The imperative is formed by:

• Removing the infinitive -re;
• Adding -te for the plural;
• The word becomes an oxytone in the singular, ending in digraphs for the second, third and fourth conjugation.

Affirmative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
þû	þagcâ	credae	holau	dormei	vessâ	havae	ganâ	stâ	taugiâ
gi	þagcate	credete	holote	dormite	vessate	havete	ganate	state	taugiate

Negative

	þagcare	credere	holore	dormire	vessare	havere	ganare	stare	taugiare
þû	non þagcare	non credere	non holore	non dormire	non vessare	non havere	non ganare	non stare	non taugiare
gi	non þagcarete	non crederete	non holorete	non dormirete	non vessarete	non haverete	non ganarete	non starete	non taugiarete

Nominal verb forms

Luthic verbs have three additional forms, known as nominal forms, because they can be used as nouns or adjectives, rather than as verbs.

• The past participle has been discussed above;
• The present participle is used as an adjective or a noun describing someone who is busy doing something. For example, rogiante means “talking” or “someone who is talking”:

• Verbs in -are form the present participle by adding -ante to the stem;
• Verbs in -ere and -ire form the present participle by adding -ente to the stem;
• Verbs in -ore form the present participle by adding -onte to the stem.

• The gerund is the adverbial form of the present participle, and has a very broad use. For example: rogiandu can translate to “talking, while talking, by talking, because of one’s talking, through talking…”:

• The gerund is identical to the present participle, but with final -te replaced by -du;
• Keep in mind that the gerund is an adverb, not an adjective, and so it does not agree in gender and number. The ending is always -u.

vessare, to be

Tense		Forms
Infinitive		vessare
Auxiliary verb		vessare
Past participle		Number Case masculine feminine neuter Singular nom. statu stata stato acc. stato stata stato dat. stata stata stata gen. stati statae stati Plural nom. stati statae stata acc. statos statas stata dat. statom statam statom gen. statoro stataro statoro
Present participle		vessante
Gerund		vessandu
Person       Tense		first singular ic	second singular þû	third singular is, ia, ata	first plural vi	second plural gi	third plural eis, isae, ia
Indicative	Present	im	is	ist	ismos	istes	sonno
	Present perfect	im statu	is statu	ist statu	ismos stati	istes stati	sonno stati
	Imperfect	ero	eras	erat	eravamos	eravates	eranno
	Preterite	fui	fosti	fuiþ	fostes	fomos	furonno
	Future	sarô	sarais	sarât	sarêmos	sarêtes	saranno
	Future perfect	sarô statu	sarais statu	sarât statu	sarêmos stati	sarêtes stati	saranno stati
Subjunctive	Present	sia	sias	siaþ	siamos	siates	sianno
	Imperfect	fossi	fossis	fossit	fossimos	fossites	fossero
	Preterite	sia statu	sias statu	siaþ statu	siamos stati	siates stati	sianno stati
Conditional	Present	saria	sarias	sariat	sariamos	sariates	sarianno
	Preterite	saria statu	sarias statu	sariat statu	sariamos stati	sariates stati	sarianno stati
Imperative	Positive		vessâ			vessate
	Negative		non vessare			non vessarete

havere, to have

Tense		Forms
Infinitive		havere
Auxiliary verb		havere
Past participle		Number Case masculine feminine neuter Singular nom. havutu havuta havuto acc. havuto havuta havuto dat. havuta havuta havuta gen. havuti havutae havuti Plural nom. havuti havutae havuta acc. havutos havutas havuta dat. havutom havutam havutom gen. havutoro havutaro havutoro
Present participle		havente
Gerund		havendu
Person       Tense		first singular ic	second singular þû	third singular is, ia, ata	first plural vi	second plural gi	third plural eis, isae, ia
Indicative	Present active	hô	hais	hâþ	haemos	haetes	hanno
	Present passive	havara	havasa	havaða	havanða	havanða	havanða
	Present perfect active	hô havutu	hais havutu	hâþ havutu	haemos havutu	haetes havutu	hanno havutu
	Present perfect passive	havara havutu	havasa havutu	havaða havutu	havanða havutu	havanða havutu	havanða havutu
	Imperfect active	havaeðo	havaeðas	havaeðat	havaeðamos	havaeðates	havaeðanno
	Imperfect passive	havaeðara	havaeðasa	havaeðaða	havaeðanða	havaeðanða	havaeðanða
	Preterite active	ebbi	havesti	ebbet	havemmos	havestes	ebbero
	Preterite passive	ebbira	havessa	ebbeða	havemma	havemma	havemma
	Future active	havrô	havrais	havrât	havrêmos	havrêtes	havranno
	Future passive	havrâra	havrâsa	havrâða	havrânða	havrânða	havrânða
	Future perfect active	havrô havutu	havrais havutu	havrât havutu	havrêmos havutu	havrêtes havutu	havranno havutu
	Future perfect passive	havrâra havutu	havrâsa havutu	havrâða havutu	havrânða havutu	havrânða havutu	havrânða havutu
Subjunctive	Present active	abbia	abbias	abbiat	abbiamos	abbiates	abbianno
	Present passive	abbaera	abbaesa	abbaeða	abbaenða	abbaenða	abbaenða
	Imperfect active	havessi	havessis	havessit	havessimos	havessites	havessero
	Imperfect passive	havessira	havessisa	havessiða	havessinða	havessinða	havessinða
	Preterite active	abbia havutu	abbias havutu	abbiat havutu	abbiamos havutu	abbiates havutu	abbianno havutu
	Preterite passive	abbaera havutu	abbaesa havutu	abbaeða havutu	abbaenða havutu	abbaenða havutu	abbaenða havutu
Conditional	Present active	haveria	haverias	haveriat	haveriamos	haveriates	haverianno
	Present passive	haveriara	haveriasa	haveriaða	haverianða	haverianða	haverianða
	Preterite active	haveria havutu	haverias havutu	haveriat havutu	haveriamos havutu	haveriates havutu	haverianno havutu
	Preterite passive	haveriara havutu	haveriasa havutu	haveriaða havutu	haverianða havutu	haverianða havutu	haverianða havutu
Imperative	Positive		havae			havete
	Negative		non havere			non haverete

Adverbs

An adjective can be made into a modal adverb by adding -mente (from Latin “mente”, ablative of “mens” (mind), feminine noun) to the ending of the feminine singular form of the adjective. E.g. lenta “slow (feminine)” becomes lentamente “slowly”. Adjectives ending in -re or -le lose their e before adding -mente (facile “easy” becomes facilmente “easily”, particolare “particular” becomes particolarmente “particularly”). Other adjectives become adverbs by adding -e. E.g. solu (alone) becomes sole (only).

These adverbs can also be derived from the absolute superlative form of adjectives, e.g. lentissimamente (“very slowly").

There is also a plethora of temporal, local, modal and interrogative adverbs, mostly derived from Latin.

Prepositions

Luthic has a closed class of basic prepositions, to which a number of adverbs can be added that also double as prepositions.

In modern Luthic, all the basic prepositions have to be combined with an article placed next to them. Prepositions normally require the article before the following noun in a similar way as the English language does. However Latin’s (and to extension, Gothic) lack of articles influenced several cases of prepositions used without article in Luthic. The prepositions tra and fra are interchangeable, and often chosen on the basis of euphony.

Mandatory contractions
Luthic	English	Preposition + article
		m. sg.	f. sg.	n. sg.	l’	m. pl.	f. pl.	n. pl.
di	of, from	da	da	da	dal’	dom	dam	dom
du	to	gia	gia	gia	gi’	giom	giam	giom
a	to, at	al·lo	al·la	al·lata	all’	al·los	al·las	al·la
da	from, by, since	dal·la	dal·la	dal·la	dall’	dal·lom	dal·lam	dal·lom
in	in	nal·lo	nal·la	nal·lata	nall’	nal·los	nal·las	nal·la
ana	into, on, onto	agno	agna	agnata	an’	agnos	agnas	agna
su + ACC	on, about	sul·lo	sul·la	sul·lata	sull’	sul·los	sul·las	sul·la
su + DAT	on, about	sul·la	sul·la	sul·la	sull’	sul·lom	sul·lam	sul·lom

Optional contractions
Luthic	English	Preposition + article
		m. sg.	f. sg.	n. sg.	l’	m. pl.	f. pl.	n. pl.
miþ	with	miþ·þa	miþ·þa	miþ·þa	miþþ’	miþ·þom	miþ·þam	miþ·þom
inu	without	in·na	in·na	in·na	inn’	in·nom	in·nam	in·nom
faur	for, through	faul·lo	faul·la	faul·lata	faull’	faul·los	faul·las	faul·la
tra	between, among	tral·la	tral·la	tral·la	trall’	tral·lom	tral·lam	tral·lom
fra	between, among	fral·la	fral·la	fral·la	frall’	fral·lom	fral·lam	fral·lom

Conjunctions

Most of the Luthic monosyllabic conjunctions and prepositions have preconsonantal and prevocalic variations.

• e and ed
• au and aud
• a and ab
• a and ad

Intervocalic conjunctions are often reduced, these reductions are however not mandatory:

• e, ed but ·d if intervocalic
• ac but ·c if intervocalic

Examples:

• Ic e þû (I and you)
• Ic ed is (I and he)
• Þû·d ic (You and I)
• Is ed ic (He and I)
• Ic au þû? (I or you?)
• Ic aud is? (I or he?)
• Þû·d ic? (You or I?)
• Is aud ic? (He or I?)

Romance copula

Main article: Romance copula

As a Romance language, Luthic shares the complexities of the copula in Romance languages when to its counterparts in other languages. A copula is a word that links the subject of a sentence with a predicate (a subject complement). Whereas English has one main copula verb (and some languages like Russian mostly express the copula implicitly) some Romance languages have more complex forms.

Vessare generally focuses on the essence of the subject, and specifically on qualities that include:

1. Nationality
2. Possession
3. Physical and personality traits
4. Material
5. Origin

Stare generally focuses on the condition of the subject, and specifically on qualities that include:

1. Physical condition
2. Feelings, emotions, and states of mind
3. Appearance

Vessare is the main copula. Stare refers to state rather than essence, but more narrowly than in Spanish. Vessare is used for almost all cases in which English uses “to be”. It therefore makes sense to concentrate on the few uses of stare.

• Stare means “to be”, “to be feeling”, or “to appear”.
• Stare is used to form continuous forms of tenses.
• Stare’s past participle statu has replaced that of vessare, and so statu is used for “been” in all senses.
• Stare is occasionally “to be located.” This is very common for both transient and durable location.

Sentence structure

Luthic is an OV (Object-Verb) language. Additionally, Luthic, like all Germanic languages except English, uses V2 word order, though only in independent clauses. In dependent clauses, the finite verb is placed last.

Declarative sentences use V2 (verb in the second position) word order: the finite verb is preceded by one and only one constituent (unlike in English, this doesn’t need to be the subject). The subject is usually omitted when it is a pronoun – distinctive verb conjugations make it redundant. Subject pronouns are considered emphatic when used at all.

(Ic) drigco la vadne.

ic drigc-o l-a vadn-e

I.NOM drink-PRS.1SG the-ACC.SG.F water-ACC.SG

“I drink water (lit. I drink the water).”

La vadne drigco (ic).

l-a vadn-a drigc-o ic

the-ACC.SG.F water-ACC.SG drink-PRS.1SG I.NOM

“The water I drink.”

Non-finite verbs as well as separable particles are placed at the end of the sentence:

La meina frigionda ist al·la festa anaqemandu.

l-a mein-a frigiond-a ist al=l-a fest-a ana=qem-andu

the-ACC.SG.F my-ACC.SG.F friend-ACC.SG.F is at=the-DAT.SG.F party-DAT.SG on=come-GER

“My friend is arriving (lit. is on-coming) at the party.”

La meina frigionda qemaut al·la festa ana.

l-a mein-a frigion-a qem-aut al=l-a fest-a ana

the-ACC.SG.F my-ACC.SG.F friend-ACC.SG.F come-PRF.3SG at=the-DAT.SG.F party-DAT.SG on

“My friend arrived (lit. on-came) at the party.”

An inversion is used to emphasise an adverbial phrase, a predicative, an object, or an inner verbal phrase in a sentence. The subject phrase, at the beginning of an indicative unstressed sentence, is moved directly behind the conjugated verb, and the component to be emphasised is moved to the beginning of the sentence. The conjugated verb is always the second sentence element in indicative statements.

Example 1:

Fliugat snele. “(It) flies fast.” – not emphasised;

Snele fliugat. “Fast (it) flies.” – emphasised, i.e. “Fast is how it flies.”

Example 2:

Is liuvaleicu. “(You) are adorable.” – not emphasised;

Liuvaleicu is. “Adorable (you) are.” – emphasised, i.e. “Adorable is what you are.”

Interrogative and command sentences use the V1 (verb-first) word order: the finite verb occupies the first position in the sentence. However, wh question sentences use the V2 word order. The pronoun subject is never omitted in those cases. Questions are formed by a rising intonation at the end of the sentence (in written form, a question mark).

Fliugas þû snele?

fliug-as þû snel-e

fly-PRS.2SG you.SG fast-ADVR

“Do you fly fast?”

Ce taugis þû?

ce taugis þû

what do-PRS.2SG you-SG

“What are you doing?”

Taugiâ þû svasve rogio!

taugi-â þû svasve rogi-o

do-IMP.2SG you.SG as say-PRS.1SG

“Do as I say!”

Relative and subordinate clauses maintain the same word order.

Intonation of Luthic relative clauses

Galauvo ei, sariat beteze si þata tavissimos gestradage.

galauv-o ei sari-at betez-e si þata ta-vi-ssimos gestradag-e

think-PRS.1SG that be-CND.PRS.3SG better-ADVR if it.ACC.SG do-IMPF-CND.1PL tomorrow-ADVR

“I think that it would be better if we did it tomorrow.”

Galauvas þû ei, sariat beteze si þata tavissimos gestradage?

galauv-as þû ei sari-at betez-e si þata ta-vi-ssimos gestradag-e

think-PRS.2SG you.SG that be-CND.PRS.3SG better-ADVR if it.ACC.SG do-IMPF-CND.1PL tomorrow-ADVR

“Do you think that it would be better if we did it tomorrow?”

Case usage

Luthic case usage is very similar to Gothic, itself who calqued Ancient Greek grammar.

