Lanikel orthography: Difference between revisions

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Line 71: Line 71:
|[[w:IPA_j|j]] '''y'''
|[[w:IPA_j|j]] '''y'''
|
|
|
|[[w:IPA_h|h̞]] '''ḥ'''
|-
|-
![[w:nasal_consonant|Nasal]]
![[w:nasal_consonant|Nasal]]
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|
|
|}
|}
Vowel digraphs can be written as such or with an ogonek on their initial vowel instead.
Vowels with the circumflex diacritics change diacritics based on suprasegmentals, specified later in this article.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
!
Line 120: Line 120:
![[w:Close_vowel|Close]]
![[w:Close_vowel|Close]]
|[[w:IPA_i|i]] '''i'''
|[[w:IPA_i|i]] '''i'''
|[[w:near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel|ɪ]] '''ie, į'''
|[[w:near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel|ɪ]] '''î'''
|[[w:near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel|ʊ]] '''uo, ų'''
|[[w:near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel|ʊ]] '''û'''
|[[w:IPA_u|u]] '''u'''
|[[w:IPA_u|u]] '''u'''
|-
|-
![[w:Mid_vowel|Mid]]
![[w:Mid_vowel|Mid]]
|[[w:IPA_e|e]] '''e'''
|[[w:IPA_e|e]] '''e'''
|[[w:mid_central_vowel|ə]] '''eo, ę'''
|[[w:mid_central_vowel|ə]] '''ê'''
|[[w:open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel|ʌ]] '''oe, ǫ'''
|[[w:open-mid_back_unrounded_vowel|ʌ]] '''ô'''
|[[w:IPA_o|o]] '''o'''
|[[w:IPA_o|o]] '''o'''
|-
|-
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|
|
|
|
|[[w:open_back_unrounded_vowel|ɑ]] '''ao, ą'''
|[[w:open_back_unrounded_vowel|ɑ]] '''â'''
|}
|}


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=== Tones ===
=== Tones ===
High tone on vowels is marked with an acute accent on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a macron (denoting length), the macron is replaced with a circumflex (e.g. /í íː/ are ⟨í î⟩).  
High tone on vowels is marked with an acute accent on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a circumflex, the circumflex is replaced with a grave accent (e.g. /í ɪ́/ are ⟨í ì⟩).  


Mid tone on vowels is marked with a grave accent on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a macron (denoting length), the macron is replaced with a caron (e.g. /ī īː/ are ⟨ì ǐ⟩).  
Mid tone on vowels is marked with a breve on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a circumflex, the circumflex is replaced with a tilde (e.g. /ī ɪ̄/ are ⟨ĭ ĩ⟩).  


Low tone is marked with an apostrophe before the nucleus.  
Low tone is marked with an apostrophe before the nucleus.  
Line 193: Line 193:
Because word-initial high tone words are most common, Iskel romanizes them differently to avoid extensive diacritic use: a high tone on a multisyllabic word is not written if there is only one high tone and it's word initial. Multisyllabic words with no tones are written as if they have a word-initial high tone.  
Because word-initial high tone words are most common, Iskel romanizes them differently to avoid extensive diacritic use: a high tone on a multisyllabic word is not written if there is only one high tone and it's word initial. Multisyllabic words with no tones are written as if they have a word-initial high tone.  