• Nominative: (Ic) im lûthicu. “I am Luthic”
• Accusative: (Ic) spraco lo lûthico. “I speak Luthic”
• Dative: (Ic) laso lo lûthico þus. “I teach Luthic to you”
• Genitive: La rasda lûthicoro þiudesca non ist. “The language of the Luths is not Germanic”

• Ablato-locatival accusative:

• Extent of space: (Is) qaervaut þreis chilometros. “He walked three kilometres”
• Duration of time: (Is) non beidaut aeno dago. “He didn’t wait for one day”
• Place when: Þo staþo. “In/on this place”

• Sometimes prepositional: Naþ·þo staþo. “id.”

• Time when: Giaeno vintru. “In/at/during that winter”
• Within which: Leizelas horas (is) scolat sveltare. “Within a few hours he shall die”

• Sometimes prepositional (dative is used instead): Dentro di leizelam horam (is) scolat sveltare. “Within a few hours he shall die”

• Dative:

• Purpose: Mannesci non ovila, ac gôðana taugianda. “Humans are not made for evil, but for good”
• Action for: Þus scolo helfare los frigiondos þeinos. “I must help your friends for you”

• Purpose for action for: Qenam naseini im. “I am the (cause of) salvation for women”

• Action against: La þeina frescapi scolo gadauþare þuc. “Against/in opposition to your freedom I shall kill you”

• Purpose for action against: Manni dauþam im. “I am the (cause of) death for men” (affects negatively)

• Concerning: Ce þû mis scolas taugiare? “What will you do for me? (expressing the speaker being especially interested in what the other is doing for him or her)”

• Instrumento-dative:

• Instrument: (Ic) reizo penno. “I write with a pen”
• Means: (Ic) saeqo augonivo. “I see with the eyes”
• Impersonal agent: Is gadauþada coltella velvi. “He was killed by the knife of the robber”
• Manner: (Ic) fregio þuc managa fregiaþþa. “I love you with many affection”

• Prepositional if with no adjective: (Ic) fregio þuc miþ fregiaþþa. “I love you with affection”

• Accompaniment: (Ic) scoli qemare frigiondom. “I shall come with friends”

• Sometimes prepositional: (Ic) scolo qemare miþ frigiondom. “id.”

• Degree of difference: (Is) alþezo aenom giarivo. “He is older by a few years”
• Quality: Aeno vaere summa honesta. “A man of highest honesty”

• Ablato-dative:

• Separation: (Ic) sculo cofare ’ovelo þus. “I shall keep the evil away from you”
• Motion away (prepositional): Giofa Ravenna du America furonno. “They went from Ravenna to America”
• Personal agent (prepositional): Roma a lom Gôthicom qesciada. “Rome is destroyed by the Goths”
• Comparison (adjectival): Qenam scauneza. “More beautiful than women”
• Cause: (Ic) greto ira ed agi. “I cry with anger and fear” (marks the reason)

Example text

Schleicher’s fable in Standard Luthic:

La pecora e gl’aeqqi

Aena pecora ei, stavat inu volla, saecaut somos aeqqos: aeno eisôro tiravat aeno pesante carro, aeno anþero baeravat aeno mêchelo carico ed aeno anþero transportavat aeno manno snele. La pecora roðit all’aeqqos: “Mic plagget ata haertene saecandu ce il mannu trattat l’aeqqos”. Gl’aeqqi roðironno: “Ascoltâ, pecora: faur unse ist penosu saecare ei, il mannu, l’unsar signore, sic taugit aena veste la volla pecorae, mentre lae pecorae ristonno inu volla”. Dopo ascoltauða þata, la pecora agro fliugat.

aen-a pecor-a ei st-avat inu voll-a saec-aut som-os aeqq-os aen-o eis-ôro tir-av-at aen-o pesant-e carr-o aen-o anþer-o baer-av-at aen-o mêchel-o caric-o ed aen-o anþer-o transport-av-at aen-o mann-o snel-e l-a pecor-a roð-it al-l=aeqq-os mic plagg-et ata haerten-e saec-andu ce il mann-u tratt-at l=aeqq-os gl=aeqq-i roð-ironno ascolt-â pecor-a faur uns-e ist penos-u saec-are ei il mann-o l=unsar signor-e sic taug-it aen-a vest-e l-a voll-a pecor-ae mentre l-ae pecor-ae rist-onno inu voll-a dopo ascolt-au-ða þata l-a pecor-a agr-o fliug-at

a-NOM.F.SG sheep-NOM.SG that be-IMPF.3SG without wool-DAT.SG see-PRF.3SG some-ACC.M.PL horse-ACC.PL one-ACC.M.SG they-GEN.M.PL pull-IMPF.3SG wagon-ACC.SG one-ACC.M.SG other-ACC.SG bring-IMPF.3SG a-ACC.M.SG big-ACC.M.SG load-ACC.SG and one-ACC.M.SG other-ACC.SG carry-IMPF.3SG a-ACC.M.SG man-ACC.SG fast-ADVR the-NOM.F.SG sheep-NOM.SG say-PRF.3SG to=the-ACC.M.PL horse-ACC.PL I.ACC.SG pain-PRS.3SG the-ACC.N.SG heart-ACC.SG see-GRD how the-NOM.M.SG man-NOM.SG manage-PRS.3SG the-ACC.M.PL=horse-ACC.PL the-NOM.M.PL=horse-NOM.PL say-PRF.3PL hear-IMP.2SG sheep-NOM.SG for us.ACC.PL be-PRS.3SG pitiful see-INF that the-NOM.M.SG man-NOM.SG the-NOM.M.SG=our-NOM.M.SG lord-NOM.SG do-PRS.3R.SG a-ACC.F.SG garnment-ACC.SG the-DAT.F.SG wool-DAT.SG sheep-GEN.SG whereas the-NOM.F.PL sheep-NOM.PL remain-PRS.3PL without wool-DAT.SG after hear-IMPF.PASS.3SG that.ACC.N.SG the-NOM.F.SG sheep-NOM.SG field-ACC.SG flee-PRS.3SG

Dialectology

Geographical distribution.

Luthic has many sociolects, whose differ in phonology and grammar; Standard Luthic is the only form who declines noun by cases, other informal sociolects are way closer to other Romance languages in grammar (restrict register). Whereas sociolect refers to a variation in language between different social groups, dialect is a language variation based upon a geographical location, and Luthic has a small geographical area, however, a major dialect is found nearby Ferrara, who was first mentioned when it was conquered by Germanic tribe the Lombards in 753 CE, and the Byzantine Empire lost its rule over the city. It was gifted to the Holy See by the Franks in either 754 or 756 CE, and was led by the Bishops of Ravenna. Benedictine and Cistercian monasteries started reclaiming Podeltan lands in the 9th century. This contact with West Germanic languages, and the lesser presence of East Germanic influence (unlike Ravenna) modelled some sound changes in discrepancy when compared to Standard Luthic. This dialect is often called Ferraresi Luthic (Lûthica Estense) or Upper Luthic (Altalûthica).

Upper Luthic

• Bilabial and labiodental merging: /ɸ/ and /β/ are merged with /f/ and /v/, a common feature among Luthic dialects.

• Thorn fortition: /θ/ and /ð/ are fortified to /t/ and /d/ in every position:

• þû [ˈθu] > tû [tu];
• faðar [ˈfa.ðɐr] > fadar [fɐ.dɐɾ]

• Vowel fracture: Luthic strong vowels become diphthongs, ae /ɛ/ > ai /ɐj/, au /ɔ/ > au /aw/, ei /i/ > ei /ɐj/:

• aenu [ˈɛ.nu] > ain [ɐjn];
• hauviþo, hauviþa [ˈɔ.βi.θo ˈɔ.βi.θɐ] > auvit, auvita [ɐw.vit ɐw.vi.tɐ];
• þeinu [ˈθi.nu] > tein [tɐjn].

• The feminine plural form becomes /e/.

• Monophthongisation: Luthic diphthong /ju/ is monophthongised to /y/:

• diuso [ˈdju.zo] > deus [dys].

• Loss of untressed final vowels and terminal devoicing: Every unstressed vowel is dropped, except in plurals and monosyllabic words; terminal consonants are devoiced (except if sonorants):

• geva, gevae [ˈd͡ʒe.βɐ ˈd͡ʒe.βɛ] > gef, geve [ʒef ʒe.ve];
• manago, managi [mɐˈna.ɣu mɐˈna.d͡ʒi] > manac, managi [mɐ.nɐk mɐ.nɐ.ʒi].

• Deaffrication: Affricates are lenited to fricatives:

• ce [t͡ʃe] > ce [ʃe];
• gi [d͡ʒi] > gi [ʒi].

• Loss of stress: Stress is fully lost, together with Gorgia Toscana:

• qotidianu [kʷo.θiˈdja.nu] > qotidian [ko.ti.djɐn].

• Degemination: Lack of gemination as a distinctive feature:

• grassa [ˈɡras.sɐ] and graso [ˈɡra.zo] > gras [ɡɾɐs];
• oreccla [oˈrek.klɐ] > oreccl [o.ɾekl].

• Loss of coarticulations:

• qena [ˈkᶣe.nɐ] > qen [k̟en].

Sample text and comparison

• Orthographic version in Standard Luthic
  

Faðar unsar, þû hemeno,
Veiða lata namno þeino;
La þiuðanagarda þeina qemit;
Lo veglano þeino taugiat;
Svasve hemeno ed ana aerþa.
Il claefu qotidianu unsar gevâ unse oggi,
Ed afletâ las unsaras colpas,
Svasve afletamos þos ei, colpanno unsis;
E non letare unse in tentazione
Ac frieau unse da mala.
Faur þuc ist þiuðanagarda,
E la forza, la volþa,
Faur saecla saecloro. Amen.

• Orthographic version in Upper Luthic
  

Fadar unsar, tû in emen
Veit lat namn tein
La teudanadagart tein qemit
Lo veglan tein taugiat;
Sva in emen et an aert.
Il claif qotidian unsar gevâ uns ogi
Et afletâ le unsere colpe
Sva afletamos esti ei, colpan unsis
E non letar unse in tentazion
Ac friau unse di il mal.
Faur tuc ist la teudanagart,
E la forza, la glori
Faur la saecla di la saecla. Amen.

• Standard Luthic narrow transcription
  

[ˈfa.ðɐr ˈũ.sɐr | ˈθu eˈme.no
ˈvi.ðɐ lɐ.θɐ ˈnam.no ˈθi.no
lɐ θjuˌða.nɐˈɡar.dɐ ˈθi.nɐ ˈkᶣe.miθ
lo veʎˈʎa.no ˈθi.no ˈtɔ.d͡ʒɐθ
zvɐ.zve eˈme.no e.ð‿ɐ.nɐ ˈɛr.θɐ
il ˈklɛ.ɸu kʷo.θiˈdja.nu ˈũ.sɐr d͡ʒeˈβa ũ.se ˈɔd.d͡ʒi
e.ð‿ɐ.ɸleˈta lɐs ˈũ.sɐ.rɐs ˈk̠ol.pɐs
zvɐ.zve ɐ.ɸleˈta.mo.θ‿θos ˈi | k̠olˈpɐ̃.no ũ.sis
e non leˈta.re ũ.se in ten.tɐtˈt͡sjo.ne
ɐ.f‿frjeˈɔ ũ.se da ˈma.la
fɔr θux ist θjuˌða.nɐˈɡar.da
e la ˈfɔr.t͡sa | la ˈvol.θa
fɔr ˈsɛ.klɐ ˈsɛ.klo.ru ‖ ˈa.men]

• Upper Luthic narrow transcription
  

[fɐ.dɐɾ ũ.sɐɾ | tu in e.men
vɐjt lɐt nɐmn tɐjn
lɐ ty.dɐ.nɐ.ɡɐɾt tɐjn k̟e.mit
lo ve.ʎɐn tɐjn tɐw.ʒɐt
zvɐ in e.men e.t‿ɐn ɐjɾt
il klɐjf ko.ti.djɐn ũ.sɐɾ ʒe.va ũs ɔ.ʒi
e.t‿ɐ.fleˈta le ũ.sɐ.ɾe kol.pe
zvɐ ɐ.fle.tɐ.mos es.ti i | kol.pɐn ũ.sis
e non le.tɐɾ ũs in ten.tɐ.sjon
ɐk fɾjɔ ũs di il mɐl
fɔɾ tuk ist lɐ ty.dɐ.nɐ.ɡɐɾt
e lɐ fɔrs | lɐ ɡlɔ.ɾi
fɔɾ lɐ sɐj.klɐ di lɐ sɐj.klɐ ‖ ɐ.men]

Although general grammar remains very similar, prepositions become more frequent due to a lack of cases. Some sociolects may also lack the neuter gender, fully merging it with the masculine or the feminine (via the plural form). There are also many ethnolects influenced by regional languages, such as the Lutho-Emilian ethnolect, who has its grammar and vocabulary largely affected and influenced by the Emilian dialects. The orthography may also be affected, since Upper Luthic lacks a regulatory body:

• ⟨gi⟩ or ⟨j⟩ for /ʒ/: Standard Luthic giâ [ˈd͡ʒa], Upper Luthic gia or ja [ʒɐ];
• ⟨gl⟩ or ⟨lh⟩ for /ʎ/: Standard Luthic gli [ʎi], Upper Luthic gli or lhi [ʎi];
• ⟨gn⟩ or ⟨nh⟩ for /ɲ/: Standard Luthic signore [siɲˈɲo.re], Upper Luthic signor or sinhor [si.ɲoɾ];
• ⟨eu⟩, ⟨y⟩ or ⟨ü⟩ for /y/: Standard Luthic niu [nju], Upper Luthic neu, ny or nü [ny];
• Disagreement on voiceless terminal consonant spelling: Standard Luthic ac [ɐx], Upper Luthic ac or ag [ɐk]; Standard Luthic garda [ˈɡar.dɐ], Upper Luthic gart or gard [ɡɐɾt].

Another problem with Upper Luthic lacking a regulatory body is the lack of official statistics:

• Unknown amount of native speakers;
• Unknown status as an endangered language;
• Lack of resources.

Upper Luthic phonology

Estimate vowels of Upper Luthic

	Front		Central		Back
	oral	nasal	oral	nasal	oral	nasal
Close	i	ĩ			u	ũ
Close-mid	e	ẽ			o	õ
Open-mid	ɛ		ɐ	ɐ̃	ɔ

• Nasal vowels may be realised as velar nasal release [ɐᵑ eᵑ iᵑ oᵑ uᵑ];
• [ɛ] and [ɔ] are in free variation with [ɜ] and [ɞ];
• [ɐ] is in free variation with [ə].

Estimate consonants of Upper Luthic

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular
Nasal		m	n		ɲ	ŋ
Plosive	voiceless	p	t			k
	voiced	b	d			ɡ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	ʃ
	voiced	v	z	ʒ
Approximant	semivowel				j	w
	lateral		l		ʎ
Flap			ɾ
Trill							ʀ

• [k] and [ɡ] are described as pre-velar [k̟] and [ɡ̟] to palatal [c] and [ɟ] before /i, e, ɛ, j/;
• [ʃ] and [ʒ] are not labialised and are in free variation with [ʂ] and [ʐ];
• [ʀ] is in free variation with [r];
• [ʎ] may be described as a fricative [ʎ̝].

Upper Luthic morphology

Nominal declension

Number	o-stem m	a-stem f	o-stem n	i-stem unm	r-stem unm	d-stem unm
Singular	dac (< dagu)	gef (< geva)	auvit (< hauviþo)	craft (< crafte)	brotar (< broþar)	piet (< pied-)
Plural	dagi	geve	auvita	crafti	brotari	piedi

In general, Upper Luthic has similar, and simpler, nominal declension paradigmata. For u-stems nouns, they are fully merged with o-stems.

Verbal conjugation

Tense		Forms
Infinitive		aver
Auxiliary verb		aver
Past participle		Number masculine feminine neuter Singular avut avuta avut Plural avuti avute avuta
Present participle		avent
Gerund		avent
Person       Tense		first singular ic	second singular tû	third singular is, ia, at	first plural vi	second plural gi	third plural eis, ise, ia
Indicative	Present active	o	ais	at	aimos	aites	an
	Present passive	avar	avas	avat	avant	avant	avant
	Present perfect active	o avut	ais avut	at avut	aimos avut	aites avut	an avut
	Present perfect passive	avar avut	avas avut	avat avut	avant avut	avant avut	avant avut
	Imperfect active	avait	avaitas	avaitat	avaitamos	avaitates	avaitan
	Imperfect passive	avaitar	avaitas	avaitat	avaitant	avaitant	avaitant
	Preterite active	ep	avest	ebbet	avemmos	avestes	ebber
	Preterite passive	ebbira	aves	ebbet	avem	avem	avem
	Future active	avro	avrais	avrat	avremos	avretes	avran
	Future passive	avrar	avras	avrat	avrant	avrant	avrant
	Future perfect active	avro avut	avrais avut	avrat avut	avremos avut	avrêtes avut	avran avut
	Future perfect passive	avrar avut	avras avut	avrat avut	avrant avut	avrant avut	avrant avut
Subjunctive	Present active	abbi	abbias	abbiat	abbiamos	abbiates	abbian
	Present passive	abbair	abbais	abbait	abbaint	abbaint	abbaint
	Imperfect active	avessi	avessis	avessit	avessimos	avessites	avesser
	Imperfect passive	avessir	avessis	avessit	avessint	avessint	avessint
	Preterite active	abbi avut	abbias avut	abbiat avut	abbiamos avut	abbiates avut	abbian avut
	Preterite passive	abbair avut	abbais avut	abbait avut	abbaint avut	abbaint avut	abbaint avut
Conditional	Present active	averi	averias	averiat	averiamos	averiates	averian
	Present passive	averiar	averias	averiat	averiant	averiant	averiant
	Preterite active	averi avut	averias avut	averiat avut	averiamos avut	averiates avut	averian avut
	Preterite passive	averiar avut	averias avut	averiat avut	averiant avut	averiant avut	averiant avut
Imperative	Positive		ave			avet
	Negative		non aver			non averet

Some verbal forms are speculation (by applying and following the common sound changes), as they are not attested.

Standard Bolognese Luthic

"… I say, then, that perhaps those are not wrong who claim that the Bolognese speak a more beautiful language than most, especially since they take many features of their own speech from that of the people who live around them, in Imola, Ferrara and Modena I believe that everybody does this with respect to his own neighbours.... So the above-mentioned citizens of Bologna take a soft, yielding quality from those of Imola, and from the people of Ferrara and Modena, on the other hand, a certain abruptness which is more typical of the Lombards.... If, then, the Bolognese take from all sides, as I have said, it seems reasonable to suggest that their language, tempered by the combination of opposites mentioned above, should achieve a praiseworthy degree of elegance; and this, in my opinion, is beyond doubt true."
(Dante Alighieri, De vulgari eloquentia - Liber I, xv, 2-5)

Although very similar to Standard Ravennese Luthic, there is noticeable influence from the regional Bolognese dialects, dialects of Emilian, one of the Gallo-Italic languages of the Romance family:

• /t͡ʃ d͡ʒ/ are fully merged with /t͡s d͡z/.

Furthermore, Standard Bolognese Luthic is affected by apophony:

Raising-type metaphony

Unaffected	Mutated
/ˈmet.to/ “I put”	/ˈmit.tis/ “you put”
/ˈes.to/ “this (neut.)”	/ˈis.tu/ “this (masc.)”
/moˈdɛs.tɐ/ “modest (fem.)”	/moˈdes.tu/ “modest (masc.)”
/ˈspo.zɐ/ “wife”	/ˈspu.zu/ “husband”
/ˈmɔ.reθ/ “he dies”	/ˈmo.ris/ “you die”
/ˈmɔ.ʃɐ/ “depressed (fem.)”	/ˈmo.ʃu/ “depressed (masc.)”

Standard Bolognese Luthic phonology

Standard Bolognese Luthic is almost identical to Standard Ravennese Luthic, however it has fewer consonant phonemes, itself being very similar to the phonology of Emilian Bolognese dialects.

Vowel phonemes of Standard Bolognese Luthic

	Front		Central		Back
	oral	nasal	oral	nasal	oral	nasal
Close	i	ĩ			u	ũ
Close-mid	e	ẽ			o	õ
Open-mid	ɛ		ɐ	ɐ̃	ɔ
Open			a

Consonant phonemes of Standard Bolognese Luthic

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar
						plain	labialized
Nasal		m	n		ɲ	ŋ	(ŋʷ)
Plosive	voiceless	p	t			k	kʷ
	voiced	b	d			ɡ	ɡʷ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s θ	ʃ		(x)
	voiced	v	z
Affricate	voiceless	(p͡f)	t͡s (t͡θ)
	voiceless		d͡z
Approximant	semivowel				j		w
	lateral		l		ʎ
	Gorgia Toscana	(ʋ)	(ð̞)			(ɣ˕)
Trill			r

Voiceless continuants /f, s, θ, x/ are always constrictive [f, s, θ, x], but voiced continuants /v, ð, j, ɣ/ are not very constrictive and are often closer to approximants [ʋ, ð̠˕, j, ɣ˕] than fricatives [v, ð̠, ʝ, ɣ]. Regarding the absorption of nasals before fricatives, voiceless fricatives are often fortified to affricates after alveolar consonants, such as /n l ɾ/, or general nasals:

• Il monþo [i‿mˈmõ.t͡θu].
• L’inferno [l‿ĩˈp͡fɛr.nu].
• La salsa [lɐ ˈsal.t͡sɐ].
• L’arsenale [l‿ɐr.t͡seˈna.le].

Paulistan Luthic

Paulistan Luthic
Lútico (paulista)
Pronunciation	[ˈlu.t͡ʃi.ku (pawˈlis.tɐ)]
Created by	Lëtzelúcia
Ethnicity	Lutho-Brazilians
Native speakers	5,000 (2022)
Language family	Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Italo-Western Gotho-Romance Italo-Luthian Romance Standard Ravennese Luthic Paulistan Luthic
Writing systems	Latin Braille
Official status
Recognised minority language in	Brazil (recognised in São Paulo)
Regulated by	Council for the Luthic Language (partially)

Italian migration to Brazil initiated in 1875, when Brazil began to promote to the country in order to increase its population, creating rural “colonies” for Italians and other Europeans to migrate to, as in between 1880 and 1920, more than one million Italians have immigrated to Brazil. Among all Italians who immigrated to Brazil, 70% went to the State of São Paulo. In consequence, São Paulo has more people with Italian ancestry than any region of Italy itself. Despite the poverty and even semi-slavery conditions faced by many Italians in Brazil, most of the population achieved some personal success and changed their lower-class situation.

Brazil remained neutral at the start of World War II in September 1939, however, German U-boats sank six Brazilian ships in the Atlantic, resulting on Brazil declaring war on Germany and Italy on 22 August 1942. The Brazilians forces fought mainly within Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna regions.

The Brazilian contact with Emilia-Romagna and the Italian immigration to Brazil resulted in a Brazilian dialect of Luthic spoken in São Paulo, known as Paulistan Luthic (endonym: Lútico paulista [ˈlu.t͡ʃi.ku pawˈlis.tɐ]; Standard Ravennese Luthic: Lûthica Paülista [ˈlu.ti.xɐ pɐwˈlis.tɐ]). Paulistan Luthic is heavily influenced by the Paulistano dialect of Portuguese (Portuguese pronunciation: [paw.lisˈtɐ̃.nu]), as the accent is dominant in Brazilian mass media and is often associated with “standard” Brazilian Portuguese.

Characteristics of Paulistan Luthic

Main phonological differences:

• e-prosthesis: In word-initially /sC/ clusters, e-prosthesis is triggered: Standard Ravennese Luthic stare > Paulistan Luthic estare.
• degemination: Paulistan Luthic lacks geminate consonants: Standard Ravennese Luthic soffiare [soɸˈɸja.re] > Paulistan Luthic [soˈfja.re]
• thorn stopping and voicing: A similar process that happened with southern German dialects, the High German consonant shift: Standard Ravennese Luthic þû > Paulistan Luthic du
• edh stopping: /ð/ is fortified to /d/ in every position: Standard Ravennese Luthic faðar > Paulistan Luthic fadre
• r-metathesis: r-stem nouns ending in -ar are always reanalised as -re: Standard Ravennese Luthic broþar > Paulistan Luthic brodre
• /t, d/ palatalisation before /i, ĩ, j/: In most of Portuguese varieties spoken in Brazil, the variable palatalisation of alveolar stops turns consonants /t, d/ into affricates [t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ], this highly affected Paulistan Luthic: Standard Ravennese Luthic Lûthica [ˈlu.ti.xɐ], di [di] > Paulistan Luthic Lútica [ˈlu.t͡ʃi.kɐ], di [d͡ʒi]
• rhotic: The trill consonant /r/ is fully displaced by a tap consonant /ɾ/, of which may be also described as an approximant /ɹ/ pre-consonantal: Standard Ravennese Luthic rasda [ˈraz.dɐ], barca [ˈbar.kɐ] > Paulistan Luthic rasda [ˈɾaz.dɐ], barca [ˈbaɹ.kɐ]. Due to Paulistano influence, word-initial rhotics are often realised as /ʁ/ ~ /h/, resulting in rasda [ˈʁaz.dɐ] ~ [ˈhaz.dɐ], a great example is Standard Ravennese Luthic rapportu [rɐpˈpɔr.tu] and Paulistan Luthic rapporto [ʁɐˈpɔɹ.tu] ~ [hɐˈpɔɹ.tu]
• lack of Gorgia Tuscana: Paulistan Luthic doesn't spirantise atonic plosives: Standard Ravennese Luthic capu [ˈka.fu] > Paulistan Luthic capo [ˈka.pu]
• i-epenthesis: Word-terminally plosives are affected by i-epenthesis: Standard Ravennese Luthic ac [ɐx], ist [ist] > Paulistan Luthic ac [ɐ.kĭ], est [es.t͡ʃĭ], this may also be considered a kind of paragoge. This may also happen in consonant clusters if if the second consonant is not /ɾ/ or /l/, resulting in opziune /opˈsju.ne/ > [opiˈsju.ni]
• deaffrication: the palatalised forms of /t/, /k/ and /ɡ/, are realised as /s/, /s/ and /ʒ/ retrospectively: Standard Ravennese Luthic dicidere [di.t͡ʃiˈde.re], geva [ˈd͡ʒe.βɐ] > Paulistan Luthic dicidere [d͡ʒi.siˈde.ɾe], geva [ˈʒe.vɐ] and Standard Ravennese Luthic Luthic ziu (from Latin thīus) [ˈt͡si.u] > Paulistan Luthic zio [ˈsi.u ~ ˈzi.u]. In some cases, where /t͡s/ is voiced to /d͡z/, it is realised as /z/
• nasalisation: like Paulitano, Paulistan Luthic nasalises every vowel before a nasal in NV.N-: Standard Ravennese Luthic banana [bɐˈna.nɐ] > Paulistan Luthic banana [bɐˈnɐ̃.nɐ]

Main orthographical differences:

• Masculine nouns ending in ⟨u⟩ are always spelt as ⟨o⟩
• Greco-Roman digraphs such as ⟨th⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨ch⟩ are fully displaced by ⟨t⟩, ⟨f⟩, ⟨c⟩
• For velar plosives before front vowels, they are spelt as ⟨qu⟩ and ⟨gu⟩
  • The velar nasal is no longer spelt as ⟨g⟩ before another velar, but rather as ⟨n⟩
• The circumflex accent is displaced by the acute accent
• Lack of ⟨þ⟩ and ⟨ð⟩ in the alphabet
• Due to Portuguese influence ⟨j, k, w, x, y⟩ are way commoner instead of the nativisations ⟨gi, c(h), v, c ~ ss, i⟩ present in Standard Ravennese Luthic
• The spellings ⟨gn⟩ and ⟨gl⟩ are fully displaced by ⟨nh⟩ and ⟨lh⟩; ⟨gn⟩ is also found as ⟨ñ⟩ in many communities nearby Spanish speakers, mainly outside the capital, such as Bauru, Sorocaba and Jundiaí

Main grammatical differences:

• Loss of the neuter gender
• Loss of the passive voice
• u-stems are merged with o-stems
• The verbs vessare and havere are fully displaced by tenere as the common auxiliary verb, mainly due to Portuguese influence
• The nominative merges with the accusative, simplifying the general declension paradigmata

Demography and distribution

Map showing the areas of São Paulo where Paulistan Luthic is spoken today

Luthic speakers over 3 years of age in the municipality with most speakers (2022 IBGE census data). Absolute and relative numbers. Percentages given are in comparison to the total population of the corresponding state.