For polypthongs, tone (not including low tone because it has unusual romanization) and length are always written on the first vowel grapheme, so every vowel with a tone or length diacritic begins its syllable's nucleus. It is therefore unnecessary to use a diaerisis on such vowels.
For polypthongs, tone (not including low tone because it has unusual romanization) is always written on the first vowel grapheme, so every vowel with a tone diacritic begins its syllable's nucleus. It is therefore unnecessary to use a diaerisis on such vowels.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
Line 216: Line 216:
![[w:Close_vowel|Close]]
![[w:Close_vowel|Close]]
|í '''í'''
|í '''í'''
|ī '''ì'''
|ī '''ĭ'''
|ì '''<nowiki/>'i'''
|ì '''<nowiki/>'i'''
|ɪ́ '''íe, į́'''
|ɪ́ '''ì'''
|ɪ̄ '''ìe, į̀'''
|ɪ̄ '''ĩ'''
|ɪ̀ '''<nowiki/>'ie, 'į'''
|ɪ̀ '''<nowiki/>'î'''
|ʊ́ '''úo, ų́'''
|ʊ́ '''ù'''
|ʊ̄ '''ùo, ų̀'''
|ʊ̄ '''ũ'''
|ʊ̀ '''<nowiki/>'uo, 'ų'''
|ʊ̀ '''<nowiki/>'û'''
|ú '''ú'''
|ú '''ú'''
|ū '''ù'''
|ū '''ŭ'''
|ù '''<nowiki/>'u'''
|ù '''<nowiki/>'u'''
|-
|-
![[w:Mid_vowel|Mid]]
![[w:Mid_vowel|Mid]]
|é '''é'''
|é '''é'''
|ē '''è'''
|ē '''ĕ'''
|è '''<nowiki/>'e'''
|è '''<nowiki/>'e'''
|ə́ '''éo, ę́'''
|ə́ '''è'''
|ə̄ '''èo, ę̀'''
|ə̄ '''ẽ'''
|ə̀ '''<nowiki/>'eo, 'ę'''
|ə̀ '''<nowiki/>'ê'''
|ʌ́ '''óe, ǫ́'''
|ʌ́ '''ò'''
|ʌ̄ '''òe, ǫ̀'''
|ʌ̄ '''õ'''
|ʌ̀ '''<nowiki/>'oe, 'ǫ'''
|ʌ̀ '''<nowiki/>'ô'''
|ó '''ó'''
|ó '''ó'''
|ō '''ò'''
|ō '''ŏ'''
|ò '''<nowiki/>'o'''
|ò '''<nowiki/>'o'''
|-
|-
![[w:Open_vowel|Open]]
![[w:Open_vowel|Open]]
|á '''á'''
|á '''á'''
|ā '''à'''
|ā '''ă'''
|à '''<nowiki/>'a'''
|à '''<nowiki/>'a'''
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|ɑ́ '''áo, ą́'''
|ɑ́ '''à'''
|ɑ̄ '''ào, ą̀'''
|ɑ̄ '''ã'''
|ɑ̀ '''<nowiki/>'ao, 'ą'''
|ɑ̀ '''<nowiki/>'â'''
|}
|}
High tone syllabic consonants /ɱ̩́ ń̩ ɲ̩́ ŋ̩́ ź̩ ʒ̩́ ẃ̩ ĺ̩ j̩́ ɾ̩́ ʀ̩́/ have their underdots replaced with the acute accent ⟨ḿ ń ńy ńg ź źh ẃ ĺ ý ŕ ŕr⟩. High tone /ð̩/ is written with ⟨ð⟩ instead of ⟨d́⟩, and high tone /v̩/ is written with a ⟨ŵ⟩.
High tone syllabic consonants /ɱ̩́ ń̩ ɲ̩́ ŋ̩́ ź̩ ʒ̩́ ẃ̩ ĺ̩ j̩́ ɾ̩́ ʀ̩́/ have their underdots replaced with the acute accent ⟨ḿ ń ńy ńg ź źh ẃ ĺ ý ŕ ŕr⟩. High tone /ð̩/ is written with ⟨ð⟩ instead of ⟨d́⟩, and high tone /v̩/ is written with a ⟨ŵ⟩.
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=== Gemination ===
=== Gemination ===
Long vowels are written with a macron over the first letter. Geminated single-letter consonants are written by doubling their letter. Geminated digraphs are written by doubling their first letter.  
Geminated single-letter phonemes are written by doubling their letter. Geminated digraphs are written by doubling their first letter.  