Region	Totals	Percentages
São Paulo	1,200	24%
São Bernardo do Campo	700	14%
Santo André	500	10%
Diadema	250	5%
São Caetano do Sul	230	4.6%
Jundiaí	230	4.6%
Bauru	210	4.2%
Sorocaba	180	3.6%
Ferraz de Vasconcelos, Embu Guaçu, São Lourenço da Serra, Itapecerica da Serra, Cotia, Embu das Artes, Taboão da Serra, Osasco, Carapicuíba, Barueri, Jandira, Itapevi, Vargem Grande Paulista	750	15%
Piratininga, Cabrália Paulista, Duartina, Avaí	650	13%
Total:	5,000	100%

According to Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (Portuguese: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística; IBGE) Luthic is only spoken in São Paulo, and numbers may range anywhere from “perhaps a few dozen, up to almost two thousand people”.

According to the 2022 census by IBGE, Paulistan Luthic is spoken by 5,000 people, some 45 (0.9%) of whom are monolingual. The largest concentrations of Paulistan Luthic speakers are found in the municipalities of São Paulo and the ABCD Region, consisting of Santo André, São Bernardo do Campo, São Caetano do Sul and Diadema. A coniderable amount of Paulistan Luthic speakers are also found nearby the capital, in Ferraz de Vasconcelos, Embu Guaçu, São Lourenço da Serra, Itapecerica da Serra, Cotia, Embu das Artes, Taboão da Serra, Osasco, Carapicuíba, Barueri, Jandira, Itapevi, Vargem Grande Paulista, and nearby Bauru, in Piratininga, Cabrália Paulista, Duartina and Avaí.

Paulistan Luthic phonology

Consonant phonemes of Paulistan Luthic

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Palatal	Velar/Uvular
					plain	labial
Nasal		m	n	ɲ	ŋ
Plosive	voiceless	p	t		k	(kʷ)
	voiced	b	d		ɡ	(ɡʷ)
Affricate	voiceless			(t͡ʃ)
	voiced			(d͡ʒ)
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	ʃ
	voiced	v	z	ʒ
Approximant				j		w
Liquid	central		ɾ		(ʁ)
	lateral		l	ʎ

• /ʁ/ can be velar, uvular, or glottal and may be voiceless unless between voiced sounds.
• /kʷ/ and /ɡʷ/ may be realised as [kw] and [ɡw] instead.
• /ɲ/ is often realised as [j̃], which nasalises the preceding vowel.
• /ŋ/ is often realised as [w̃], which nasalises the preceding vowel.
• /j, w/ are often realised as [ɪ̯, ʊ̯]​ in unstressed position.
• /s/ and /z/ are normally lamino-alveolar, as in English.
• As phonemes, /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ occur only in loanwords, but due to palatalisation, they are also found as allophones of /t/ and /d/ before /i/, /ĩ/ and /j/.

Vowel phonemes of Standard Luthic

	Front		Central		Back
	oral	nasal	oral	nasal	oral	nasal
Close	i	ĩ			u	ũ
Close-mid	e	ẽ			o	õ
Open-mid	ɛ		ɐ	ɐ̃	ɔ
Open			a

• /u/ is laxed to [ʊ] if unstressed.
• /i/ is laxed to [ɪ] if unstressed.
• /e/ is often realised as [i] if unstressed.
• Nasalised /e/ and /o/ are often “diphthongised”, resulting in /ẽ/ > [ẽȷ̃], /õ/ > [õw̃].

Paulistan Luthic morphology

Paulistan Luthic has been greatly affected by Paulistano, however, it still has grammatical cases for noun, a feature it has not been lost, however, unlike Standard Ravennese Luthic, Paulistan Luthic does not drop its prepositions before a declined noun, another common feature in Luthic is to decline only the article preceding the noun.

• Standard Ravennese Luthic i frigiondi “the friends” > Paulistan Luthic los frigiondo “the friends”
• Standard Ravennese Luthic þo staþo “in this place” > Paulistan Luthic in do stado “in this place”
• Standard Ravennese Luthic miþ lom piedivo “with the feet” > Paulistan Luthic mid lom piede “with the feet”

Number	Case	o-stem m	a-stem f	i-stem unm	r-stem unm	d-stem unm
Singular	nom. acc.	dago	geva	crafte	brodre	piede
	dat.	daga	geva	crafti	brodri	piedi
	gen.	dagi	gevae	crafti	brodri	piedi
Plural	nom. acc.	dagos	gevas	craftes	brodres	piedes
	dat.	dagom	gevam	craftivo	brodrivo	piedivo
	gen.	dagoro	gevaro	craftem	brodrem	piedem

Vocabulary

It is generally stated that Luthic has around 370,000 words, or 410,000 if obsolete words are counted, however 98% of the Luthic used today consists of only 5,800 words.

Luthic’s core lexicon (3,172 wors), Lucia Giamane (2016)

A 2016 statistic by Lucia Giamane is based on 3,172 words chosen on the criteria of frequency, semantic richness and productivity, which also contain words formed on the territory of the Luthic language. This statistic gives the percentages below:

• 1,200 words inherited from Gothic;
• 953 words inherited from Latin;
• 510 words, academic loanwords from Latin;
• 133 words borrowed from Italian;
• 125 words borrowed from West Germanic, such as Frankish, Langobardic and Standard High German;
• 101 words formed in Luthic;
• 98 words borrowed from French;
• 52 words borrowed from Greek.

Luthic has approximately 2,000 uncompounded words inherited from Proto-Indo-European. These were inherited via:

• 45% Germanic;
• 43% Italic, Romance;
• 8% Celtic;
• 2% Hellenic;
• 2% Uncertain.

A single etymological root appears in Luthic in a native form, inherited from Vulgar Latin, and a learned form, borrowed later from Classical Latin. The following pairs consist of a native noun and a learned adjective:

• finger: ditu / digitale from Latin digitus / digitālis;
• faith: fê (stem fed-) / fidele from Latin fidēs / fidēlis;
• foot: piê (stem pied-) / pedale from pēs / pedālis.

There are also noun-noun and adjective-adjective pairs with slightly different meanings:

• thing / cause: cosa / caüsa from Latin causa;
• bull / calf: toru / taüru from Latin taurus;
• chilled / frozen: freddu / frigidu from Latin frīgidus.

Insertional code-switching

Code-switching or language alternation occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation or situation. Code-switching is different from plurilingualism in that plurilingualism refers to the ability of an individual to use multiple languages, while code-switching is the act of using multiple languages together.

Insertional code-switching is often referred to as “borrowing” or “tag-switching”, when lexical items from a secondary language are introduced into the primary language. These loan words are partially or fully assimilated into the secondary language, conforming to its phonological and morphological structure. Insertional code-switching serves a “pragmatic purpose, acting as sentence enhancers or indicating the speaker's attitude towards the context of an utterance.”

• Standard Luthic: Il nattu stâþ scaunu. Lae staerna sceinanno e la luna stâþ folla.
• Standard Italian: La notte è bella. Le stelle brillano e la luna è piena.
• Insertional code-swicthing: Il nattu ae bellu. Le stelle ~ lae stellae sceinanno e la luna ae piena.

  Note that both è and ae stand for /ɛ/.

The borrowed words can be integrated into the host language either partially or entirely, taking into account their phonological and morphological structure.

Swadesh list

The Swadesh list (/ˈswɑːdɛʃ/) is a compilation of tentatively universal concepts for the purposes of lexicostatistics. Translations of the Swadesh list into a set of languages allow researchers to quantify the interrelatedness of those languages. The Swadesh list is named after linguist Morris Swadesh. It is used in lexicostatistics (the quantitative assessment of the genealogical relatedness of languages) and glottochronology (the dating of language divergence). Because there are several different lists, some authors also refer to "Swadesh lists".

The most used list nowadays is the Swadesh 207-word list, adapted from Swadesh 1952.

Standard Luthic Swadesh list

Swadesh list
1. ic [ix] “I”	53. stecca [ˈstɛk.kɐ] “stick”	105. flaerare [flɛˈra.re] “to smell”	157. sabbia [ˈsab.bjɐ] “sand”
2. þû [ˈθu] “you”	54. acrano [ɐˈkra.no] “fruit”	106. ogare [oˈɡa.re] “to fear”	158. molda [ˈmɔl.dɐ] “dust”
3. is [is] “he” ia [jɐ] “she” ata [a.θɐ] “it”	55. seme [ˈse.me] “seed”	107. slefare [sleˈɸa.re] “sleep”	159. aerþa [ˈɛr.θɐ] “earth”
4. vi [vi] “we”	56. laufu [ˈlɔ.ɸu] “leaf”	108. vivere [viˈβe.re] “to live”	160. molmanu [mɔlˈma.nu] “sand”
5. gi [d͡ʒi] “you”	57. vaurte [ˈvɔr.te] “root”	109. sveltare [zvɛlˈta.re] “to die”	161. nêbola [ˈne.βo.lɐ] “fog”
6. eis [ˈis] isae [iˈsɛ] eis [ˈis] “they”	58. renda [ˈrɛn.dɐ] “bark”	110. dauþare [dɔˈθa.re] “to kill”	162. hemeno [eˈme.nu] “sky”
7. su [su] sa [sɐ] þata [θɐ.θɐ] “this”	59. blomna [ˈblom.nɐ] “flower”	111. lottare [lotˈta.re] “to fight”	163. vendu [ˈven.du] “wind”
8. este [ˈes.te] esta [ˈes.tɐ] esto [ˈes.to] “that”	60. herba [ˈɛr.bɐ] “grass”	112. cacciare [kɐtˈt͡ʃa.re] “to hunt”	164. neve [ˈnɛ.βe] “snow”
9. her [er] “here”	61. corda [ˈk̠ɔr.dɐ] “rope”	113. blegguare [bleɡˈɡʷa.re] “to hit”	165. glaccio [ˈɡlat.t͡ʃo] “ice”
10. þar [θɐr] “there”	62. pelle [ˈpɛl.le] “skin”	114. tagliare [tɐʎˈʎa.re] “to cut”	166. fumu [ˈfu.mu] “smoke”
11. qu [kʷu] qa [kʷɐ] qo [kʷo] “who”	63. carne [ˈkar.ne] “meat”	115. scindere [ʃinˈde.re] “to split”	167. fona [ˈfo.nɐ] “fire”
12. ce [t͡ʃe] “what”	64. saggue [ˈsaŋʷ.ɡʷe] “blood”	116. pognalare [poɲ.ɲɐˈla.re] “to stab”	168. asga [ˈaz.ɡɐ] “ash”
13. car [kɐr] “where”	65. beine [ˈbi.ne] “bone”	117. crazzore [krɐtˈt͡so.re] “to scratch”	169. bruciare [bruˈt͡ʃa.re] “to burn”
14. can [kɐn] “when”	66. grassa [ˈɡras.sɐ] “fat”	118. gravare [ɡrɐˈβa.re] “to dig”	170. strada [ˈstra.ðɐ] “road”
15. ce [t͡ʃe] “how”	67. uovo [ˈwo.βo] “egg”	119. svemmare [zvẽˈma.re] “to swim”	171. baergana [ˈbɛr.ɡɐ.nɐ] “mountain”
16. non [non] “not”	68. haurno [ˈɔr.no] “horn”	120. fliugare [fljuˈɡa.re] “to fly”	172. rossu [ˈrɔs.su] “red”
17. allu [ˈal.lu] “all”	69. coda [ˈk̠o.ðɐ] “tail”	121. carvore [kɐrˈβo.re] “to walk”	173. verde [ˈver.de] “green”
18. managu [mɐˈna.ɣu] “many”	70. feþar [ˈfe.θɐr] “feather”	122. qemare [kᶣeˈma.re] “to come”	174. giallu [ˈd͡ʒal.lu] “yellow”
19. somu [ˈso.mu] “some”	71. taglo [ˈtaʎ.ʎo] “hair”	123. legare [leˈɡa.re] “to lie”	175. blagcu [ˈblaŋ˗.k̠u] “white”
20. favu [ˈfa.βu] “few”	72. capu [ˈka.ɸu] “head”	124. setare [seˈta.re] “to sit”	176. neru [ˈne.ru] “black”
21. anþeru [ɐ̃ˈθe.ru] “other”	73. oreccla [oˈrek.klɐ] “ear”	125. stare [ˈsta.re]. “stand”	177. nattu [ˈnat.tu] “night”
22. aenu [ˈɛ.nu] “one”	74. augono [ˈɔ.ɣo.no] “eye”	126. girare [d͡ʒiˈra.re] “to turn”	178. dagu [ˈda.ɣu] “day”
23. tvi [ˈtvi] “two”	75. nasu [ˈna.zu] “nose”	127. driusare [drjuˈza.re] “to fall”	179. giar [d͡ʒɐr] “year”
24. þreis [ˈθris] “three”	76. monþu [ˈmõ.θu] “mouth”	128. gevare [d͡ʒeˈβa.re] “to give”	180. varmu [ˈvar.mu] “warm”
25. fidvor [ˈfid.vor] “four”	77. dente [ˈden.te] “tooth”	129. haldare [ɐlˈda.re] “to hold”	181. caldu [ˈkal.du] “cold”
26. fimfe [ˈfĩ.ɸe] “five”	78. tugga [ˈtuŋ.ɡɐ] “tongue”	130. spremere [spreˈme.re] “to squeeze”	182. follu [ˈfol.lu] “full”
27. mêchelu [ˈme.xe.lu] “big”	79. oggla [ˈoŋ.ɡlɐ] “fingernail”	131. fregare [freˈɡa.re] “to rub”	183. nuovu [ˈnwo.βu] “new”
28. laggu [ˈlaŋ.ɡu] “long”	80. piê [ˈpje] “foot”	132. þvare [ˈðva.re] “to wash”	184. altu [ˈal.tu] “old”
29. largu [ˈlar.ɡu] “wide”	81. gamba [ˈgam.bɐ] “leg”	133. asciugare [ɐʃ.ʃuˈɡa.re] “to wipe”	185. buonu [ˈbwo.nu] “good”
30. spessu [ˈspes.su] “thick”	82. gnivo [ˈɲi.βo] “knee”	134. tirare [tiˈra.re] “to pull”	186. malu [ˈma.lu] “bad”
31. pesante [peˈzan.te] “heavy”	83. manu [ˈma.nu] “hand”	135. spiggere [spiŋˈɡe.re] “to push”	187. maciu [ˈma.t͡ʃu] “rotten”
32. leizelu [ˈlid.d͡ze.lu] “little”	84. ala [ˈa.lɐ] “wing”	136. vaerfare [vɛrˈɸa.re] “to throw”	188. sporcu [ˈspor.k̠u] “dirty”
33. scaurtu [ˈsk̠ɔr.tu] “short”	85. qeþu [ˈkᶣe.θu] “belly”	137. bendare [benˈda.re] “to tie”	189. drittu [ˈdrit.tu] “straight”
34. agguu [ˈaŋʷ.ɡʷu] “narrow”	86. viscerae [ˈviʃ.ʃe.rɛ] “guts”	138. siugiare [sjuˈd͡ʒa.re] “to sew”	190. ritondu [riˈton.du] “round”
35. sottile [sotˈti.le] “thin”	87. collo [ˈk̠ɔl.lo] “neck”	139. contare [k̠onˈta.re] “to count”	191. scarfu [ˈskar.ɸu] “sharp”
36. qena [ˈkᶣe.nɐ] “woman”	88. dorso [ˈdɔr.so] “back”	140. rogiare [roˈd͡ʒa.re] “to say”	192. smussato [zmusˈsa.θu] “dull”
37. mannu [ˈmɐ̃.nu] “man”	89. brostu [ˈbros.tu] “breast”	141. segguare [seŋʷˈɡʷa.re] “to sing”	193. slaettu [ˈzlɛt.tu] “smooth”
38. mannescu [mɐ̃ˈnes.k̠u] “human being”	90. haertene [ˈɛr.te.ne] “heart”	142. giucare [d͡ʒuˈka.re] “to play”	194. ûmidu [ˈu.mi.ðu] “wet”
39. bambinu [bamˈbi.nu] “child”	91. figato [fiˈɡa.θo] “liver”	143. flotore [floˈto.re] “to float”	195. þaursu [ˈθɔr.su] “dry”
40. sposa [ˈspo.zɐ] “wife”	92. dregcare [dreŋˈka.re] “to drink”	144. fluire [fluˈi.re] “to flow”	196. raettu [ˈrɛt.tu] “correct”
41. abnu [ˈab.nu] “husband”	93. mangiare [mɐnˈd͡ʒa.re] “to eat”	145. glacciare [ɡlɐtˈt͡ʃa.re] “to freeze”	197. vicinu [viˈt͡ʃi.nu] “near”
42. moðar [ˈmo.ðɐr] “mother”	94. beidare [biˈda.re] “to bite”	146. svellare [zvɛlˈla.re] “to swell”	198. lontanu [lonˈta.nu] “far”
43. faðar [ˈfa.ðɐr] “father”	95. succhiare [suk̟ˈk̟ja.re] “to suck”	147. sauilo [ˈsɔj.lo] “sun”	199. destra [ˈdes.trɐ] “right”
44. animale [ɐ.niˈma.le] “animal”	96. speivare [spiˈβa.re] “to spit”	148. luna [ˈlu.nɐ] “moon”	200. sinistra [siˈnis.trɐ] “left”
45. fescu [ˈfes.k̠u] “fish”	97. vomitare [vo.miˈta.re] “to vomit”	149. staerna [ˈstɛr.nɐ] “star”	201. a [a] ad [a‿ð̞] “at”
46. foglu [ˈfoʎ.ʎu] “bird”	98. soffiare [soɸˈɸja.re] “to blow”	150. vadne [ˈvad.ne] “water”	202 in [in] “in”
47. hondu [ˈon.du] “dog”	99. rispirare [ris.piˈra.re] “to breathe”	151. ploggia [ˈplod.d͡ʒa] “rain”	203. miþ [miθ] “with”
48. pidocclu [piˈdɔk.klu] “louse”	100. clare [ˈkla.re] “to laugh”	152. aca [ˈa.xɐ] “river”	204. e [e] ed [e‿ð̞] “and”
49. serpe [ˈsɛr.pe] “snake”	101. saecare [sɛˈka.re] “to see”	153. lagu [ˈla.ɣu] “lake”	205. si [si] “if”
50. vaurmu [ˈvɔr.mu] “worm”	102. hausare [ɔˈza.re] “to hear”	154. mareina [mɐˈri.na] “sea”	206. faurcê [fɔrˈt͡ʃe] “because”
51. trivo [ˈtri.βo] “tree”	103. gnoscere [ɲoʃˈʃe.re] “to know”	155. sale [ˈsa.le] “salt”	207. namno [ˈnam.no] “name”
52. valþu [ˈval.θu] “forest”	104. þagcare [θɐŋˈka.re] “to think”	156. staenu [ˈstɛ.nu] “stone”	208. Râsdifice [ˈraz.di.ɸi.t͡ʃe] “Linguifex”

Creating word lists depends on the decay of morphemes or changes in vocabulary. For glottochronology to be applicable to a language, the rate of morpheme decay must remain constant. This has led to criticism of the glottochronologic formula, as some linguists contend that the rate of morpheme decay cannot be assumed to be consistent over time. American linguist Robert Lees acquired a value for the “glottochronological constant” (r) of words by analysing the known changes in 13 pairs of languages using the 200-word list by Swadesh. He calculated a value of 0.805 ± 0.0176 with 90% confidence. Swadesh obtained a value of 0.86 for his 100-word list, with the higher value reflecting the exclusion of semantically unstable words. This constant is related to the retention rate of words by the following formula:

L is the rate of replacement, ln represents the natural logarithm and r is the glottochronological constant.

The basic formula of glottochronology in its shortest form is this:

t is a given period of time from one stage of the language to another (measured in millennia), c is the proportion of wordlist items retained at the end of that period and L is the rate of replacement for that word list.

By testing historically verifiable cases in which t is known by nonlinguistic data (such as the approximate distance from Classical Latin to modern Romance languages), Swadesh arrived at the empirical value of approximately 0.14 for L, which means that the rate of replacement constitutes around 14 words from the 100-wordlist per millennium. This is represented in the table below.

Glottochronology Time Scale

Rough Median Dating	Median Cognate Retention in 100-Word List
500 BP	86%
1000 BP	74%
1500 BP	64%
2000 BP	55%
2500 BP	47%
3000 BP	40%
4000 BP	30%
5000 BP	22%
6000 BP	16%
7000 BP	12%
8000 BP	9%
9000 BP	7%
10000 BP	5%

Comparison

Linguistic map of Ravenna and neighbouring regions.
Italian: “Lingue parlate accanto al Lutico”
English: “Languages spoken alongside Luthic”

Lexical and grammatical similarities among the Romance languages spoken in Ravenna and Emilia-Romagna, and between Latin and each of them, are apparent from the following examples in various Romance lects, all meaning ‘She always closes the window before she dines/before dining’. Additional translations are provided in Gothic, German, Icelandic, due to Luthic Germanic stems, and other related Romance languages.

Latin	(Ea) semper antequam cēnat fenestram claudit.
Gothic	𐍃𐌹 𐌰𐌹𐍅 𐍆𐌰𐌿𐍂(𐌰) 𐌼𐌰𐍄𐌾𐌹𐌸 𐌰𐌿𐌲𐌰𐌳𐌰𐌿𐍂𐍉 𐌲𐌰𐌻𐌿𐌺𐌹𐌸. Si aiw faur(a) matjiþ augadaurō galūkiþ.
German	Sie schließt immer das Fenster, bevor sie speist. Sie immer schließt das Fenster bevor speist. (altered, wrong in Standard German)
Icelandic	Hún æ fyrir metur glugganum lókar. (obsolete or altered) Hún lokar alltaf glugganum áður en hún borðar. (standard Modern Icelandic) Hún lokar alltaf glugganum fyrir mat. (also correct)
Luthic	(Ia) galucet aeve la finestra faur di cenare / mazzare.
Upper Luthic	(Lei) galucet aif la finestar faur id cenar / mazzar.
Reggiano Emilian	(Lē) la sèra sèmpar sù la fnèstra prima ad snàr.
Bolognese Emilian	(Lî) la sèra sänper la fnèstra prémma ed dṡnèr.
Placentine Emilian	Ad sira lé la sèra seimpar la finéstra prima da seina.
Italian	(Ella/lei) chiude sempre la finestra prima di cenare.
Eastern Lombard	(Lé) la sèra sèmper sö la finèstra prima de senà.
Western Lombard	(Lee) la sara sù semper la finestra primma de disnà / scenà.
Romagnol	(Lia) la ciud sëmpra la fnèstra prëma ad magnè.
Tuscan	Lei chiude sempre la finestra prima di cenà.
Umbrian	Lia chiude sempre la finestra prima de cenà.
Venetian	Eła ła sara / sera senpre ła fenestra vanti de diznar.
Northern Corsican	Ella chjode / chjude sempre lu / u purtellu avanti/nanzu di cenà.
Southern Corsican	Edda / Idda sarra / serra sempri u purteddu nanzu/prima di cinà.
Gallurese	Idda chjude sempri lu balconi primma di cinà.
Ligurian	(Le) a saera sempre u barcun primma de cenà.
Neapolitan	Essa 'nzerra sempe 'a fenesta primma d'a cena / 'e magnà.
Piedmontese	Chila a sara sèmper la fnestra dnans ëd fé sin-a/dnans ëd siné.
Romanian	(Ea) închide întotdeauna fereastra înainte de a cina.
Campidanese Sardinian	Issa serrat semp(i)ri sa bentana in antis de cenai.
Logudorese Sardinian	Issa serrat semper sa bentana in antis de chenàre.
Sassarese	Edda sarra sempri lu balchoni primma di zinà.
Sicilian	Iḍḍa ncasa sempri a finesṭṛa prima ’i manciari â sira.

Lexical similarity coefficients
	Luthic	Italian	Spanish	Portuguese	French	Romanian	Catalan	Romansh	Sardinian	English	German
Luthic	1	0.49	0.40	0.38	0.47	0.35	0.45	0.36	0.43	0.41	0.42
Italian	0.49	1	0.82	0.80	0.89	0.77	0.87	0.78	0.85	—	—
Spanish	0.40	0.82	1	0.89	0.75	0.71	0.85	0.74	0.76	—	—
Portuguese	0.38	0.80	0.89	1	0.75	0.72	0.85	0.74	0.76	—	—
French	0.47	0.89	0.75	0.75	1	0.75	—	0.78	0.80	0.27	0.29
Romanian	0.35	0.77	0.71	0.72	0.75	1	0.73	0.72	0.74	—	—
Catalan	0.45	0.87	0.85	0.85	—	0.73	1	0.76	0.75	—	—
Romansh	0.36	0.78	0.74	0.74	0.78	0.72	0.76	1	0.74	—	—
Sardinian	0.43	0.85	0.76	0.76	0.80	0.74	0.75	0.74	1	—	—
English	0.41	—	—	—	0.27	—	—	—	—	1	0.60
German	0.42	—	—	—	0.29	—	—	—	—	0.60	1

Comparison with modern Germanic and Romance languages

Germanic

English	The cold winter is near, a snowstorm will come. Come in my warm house, my friend. Welcome! Come here, sing and dance, eat and drink. That is my plan. We have water, beer, and milk fresh from the cow. Oh, and warm soup!
Dutch	De koude winter is nabij, een sneeuwstorm zal komen, Kom in mijn warme huis, mijn vriend. Welkom! Kom hier, zing en dans, eet en drink. Dat is mijn plan. We hebben water, bier, en melk vers van de koe. Oh, en warme soep!
German	Der kalte Winter ist nahe, ein Schneesturm wird kommen. Komm in mein warmes Haus, mein Freund, Willkommen! Komm her, sing und tanz, iss und trink. Das ist mein Plan. Wir haben Wasser, Bier und Milch frisch von der Kuh. Oh, und warme Suppe!
Frisian	De kâlde winter is nei, in sniestoarm sil komme. Kom yn myn waarme hûs, myn freon. Wolkom! Kom hjir, sjong en dänsje, yt en drink. Dat is myn plan. Wy ha wtter, bier, en molke farsk fan de ko. Och, en waarme sop!
Norwegian	Den kalde vinteren er nær, en snøstorm vil komme. Kom inn i mitt varme hus, min venn. Velkommen! Kom her, syng og dans, et og drikk. Dette er min plan. Vi har vann, øl og melk fersk fra kua. Åh, og varm suppe!
Icelandic	Kaldi veturinn nálgast, snjóstormur mun koma. Komdu inn í hlýja húsið mitt, vinur minn. Velkominn! Komdu hingað, syngdu og dansaðu, borðaðu og drekktu. Það er planið mitt. Við höfum vatn, bjór, og mjólk ferska úr kúnni. Ó, og volga súpu!
Luthic	Il caldu vintru ist vicinu, aena tormenta qerrât. Qemâ gia meina husa/rasna, frigiondu meinu. Beneqemutu! Qemâ her, segguâ e danzâ, mangiâ e dregcâ. Su ist il meinu planu. Vi haemos vadne, biure, e melucu fresco da vacca. Ah, e zuppa varma!
Portuguese	O frio do inverno está a chegar, uma tempestade de neve virá. Vem para a minha casa quente, meu amigo. Bem-vindo! Vem cá, canta e dança, come e bebe. É esse o meu plano. Temos água, cerveja e leite fresco da vaca. Ah, e sopa quente!
Italian	Il freddo inverno è vicino, arriverà una tormenta di neve. Vieni nella mia calda casa, amico mio. Benvenuto! Vieni qui, canta e danza, mangia e bevi. Questo è il mio piano. Abbiamo acqua, birra e latte fresco di mucca. Ah, e zuppa calda!
Spanish	El frío invierno está cerca, vendrá una tormenta de nieve. Ven a mi cálida casa, amigo mío. ¡Bienvenido! Ven aquí, canta y baila, come y bebe. Ese es mi plan. Tenemos agua, cerveza y leche fresca de la vaca. ¡Oh, y sopa caliente!
French	Le froid de l'hiver est proche, une tempête de neige s'annonce. Viens dans ma maison chaude, mon ami. Bienvenue ! Viens ici, chante et danse, mange et bois. C'est mon plan. Nous avons de l'eau, de la bière et du lait frais de la vache. Oh, et de la soupe chaude !
Romanian	Iarna geroasă este aproape, viscolul o să vină. Vino în casa mea călduroasă, prietene. Bine ai venit! Vino încoace, cântă și dansează, bea și mănâncă. Ăsta e planul meu. Avem apa, bere și lapte proaspăt de la vacă. Aaa, și supă calda!

Romance

Portuguese	Este é um magnifico palácio real. Parti, peão ignorante! Somente os elites respeitáveis em política, ciência, cultura e arte são autorizados a entrar. Retornai imediatamente à vossa fazenda miserável, e pagai a taxa, ou os guardas exterminarão a vossa família.
Italian	Questo è un magnifico palazzo reale. Partite, pedone ignorante! Solo le élite rispettabili in politica, scienza, cultura e arte sono autorizzate a entrare. Tornate immediatamente alla vostra misera fattoria e pagate la tassa, o le guardie stermineranno la vostra famiglia.
Spanish	Este es un magnífico palacio real. ¡Partí, peón ignorante! Sólo las élites respetables de la política, la ciencia, la cultura y el arte están autorizadas a entrar. Regresá inmediatamente a vuestra miserable hacienda y pagá la tasa, o los guardias exterminarán a vuestra familia.
French	C'est un magnifique palais royal. Partez, paysan ignorant ! Seules les élites respectables en politique, science, culture et art sont autorisées à entrer. Retournez immédiatement à votre misérable ferme. Et payez la taxe, ou les gardes extermineront votre famille.
Romanian	Acesta este un palat regal magnific. Îndepărtaţi-vă, țăranule ignorant! Doar elitele respectabile din politică, știință, cultură și artă sunt autorizate să intre. Întoarceți-vă imediat la ferma voastră mizerabilă. Și plătiţi taxele, altfel gărzile vă vor extermina familia.
Luthic	Este ist aenu magnificu palazzu reale. Partite, pedone ignorante! Sole lae elitae rispettabili in politica, scienzia, coltura e crafte autorizzanða ad entrare. Tornate immediatamente all’unsara misera garda e pagate lo geldo, aud i guardi stermineranno l’unsara famigla.
English	This is a magnificent royal palace. Depart, ignorant peasant! Only respectable elites in politics, science, culture and art are authorised to enter. Return immediately to your miserable farm. And pay the tax, or the guards will exterminate your family.
Dutch	Dit is een prachtig koninklijk paleis. Gaat weg u, onwetende boer! Alleen respectabele elites in de politiek, wetenschap, cultuur en kunst hebben toegang. Keert u onmiddellijk terug naar uw ellendige boerderij. En betaalt u de belasting, of de bewakers zullen uw familie uitroeien.
German	Dies ist ein prächtiger königlicher Palast. Weggehen Sie unwissender Bauer! Nur respektable Eliten aus Politik, Wissenschaft, Kultur und Kunst haben Zutritt. Kehren Sie sofort auf Ihren armseligen Bauernhof zurück. Und zahlen Sie die Steuern, sonst werden die Wachen Ihre Familie auslöschen.
Frisian	Dit is in prachtich keninklik paleis. Gean werom, ûnwittende boer! Allinnich respektabele elites yn polityk, wittenskip, kultuer en keunst hawwe tagong. Gean werom fuort nei jo miserabele pleats. En betelje de belesting, of de bewakers sille jo famylje útroege.
Norwegian	Dette er et praktfullt kongelig palass. Forsvinn, uvitende bonde! Bare respektable eliter innen politikk, vitenskap, kultur og kunst har adgang. Dra straks tilbake til din elendige gård. Og betal skatten, ellers vil vaktene utrydde familien din.
Icelandic	Þetta er stórkostleg konungshöll. Farið þér, fáfróður bóndi! Aðeins virðuleg elíta í stjórnmálum, vísindum, menningu og listum hafa aðgang. Farið þér strax aftur á ömurlega bæinn ykkart. Og borgið þér skattinn, annars munu verðir útrýma fjölskyldu ykkarri.

Leipzig-Jakarta

Leipzig-Jakarta with cognates

Item	Luthic	Gothic	Latin	PIE
fire	fona “fire” (< *fōn, *funin-, related to *fōr, *fuïr-, which is found in North and West Germanic, ultimately from Proto-Germanic *fōr, *funiz ~ *fuiniz ~ *funiniz)	𐍆𐍉𐌽 (fōn) “fire” (< *fōn, *funin-, related to *fōr, *fuïr-, which is found in North and West Germanic, ultimately from Proto-Germanic *fōr, *funiz ~ *fuiniz ~ *funiniz)	pūrgō < *puragō “to purge”, from *pur + *agō, literally meaning “to do with fire; to clean with fire”. The second element is attested in Italic as Umbrian 𐌐𐌉𐌓 (pir)	*péh₂wr̥, *ph₂wéns “fire”. Two main terms for “fire” are reconstructible for PIE: *h₁n̥gʷnis and *péh₂wr̥, usually considered in semantic opposition; the first is usually masculine, refers to fire as animate and active (compare Agni, the most prominent Old Indic deity, and Latin ignis “fire”); the second is neuter and refers to fire as inanimate and passive, i.e. as a substance.
nose	nasu “nose”	*𐌽𐌰𐍃𐌰 (nasa) “nose”	nāsus “nose”, nāris “nostril”	*néh₂s, *nh₂sós “nose”
to go	ganare “to go”	*𐌲𐌰𐌽 (gān), merged with 𐌲𐌰𐌲𐌲𐌰𐌽 (gaggan) “to go”	hērēs < *ǵʰeh₁ro- “derelict; heir”	*ǵʰeh₁- “to leave behind; to abandon; to come; to reach; to go; to walk”
water	vadne “water”	𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉 (watō) “water”	unda “wave” < *udnéh₂ < *udn-	*wódr̥, *udn- “water”
mouth	monþu “mouth”	𐌼𐌿𐌽𐌸𐍃 (munþs) “mouth”	mentum “chin”	*mento- (“mouth; jaw”) < *men- “to stand out; to protrude; to project; to stick out”
tongue	tugga “tongue”	𐍄𐌿𐌲𐌲𐍉 (tuggō) “tongue”	lingua < dinguā̆ “tongue”. Influenced by lingō “to lick” as a folk etymology; compare Old Armenian լեզու (lezu) and Lithuanian liežùvis	*dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s “tongue”
blood	saggue “blood”	𐌴𐌹𐍃𐌰𐍂𐌽 (eisarn) “iron” (via Celtic?)	assarātum “drink made with blood and wine”, assyr “blood”, sanguī̆s < *h₁sh₂n̥- “blood”	*h₁ésh₂r̥ “blood”
bone	beine “bone”	*𐌱𐌰𐌹𐌽 “bone”	*perfināre < *finō “to break”	*bʰeyh₂- “to strike; to cut; to hew”
thou	þû “you”	𐌸𐌿 (þū) “you”	tū “you”	*tíh₁, *tu- “you”
root	vaurte “root”	𐍅𐌰𐌿𐍂𐍄𐍃 (waurts) “root”	rādīx “root”	*wréh₂diHs “root”
to come	qemare “to come”	𐌵𐌹𐌼𐌰𐌽 (qiman) “to come”	venīre < *gʷen < *gʷem- < *gʷm̥- “to come”	*gʷem- “to step”
breast	brostu “breast”	𐌱𐍂𐌿𐍃𐍄𐍃 (brusts) “breast”	frū̆stum “piece; bit; crumb; morsel; scrap of food”	*bʰrews- “to break (up); to cut”
rain	ploggia “rain”	*𐍆𐌻𐌰𐌿𐌼𐍃 (flaums) “stream; flow; flood”, compare 𐍆𐌻𐍉𐌳𐌿𐍃 (flōdus) “river” for the same root < *pleh₃(w)-, often considered a lengthened *ō-grade of *plew-	pluvia “rain”	*plew- “to fly; to flow; to run”
I	ic “I”	𐌹𐌺 (ik) “I”	egō̆ “I”	*eǵóH < *éǵ ~ *h₁eǵ(H) “I”
name	namno “name”	𐌽𐌰𐌼𐍉 (namō) “name”	nōmen “name”	*h₃néh₃mn̥ ~ *h₃nh₃méns “name”
louse	pidocclu “louse”	∅	pēdis “louse”	*pesdis < *pesd- “annoying insect?”. Ultimately IE, cognates include: Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬰𐬛𐬎- (pazdu-) “beetle; maggot” and Sanskrit पेदु- (pedú-) “proper noun of a man, protected by the Asvins, by whom he was presented with white snake-killing honey”, पैद्व​ (paidvá-) “the snake-killing horse of Pedu; an insect harming horses”
wing	ala “wing”	*𐌰𐌷𐍃𐌻𐌰 (ahsla) “shoulder”	āla “wing”	*h₂eḱs(i)leh₂ < *h₂eḱs- “axle; axis”
meat	carne “meat”	*𐍃𐌺𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌰𐌽 (skairan) “to shear”	carō “meat”	*(s)ker- “to cut off; to server; to separate; to divide”
arm	bracchio “arm”	*𐌼𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌲𐌿𐍃 (maurgus) “short”	bracchium “arm”	*mréǵʰus < *mreǵʰ- “short; brief”
fly	þliugano “fly”	*𐌸𐌻𐌹𐌿𐌲𐍉 (þliugō) “fly”	plūma “feather; plume”	*plewk- “to fly; to flow; to run”
night	nattu “night”	𐌽𐌰𐌷𐍄𐍃 (nahts) “night”	nōx “night”	*nókʷts “night”
ear	oreccla “ear”	𐌰𐌿𐍃𐍉 (ausō) “ear”	auris “ear”	*h₂ṓws, *h₂éwsos “ear”
neck	collo “neck”	𐌷𐌰𐌻𐍃 (hals) “neck”	collum “neck”	*kʷolso- < *kʷel- “to turn (end-over-end)”
far	fairra “far”	𐍆𐌰𐌹𐍂𐍂𐌰 (fairra) “far”	per “through(out); via”	*pernóy < *per- “before; in front; first”
to do/make	taugiare “to do/make”	𐍄𐌰𐌿𐌾𐌰𐌽 (taujan) “to do/make”	∅	*dewh₂- “to fit”. Ultimately IE, cognates include: Tocharian B tsu- “to cohere; to adhere; to contain” and Ancient Greek δύναμαι (dúnamai) “to be able; to can”
house	huso “house”	*𐌷𐌿𐍃 (hūs) “house” < *(s)kuHsóm	scūtum “shield” < *(s)kuHtóm	*(s)kewH- “to cover; to protect”
stone	staenu “stone”	𐍃𐍄𐌰𐌹𐌽𐍃 (stains) “stone” < *steyh₂-	stāre “to stand” < *steh₂-	*steh₂- “to stand”
bitter	baetru “bitter”	𐌱𐌰𐌹𐍄𐍂𐍃 (baitrs) “bitter” < *bʰoydrós	fissus “split; cloven” < *bʰidtós	*bʰeyd- “to split”
to say	rogiare “to say”	𐍂𐍉𐌳𐌾𐌰𐌽 (rōdjan) “to speak; to talk” < *h₂reh₁dʰ- < *h₂réh₁dʰh₁eti	rērī “to reckon” < *h₂reh₁yéti	*h₂reh₁- “to think; to reason”
tooth	dente “tooth”	𐍄𐌿𐌽𐌸𐌿𐍃 (tunþus) “tooth”	dēns “tooth”	*h₃dónts “tooth”
hair	taglo “hair”	𐍄𐌰𐌲𐌻 (tagl) “hair”	dolāre “to hew; to chop”	*delh₁- “to split”. Uncertain and debatable.
big	mêchelu “big”	𐌼𐌹𐌺𐌹𐌻𐍃 (mikils) “great; large; big” < *méǵh₂los	magnus “great; large; big” < *m̥ǵh₂nós	*méǵh₂s (*m̥ǵh₂-) “big; great”
one	aenu “one”	𐌰𐌹𐌽𐍃 (ains) “one”	ūnus “one”	*h₁óynos “one”
who	qu “who”	𐍈𐌰𐍃 (ƕas) “who; what”	quis “who”	*kʷís, *kʷós “who”
he, she, it	is, ia, ata “he, she, it”	𐌹𐍃, 𐍃𐌹, 𐌹𐍄𐌰 (is, si, ita) “he, she, it”	is, ea, id “he, she, it”	*h₁e, *ih₂, *id “he, she, it”
to hit	blegguare “to hit”	𐌱𐌻𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍅𐌰𐌽 (bliggwan) “to beat; to scourge; to cut; to kill”	∅	*mléwe- < *mlew- “weak?”. Ultimately Indo-European, related to Ancient Greek ἀμβλύς (amblús) “blunt; dim; faint” and Avestan 𐬨𐬭𐬎𐬙𐬀 (mruta) “crushed; weak”, also related to Old Norse blauðr (soft; meek; coward(ly)).
foot	piê “foot”	𐍆𐍉𐍄𐌿𐍃 (fōtus) “foot”	pēs “foot”	*pṓds, *ped- “foot”
horn	haurno “horn”	𐌷𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌽 (haurn) “horn”	cornū “horn”	*ḱr̥h₂nós < *ḱer(h₂)- “horn”
this	su, sa, þata “this”	𐍃𐌰, 𐍃𐍉, 𐌸𐌰𐍄𐌰 (sa, sō, þata) “this”	sī “if” < *sey (an innovated thematic locative singular) tum “then” < *tóm, accusative of *só iste, ista, istud “that” < *h₁e(s)- + *só	*só, *séh₂, *tód “this; that”
fish	fescu “fish”	𐍆𐌹𐍃𐌺𐍃 (fisks) “fish” < *piskós	piscis “fish” < *piskís	*peysk- “fish”
yesterday	gestradago “yesterday”	𐌲𐌹𐍃𐍄𐍂𐌰𐌳𐌰𐌲𐌹𐍃 “tomorrow”	hesternus “yesterday’s” < *dʰǵʰyésteros febris < *dʰegʷʰris	*dʰǵʰyés “yesterday” *dʰegʷʰ- “to burn; hot; warm”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”
	“”	“”	“”	“”

Phrasebook

Luthic	English	IPA
Haelo m sg Haela f sg Haelos m pl Haelas f pl	Hello	[ˈɛ.lo] m sg [ˈɛ.lɐ] f sg [ˈɛ.los] m pl [ˈɛ.lɐs] f pl
Buona maurgina	Good morning	[ˈbwɔ.nɐ ˈmɔr.d͡ʒi.nɐ]
Buono dago	Good afternoon	[ˈbwɔ.no ˈda.ɣo]
Buona sera	Good evening	[ˈbwɔ.nɐ ˈse.rɐ]
Buono natto	Good night	[ˈbwɔ.no ˈnat.to]
Ce ist ata þeino namno?	What is your name?	[t͡ʃe ist ɐ.θɐ ˈθi.no ˈnam.no]
Ata meino namno ist [...]	My name is [...]	[ɐ.θɐ ˈmi.no ˈnam.no ist ⸨...⸩]
Car is?	Where are you from?	[kɐr is]
Im di [...]	I am from [...]	[im di ⸨...⸩]
Beneqemutu m Beneqemuta f	Welcome	[ˌbe.ne.kᶣeˈmu.tu] m [ˌbe.ne.kᶣeˈmu.tɐ] f
Piacere!	Pleased to meet you!	[pjɐˈt͡ʃe.re]
Ce taugis?	How are you?	[t͡ʃe ˈtɔ.d͡ʒis]
Bene Male	Well Bad	[ˈbe.ne] [ˈma.le]
Begio	Please	[ˈbe.d͡ʒo]
Scusâ	Excuse me	[sk̠uˈza]
Grazie	Thank you	[ˈɡrat.t͡sje]
Di nulla	You are welcome	[di ˈnul.la]
Giumane her rogiat Lûthico?	Does anyone here speak Luthic?	[d͡ʒuˈma.ne er ˈro.d͡ʒɐθ ˈlu.ti.xo]
Rogias Lûthico?	Do you speak Luthic?	[ˈro.d͡ʒɐs ˈlu.ti.xo]
Sei Non Forse	Yes No Maybe	[ˈsi] [non] [ˈfor.se]
Ce pronuncias þata vaurdo?	How do you pronounce this word?	[t͡ʃe proˈnun.t͡ʃɐ.s‿sɐ.θɐ ˈvɔr.do]
Ce rogiare [...] in Lûthico?	How to say [...] in Luthic?	[t͡ʃe roˈd͡ʒa.re ⸨...⸩ i.l‿ˈlu.tʰi.xo]
Cantas rasdas rogias?	How many languages do you speak?	[ˈkan.tɐs ˈraz.dɐs ˈro.d͡ʒɐs]
Begio, rogiâ maeze lentamente	Please, speak more slowly	[ˈbe.d͡ʒo｜roˈd͡ʒɐ.m‿ˈmɛd.d͡ze len.tɐˈmen.te]
Begio, ripetae þata	Please, repeat that	[ˈbe.d͡ʒo｜ri.ɸeˈtɛ.θ‿θɐ.θɐ]
Begio, screvae þata	Please, write that down	[ˈbe.d͡ʒo｜skreˈβɛ.θ‿θɐ.θɐ]
Scio Non scio	I understand I don’t understand	[ˈʃi.o] [non ˈʃi.o]
Arrivederci	Goodbye	[ɐr.ri.βeˈder.t͡ʃi]
Buono viaggo	Bon voyage	[ˈbwɔ.no ˈvjad.d͡ʒo]
Buono appetito	Bon appetit	[ˈbwɔ.no ɐp.peˈti.θo]

Idiomatic phrases

Mostly of the Luthic idiomatic phrases are similar to mostly European languages idioms, mainly Italian and French. Luthic idioms are often about food or mocking the French people, but mostly because of the French government and its movements against minority people within its territory. Another factor is the Roman inherited culture, as the Roman elite considered the Germanic people savage and stupid (e.g. the word Vandal, that can also stand for a person who needlessly destroys, defaces, or damages things, especially other people’s property; and Gothic that also meant barbarous, rude, unpolished, belonging to the “Dark Ages”, mediaeval as opposed to classical; ultimately of Germanic origin, the name of two East Germanic tribes, but drastically semantic changed to sound pejorative). There were many Germanic raids against the Roman Empire, and a common weapon used back then by the West Germanic people were the javelins, the Common West Germanic word for javelin is *frankō, which is also the name of the Frankish tribe (cf. Latin Francus and Francia). Luthic inherited the word “fragcese” [frɐŋˈke.ze] from Francia + -ensis, ultimately meaning “French (language)”, “Frenchman, Frenchwoman” and "French (people)”, but also meaning “stupid, savage, useless” from a semantic change similar to Vandal and Gothic.

1. Monþo al·lo volfo: calqued from Italian in bocca al lupo, equivalent to break a leg, good luck; literally, “in the wolf’s mouth”.
2. Dauþit lo volfo: calqued from Italian crepi in lupo, an answer similar to “thank you”; literally, “may the wolf die”.
3. Tvi italiani miþ sole aena mana: equivalent to two birds with one stone; literally, “two Italians with only one hand”, a mock to Italians’ che vuoi?.
4. Veglare anþero pomodoro: an expression for someones who is asking for special treatment; literally, “to want another tomato”.
5. La herba vicini ist aeve verdiza: equivalent to the grass is always greener on the other side; literally, “The neighbour’s grass is always greener”.
6. La fame laþot pasta, agce si inu salsa: equivalent to desperate times call for desperate measures; literally, “Hunger calls for pasta, even if without sauce”.
7. L’amore dominat inu regolam: somewhat equivalent to all’s fair in love and war; literally, “Love rules without rules”.
8. Blegguare lo chiudo capo: equivalent to hit the nail on the head, with the same literal translation.
9. Martellare lo dito: the opposite to the previous idiomatic phrase, when someone is totally wrong; literally, “To hammer the finger”.
10. Gnosco las meinas patatas: equivalent to I can handle this; literally, “I know my potatoes”.
11. Stoppau di rogiare fragcese: an expression asking for someone to be straightforward and speak one’s mind; literally, “Stop speaking French”.
12. Imparasti fragcese, nu rogiâ: equivalent to make one’s bed and lie in it; literally, “You learnt French, now speak it”.
13. Pasta miþ salsa e caffê aeve neru: equivalent to call a spade a spade; literally, “Pasta with sauce and coffee always black”.
14. Il þeinu sale stâþ dolce: equivalent to out of one’s mind; literally, “Your salt is sweet”.
15. Havere managos casos faul·lo dativo: equivalent to wear too many hats; literally, “Have too many usages for the dative”, a joke about the many usages of the dative case in Luthic.
16. Sputâ la patata da seina monþa faur di rogiare: equivalent to speak up; literally, “Spit the potato out of your mouth before speaking”.
17. Rogiando da diavola: equivalent to speak of the devil, with the same literal translation.
18. Il pomudoru non taugit lo capocuocu: equivalent to clothes don’t make the man; literally, “The tomato doesn’t make the chef”.
19. Aenu pomudoru grossu: equivalent to big shot; literally, “A big tomato”.
20. Havere aeno cervello di fragcesi: an expression for someone who acts stupidly, has low intelligence or has poor judgment; literally, “To have a French brain”.
21. Cosa ist marcia in Roma: equivalent to something is rotten in the state of Denmark; literally, “Something is rotten in Rome”.
22. Scimmia non dauþat scimmia: equivalent to honour among thieves; literally, “Monkey doesn’t kill monkey”.
23. Costare aeno augono: equivalent to an arm and a leg; literally, “To cost an eye”.
24. Þata ist Italiana mis: equivalent to it’s all Greek to me; literally, “This is Italian to me”.
25. Drigcare svasve aenu russu: equivalent to drink like a fish; literally, “To drink like a Russian”.
26. Vivere grande ed al·la fragcesa: an expression for living in extravagance, 'to live in luxury; literally, “To live big and French”, mocking the French lifestyle.
27. Possere drigcare veleno ana þata: equivalent to bet one’s bottom dollar; literally, “To can drink poison on that”.
28. Il volfu danzat her: an expression for a great party; literally, “The wolf dances here”.
29. Non vendere los seinos pomosdoros faur di maturanda: equivalent to don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched; literally, “Don’t sell your tomatoes before they’re ripe”.
30. Pizza buona non cambiat la ricetta: equivalent to if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it; literally, “A good pizza doesn’t change its recipe”.

Sample text

The North Wind and the Sun in Luthic:

• Orthographic version in Standard Luthic

Il vendu trabaergana ed ata sauilo giucavanno carge erat il fortizu, can aenu pellegrinu qemavat avvoltu hacola varma ana. I tvi dicideronno ei, il fromu a rimuovere lo hacolo pellegrina sariat il fortizu anþera. Il vendu trabaergana dustoggiat a soffiare violenza, ac ata maeze is soffiavat, ata maeze il pellegrinu striggevat hacolo; tantu ei, al·lo angio il vendu desistaet da seina sforza. Ata sauilo allora sceinaut varmamente nal·lo hemeno, e þan il pellegrinu rimuovaet lo hacolo immediatamente. Þan il vendu trabaergana obbligauða ad andaetare ei, lata sauilo erat ata fortizo tvoro.

• Broad transcription

/il ˈβen.du trɐˈbɛr.ɡɐ.na e.d‿ɐ.tɐ ˈsɔj.lo d͡ʒu.kɐˈβɐ̃.no kɐr.d͡ʒe ˈɛ.rɐθ il ˈɸɔr.ti.d͡zu | kɐn ɛ.nu pel.leˈɡri.nu kʷeˈma.βɐθ ɐβˈβol.tu ɐˈkɔ.la ˈβar.ma ɐ.nɐ ‖ i tβi di.t͡ʃi.deˈrõ.no ˈi | il ˈɸro.mu ɐ ri.mwoˈβe.re lo ɐˈkɔ.lo pel.leˈɡri.na ˈsa.rjɐθ il ˈɸɔr.ti.d͡zu ɐ̃ˈθe.ra ‖ il ˈβen.du trɐˈbɛr.ɡɐ.na duˈstɔd.d͡ʒɐθ ɐ soɸˈɸja.re βjoˈlɛn.t͡sa | ɐ.k‿ɐ.tɐ ˈmɛ.d͡ze is soɸˈɸja.βɐθ | ɐ.tɐ ˈmɛ.d͡ze il pel.leˈɡri.nu striŋˈɡe.βɐθ ɐˈkɔ.lo | ˈtan.tu ˈi | ɐl.lo ˈan.d͡ʒo il ˈβen.du deˈzi.stɛθ da ˈsi.na ˈsɸɔr.t͡sa ‖ ɐ.tɐ ˈsɔj.lo ɐlˈlɔ.rɐ ʃiˈnɔθ βɐr.mɐˈmen.te nɐl.lo eˈme.no | e θɐn il pel.leˈɡri.nu riˈmwo.βɛθ lo ɐˈkɔ.lo ĩ.me.djɐ.tɐˈmen.te ‖ θɐn il ˈβen.du trɐˈbɛr.ɡɐ.na ob.bliˈɡɔ.ðɐ ɐ.d‿ɐn.dɛˈta.re ˈi | lɐ.tɐ ˈsɔj.lo ˈɛ.rɐθ ɐ.tɐ ˈɸɔr.ti.d͡zo ˈtβo.ru/

• Narrow transcription (differences emphasised)

[il ˈven.du trɐˈbɛr.ɡɐ.na e.ð‿ɐ.θɐ ˈsɔj.lo d͡ʒu.xɐˈβɐ̃.no kɐr.d͡ʒe ˈɛ.rɐθ il ˈfɔr.tid.d͡zu | kɐn ɛ.nu pel.leˈɡri.nu kᶣeˈma.βɐθ ɐβˈβol.tu ɐˈkɔ.la ˈvar.ma ɐ.nɐ ‖ i tvi di.t͡ʃi.ðeˈrõ.no ˈi | il ˈfro.mu ɐ.r‿ri.mwoˈβe.re lo ɐˈk̠ɔ.lo pel.leˈɡri.na ˈsa.rjɐθ il ˈfɔr.tid.d͡zu ɐ̃ˈθe.ra ‖ il ˈven.du trɐˈbɛr.ɡɐ.na duˈstɔd.d͡ʒɐθ ɐ.s‿soɸˈɸja.re vjoˈlɛn.t͡sa | ɐ.x‿ɐ.θɐ ˈmɛd.d͡ze is soɸˈɸja.βɐθ | ɐ.θɐ ˈmɛd.d͡ze il pel.leˈɡri.nu striŋ˖ˈɡ̟e.βɐθ ɐˈk̠ɔ.lo | ˈtan.tu ˈi | ɐl.lo ˈan.d͡ʒo il ˈven.du deˈzi.stɛθ da.s‿ˈsi.na ˈsfɔr.t͡sa ‖ ɐ.θɐ ˈsɔj.lo ɐlˈlɔ.rɐ ʃiˈnɔθ vɐr.mɐˈmen.te nɐl.lo eˈme.no | e θɐn il pel.leˈɡri.nu riˈmwo.βɛθ lo ɐˈk̠ɔ.lo ĩ.me.djɐ.θɐˈmen.te ‖ θɐn il ˈven.du trɐˈbɛr.ɡɐ.na ob.bliˈɡɔ.ðɐ ɐ.ð‿ɐn.dɛˈta.re ˈi | lɐ.θɐ ˈsɔj.lo ˈɛ.rɐθ ɐ.θɐ ˈfɔr.tid.d͡zo ˈtvo.ru]

• Narrow transcription (differences emphasised, Bolognese Standard Luthic)

[il ˈvin.du tɾɐˈbɛr.ɡɐ.na e.ð̞‿ɐ.θɐ ˈsɔj.lo d͡zu.xɐˈvɐ̃.nu kɐr.d͡ze ˈɛ.rɐθ il ˈfɔɾ.tid.d͡zu | kɐn e.nu pel.leˈɡri.nu kᶣeˈma.vɐθ ɐvˈvul.tu ɐˈkɔ.la ˈvar.ma ɐ.nɐ ‖ i tvi di.t͡si.ð̞eˈrõ.nu ˈi | il ˈfru.mu ɐ.r‿ri.mwoˈve.ɾe lo ɐˈkɔ.lo pel.leˈɡri.na ˈsa.rjɐθ il ˈfɔr.tid.d͡zu ɐ̃ˈt͡θe.ra ‖ il ˈvin.du tɾɐˈbɛr.ɡɐ.na duˈstɔd.d͡zɐθ ɐ.s‿sofˈfja.re vjoˈlɛn.t͡sa | ɐ.x‿ɐ.θɐ ˈmɛd.d͡ze is sofˈfja.vɐθ | ɐ.θɐ ˈmɛd.d͡ze il pel.leˈɡri.nu stɾiŋˈɡ̟e.vɐθ ɐˈkɔ.lo | ˈtan.tu ˈi | ɐl.lo ˈan.d͡zo il ˈvin.du deˈzis.tɛθ da.s‿ˈsi.na ˈsfɔr.t͡sa ‖ ɐ.θɐ ˈsɔj.lo ɐlˈlɔ.rɐ ʃiˈnɔθ vɐr.mɐˈmen.te nɐl.lo eˈme.no | e θɐn il pel.leˈɡri.nu riˈmwo.vɛθ lo ɐˈkɔ.lo ĩ.me.djɐ.θɐˈmen.te ‖ θɐn il ˈvin.du tɾɐˈbɛr.ɡɐ.na ob.bliˈɡɔ.ð̞ɐ ɐ.ð̞‿ɐn.dɛˈta.re ˈi | lɐ.θɐ ˈsɔj.lo ˈɛ.ɾɐθ ɐ.θɐ ˈfɔr.tid.d͡zo ˈtvu.ru]

• Orthographic version in Standard Luthic, with reductions

Il vendu trabaergana·d ata sauilo giucavanno carge erat il fortizu, can aenu pellegrinu qemavat avvoltu hacola varma ana. I tvi dicideronno ei, il fromu a rimuovere lo hacolo pellegrina sariat il fortizu anþera. Il vendu trabaergana dustoggiat a soffiare violenza, ac ata maeze is soffiavat, ata maeze il pellegrinu striggevat hacolo; tantu ei, all’angio il vendu desistaet da seina sforza. Ata sauilo allora sceinaut varmamente nal·lo hemeno, e þan il pellegrino rimuovaet lo hacolo immediatamente. Þan il vendu trabaergana obbligauða·d andaetare ei, lata sauilo erat ata fortizo tvoro.

• Orthographic version in English

The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveller came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveller take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveller fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveller took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two.

The Lord’s Prayer in Luthic:

• Orthographic version in Luthic
  

Faðar unsar, þû hemeno,
Veiða lata namno þeino;
La þiuðanagarda þeina qemit;
Lo veglano þeino taugiat;
Svasve hemeno ed ana aerþa.
Il claefu qotidianu unsar gevâ unse oggi,
Ed afletâ las unsaras colpas,
Svasve afletamos þos ei, colpanno unsis;
E non letare unse in tentazione
Ac frieau unse da mala.
Faur þuc ist þiuðanagarda,
E la forza, la volþa,
Faur saecla saecloro. Amen.

• Broad transcription
  

/ˈɸa.ðɐr ˈũ.sɐr | ˈθu eˈme.no
ˈβi.ðɐ lɐ.tɐ ˈnam.no ˈθi.no
lɐ θjuˌða.nɐˈɡar.dɐ ˈθi.nɐ ˈkʷe.miθ
lo βeʎˈʎa.no ˈθi.no ˈtɔ.d͡ʒɐθ
zβɐ.zβe eˈme.no e.d‿ɐ.nɐ ˈɛr.θɐ
il ˈklɛ.ɸu kʷo.tiˈdja.nu ˈũ.sɐr d͡ʒeˈβa ũ.se ˈɔd.d͡ʒi
e.d‿ɐ.ɸleˈta lɐs ˈũ.sɐ.rɐs ˈkol.pɐs
zβɐ.zβe ɐ.ɸleˈta.mos θos ˈi | kolˈpɐ̃.no ũ.sis
e non leˈta.re ũ.se in ten.tɐtˈt͡sjo.ne
ɐk ɸrjeˈɔ ũ.se da ˈma.la
ɸɔr θuk ist θjuˌða.nɐˈɡar.da
e la ˈɸɔr.t͡sa | la ˈvol.θa
ɸɔr ˈsɛ.klɐ ˈsɛ.klo.ru ‖ ˈa.men/

• Narrow transcription
  

[ˈfa.ðɐr ˈũ.sɐr | ˈθu eˈme.no
ˈvi.ðɐ lɐ.θɐ ˈnam.no ˈθi.no
lɐ θjuˌða.nɐˈɡar.dɐ ˈθi.nɐ ˈkᶣe.miθ
lo veʎˈʎa.no ˈθi.no ˈtɔ.d͡ʒɐθ
zvɐ.zve eˈme.no e.ð‿ɐ.nɐ ˈɛr.θɐ
il ˈklɛ.ɸu kʷo.θiˈdja.nu ˈũ.sɐr d͡ʒeˈβa ũ.se ˈɔd.d͡ʒi
e.ð‿ɐ.ɸleˈta lɐs ˈũ.sɐ.rɐs ˈk̠ol.pɐs
zvɐ.zve ɐ.ɸleˈta.mo.θ‿θos ˈi | k̠olˈpɐ̃.no ũ.sis
e non leˈta.re ũ.se in ten.tɐtˈt͡sjo.ne
ɐ.f‿frjeˈɔ ũ.se da ˈma.la
fɔr θux ist θjuˌða.nɐˈɡar.da
e la ˈfɔr.t͡sa | la ˈvol.θa
fɔr ˈsɛ.klɐ ˈsɛ.klo.ru ‖ ˈa.men]

• Orthographic version in English
  

Our Father, who art in heaven,
Hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdom come,
Thy will be done on earth,
as it is in heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread.
And forgive us our debts,
as we forgive our debtors.
And lead us not into temptation,
but deliver us from evil:
For thine is the kingdom,
and the power, and the glory,
forever. Amen.

See also

• Tuscan gorgia
• Geats
• Gutes
• Gutones
• List of Germanic languages
• Romance languages
• Modern Gutnish
• Name of the Goths
• Old Gutnish
• Grimm’s law
• Verner’s law
• Thurneysen’s law
• Runic epigraphy
• Latin epigraphy
• Gothic runic inscriptions
• Gothic Bible

Bibliography

• Tagliavini, Carlo (1948). Le origini delle lingue Neolatine: corso introduttivo di filologia romanza. Bologna: Pàtron.
• Haller, Hermann W. (1999). The other Italy: the literary canon in dialect. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
• Renzi, Lorenzo (1994). Nuova introduzione alla filologia romanza. Bologna: Il Mulino.
• Koryakov, Y. B. (2001). Atlas of Romance languages. Moscow: Moscow State University.
• Mallory, J.P.; Douglas Q. Adams (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers.
• Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias; Wenthe, Mark (2017). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics (Vol. 1). Berlin: De Gruyer.
• Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias; Wenthe, Mark (2017). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics (Vol. 2). Berlin: De Gruyer.
• Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias; Wenthe, Mark (2018). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics (Vol. 3). Berlin: De Gruyer.
• Ringe, Donald A. (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic. Linguistic history of English, v. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Kroonen, Guus (2013). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic. Leiden–Boston: Brill.
• Orel, Vladimir (2003). A Handbook of Germanic Etymology. Leiden–Boston: Brill.
• E. Prokosch (1939). A Comparative Germanic Grammar. Connecticut: The Linguistic Society of America for Yale University.
• A. Noreen (1913). Geschichte der nordischen Sprachen. Trübner: Straßburg.
• Crawford, Jackson (2012). Old Norse-Icelandic (þú) est and (þú) ert. Los Angeles: University of California.
• Geir T. Zoëga (1910). A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Kloekhorst, Alwin (2008). Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon. Leiden–Boston: Brill.
• Jasanoff, Jay (2003). Hittite and the Indo-European Verb. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Adams, Douglas Q. (2013). A Dictionary of Tocharian B.: Revised and Greatly Enlarged. Amsterdam-New York: Rodopi.
• de Vaan, Michiel (2008). Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages. Leiden–Boston: Brill.
• Bennett, William Holmes (1980). An Introduction to the Gothic Language. New York: Modern Language Association of America.
• Wright, Joseph (1910). Grammar of the Gothic Language. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Snædal, Magnús (2011). "Gothic <ggw>". Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis. 128: 145–154.
• G. H. Balg (1889): A comparative glossary of the Gothic language with especial reference to English and German. New York: Westermann & Company.
• Ebbinghaus, E. A. (1976). THE FIRST ENTRY OF THE GOTHIC CALENDAR. The Journal of Theological Studies, 27(1), 140–145. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Voyles, Joseph B. (1992). Early Germanic Grammar. San Diego: Academic Press.
• Fulk, R. D. (2018). A Comparative Grammar of Early Germanic Languages. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
• Stearns Jr, MacDonald (1978). Crimean Gothic: Analysis and Etymology of the Corpus. Stanford: Anma Libri.
• Sihler, Andrew L. (1995). New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Allen, William Sidney (1978) [1965]. Vox Latina: A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Allen, William Sidney (1987). Vox Graeca: The Pronunciation of Classical Greek. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Holt, D. Eric (2016). From Latin to Portuguese: Main Phonological Changes. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
• Grandgent, C. H. (1927). From Latin to Italian: An Historical Outline of the Phonology and Morphology of the Italian Language. Harvard: Harvard University Press.
• Grandgent, C. H. (1907). An introduction to Vulgar Latin. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co.
• Alkire, Ti; Rosen, Carol (2010). Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Ferguson, Thaddeus (1976). A history of the Romance vowel systems through paradigmatic reconstruction. Berlin: De Gruyter.
• Calabrese, Andrea (2005). On the Feature [ATR] and the Evolution of the Short High Vowels of Latin into Romance. Connecticut: University of Connecticut
• Calabrese, Andrea (1998). Some remarks on the Latin case system and its development in Romance, in J. Lema & E. Trevino, (eds.), Theoretical Advances on Romance Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
• Calabrese, Andrea (1999). Metaphony Revisited. In Rivista di Linguistica.
• Calabrese, Andrea (2011). Metaphony in Romance. In C. Ewen; M. & Oostendorp; B. Hume (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Phonology. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Batllori, Montserrat & Roca, Francesc (2011). Grammaticalization of ser and estar in romance. Oxford: Oxford Scholarship Online.
• Bruckner, Wilhelm (1895). Die Sprache der Langobarden. Quellen und Forschungen zur Sprach- und Culturgeschichte der germanischen Völker. Vol. LXXV. Strassburg: Trübner.
• Gamillscheg, Ernst (2017) [First published 1935]. Die Ostgoten. Die Langobarden. Die altgermanischen Bestandteile des Ostromanischen. Altgermanisches im Alpenromanischen. Romania Germanica. Vol. 2. Berlin: De Gruyter.
• Guitel, Geneviève (1975). Histoire comparée des numérations écrites. Paris: Flammarion.
• Gvozdanovic, Jadranka (1991). Indo-European Numerals. Berlin: De Gruyter.
• Hoff, Erika (2009). Language development. Boston, MA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.
• Goebl, H., ed. (1984). Dialectology. Quantitative Linguistics, Vol. 21. Bochum: Brockmeyer.
• Crystal, David (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Wales: Bangor.
• Hockett, Charles F. (1958). A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York: Macmillan.
• Stewart, William A. (1968). A sociolinguistic typology for describing national multilingualism. In Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.). Readings in the Sociology of Language. Berlin: De Gruyter.
• Danilevitch, Olga (2019). Logical Semantics Approach for Data Modeling in XBRL Taxonomies. Minsk: Belarusian State Economic University.
• Pellegrino, F.; Coupé, C.; Marsico, E. (2011). Across-language perspective on speech information rate. Paris: French National Centre for Scientific Research.
• Gumperz, John J.; Cook-Gumperz, Jenny (2008). Studying language, culture, and society: Sociolinguistics or linguistic anthropology?. Journal of Sociolinguistics.
• Stewart, William A (1968). A Sociolinguistic Typology for Describing National Multilingualism. In Fishman, Joshua A (ed.), Readings in the Sociology of Language. The Hague, Paris: Mouton.
• Treffers-Daller, J. (2009). Bullock, Barbara E; Toribio, Almeida Jacqueline (eds.). Code-switching and transfer: An exploration of similarities and differences. The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Code-switching. Cambridge: Cambrigde University Press.
• Carlson, Neil; et al. (2010). Psychology the Science of Behavior. Pearson Canada, United States of America.
• Nair, RD; Lincoln, NB (2007). Lincoln, Nadina (ed.). Cognitive rehabilitation for memory deficits following stroke. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
• Brotle, Charles D. (2011). The role of mnemonic acronyms in clinical emergency medicine: A grounded theory study (EdD thesis).
• O'Grady, William; Dobrovolsky, Michael; Katamba, Francis (1996). Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. Harlow, Essex: Longman.
• Lass, Roger (1998). Phonology: An Introduction to Basic Concepts. Cambridge, UK; New York; Melbourne, Australia: Cambridge University Press.
• Trask, Robert Lawrence (2007). Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts. Taylor & Francis.
• McGregor, William B. (2015). Linguistics: An Introduction (2nd ed.). London: Bloomsbury Academic.
• Arndt, Walter W. (1959). The performance of glottochronology in Germanic. Language, 35, 180–192.
• Bergsland, Knut; & Vogt, Hans. (1962). On the validity of glottochronology. Current Anthropology, 3, 115–153.
• Sheila Embleton (1992). Historical Linguistics: Mathematical concepts. In W. Bright (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Linguistics.
• Swadesh, Morris (Oct 1950). Salish Internal Relations. International Journal of American Linguistics. 16: 157–167.
• Ottenheimer, Harriet Joseph (2006). The Anthropology of Language. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

External links

• Wulfila Bible (full text)
• Gotica (Gothic) (small fragments)
• The latin library, ancient Latin books and writings (without translations) ordered by author
• LacusCurtius, a small collection of Greek and Roman authors along with their books and writings (original texts are in Latin and Greek, translations in English and occasionally in a few other languages are available)
• Eu Rune Pietroassa

Conlang status

Luthic Lûthica
Progress: 96%
Type
Fusional
Alignment
Nominative–accusative
Head direction
Initial	Mixed		Final
Primary word order
Subject-verb-object
Tonal
No
Declensions
Yes
Conjugations
Yes
Genders
3
Nouns decline according to...
Case		Number
Definiteness		Gender
Verbs conjugate according to...
Voice		Mood
Person		Number
Tense		Aspect

• Ongoing projects:
  • Etymological Leipzig-Jakarta;
  • Paulistan Luthic.