Geminated syllabic consonants are marked by doubling the letter with the syllabic or tone diacritic. The syllabic geminate consonant /ʀ̩ː/ is only written with two marked ⟨r⟩s instead of two marked ⟨r⟩s and an unmarked one.  
Geminated syllabic consonants are marked by doubling the letter with the syllabic or tone diacritic. The syllabic geminate consonant /ʀ̩ː/ is only written with two marked ⟨r⟩s instead of two marked ⟨r⟩s and an unmarked one.  
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|''<nowiki/>'ṛṛ''
|''<nowiki/>'ṛṛ''
|-
|-
! rowspan="12" |Vowel
! rowspan="8" |Vowel
! rowspan="3" |Toneless
! rowspan="2" |Toneless
!Phoneme
!Phoneme
!iː
!iː
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!aː
!aː
!ɑː
!ɑː
! colspan="9" rowspan="12" |
! colspan="9" rowspan="8" |
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Grapheme
!Grapheme
|''ī''
|''ii''
|''īe''
|''îî''
|''ūo''
|''ûû''
|''ū''
|''uu''
|''ē''
|''ee''
|''ēo''
|''êê''
|''ōe''
|''ôô''
|''ō''
|''oo''
|''ā''
|''aa''
|''āo''
|''ââ''
|-
|-
|''ī''
! rowspan="2" |High Tone
|''į̄''
|''ų̄''
|''ū''
|''ē''
|''ę̄''
|''ǭ''
|''ō''
|''ā''
|''ą̄''
|-
! rowspan="3" |High Tone
!Phoneme
!Phoneme
!iː˥
!iː˥
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!ɑː˥
!ɑː˥
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Grapheme
!Grapheme
|''î''
|''íí''
|''îe''
|''ìì''
|''ûo''
|''ùù''
|''û''
|''úú''
|''ê''
|''éé''
|''êo''
|''èè''
|''ôe''
|''òò''
|''ô''
|''óó''
|''â''
|''áá''
|''âo''
|''àà''
|-
|-
|''î''
! rowspan="2" |Mid Tone
|''į̂''
|''ų̂''
|''û''
|''ê''
|''ę̂''
|''ǫ̂''
|''ô''
|''â''
|''ą̂''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Mid Tone
!Phoneme
!Phoneme
!iː˧
!iː˧
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!ɑː˧
!ɑː˧
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Grapheme
!Grapheme
|''ǐ''
|''ĭĭ''
|''ǐe''
|''ĩĩ''
|''ǔo''
|''ũũ''
|''ǔ''
|''ŭŭ''
|''ě''
|''ĕĕ''
|''ěo''
|''ẽẽ''
|''ǒe''
|''õõ''
|''ǒ''
|''ŏŏ''
|''ǎ''
|''ăă''
|''ǎo''
|''ãã''
|-
|-
|''ǐ''
! rowspan="2" |Low Tone
|''į̌''
|''ų̌''
|''ǔ''
|''ě''
|''ę̌''
|''ǫ̌''
|''ǒ''
|''ǎ''
|''ą̌''
|-
! rowspan="3" |Low Tone
!Phoneme
!Phoneme
!iː˩
!iː˩
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!ɑː˩
!ɑː˩
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Grapheme
!Grapheme
|''<nowiki/>'ī''
|''<nowiki/>'ii''
|''<nowiki/>'īe''
|''<nowiki/>'îî''
|''<nowiki/>'ūo''
|''<nowiki/>'ûû''
|''<nowiki/>'ū''
|''<nowiki/>'uu''
|''<nowiki/>'ē''
|''<nowiki/>'ee''
|''<nowiki/>'ēo''
|''<nowiki/>'êê''
|''<nowiki/>'ōe''
|''<nowiki/>'ôô''
|''<nowiki/>'ō''
|''<nowiki/>'oo''
|''<nowiki/>'ā''
|''<nowiki/>'aa''
|''<nowiki/>'āo''
|''<nowiki/>'ââ''
|-
|''<nowiki/>'ī''
|''<nowiki/>'į̄''
|''<nowiki/>'ų̄''
|''<nowiki/>'ū''
|''<nowiki/>'ē''
|''<nowiki/>'ę̄''
|''<nowiki/>'ǭ''
|''<nowiki/>'ō''
|''<nowiki/>'ā''
|''<nowiki/>'ą̄''
|}
|}
=== Disambiguation ===
=== Disambiguation ===
Many consonant phonemes are expressed with multigraphs that have an equivalent cluster. They are differenciated orthographically with apostrophes placed between consonant graphemes in a cluster.  
Many consonant phonemes are expressed with multigraphs that have an equivalent cluster. They are differenciated orthographically with apostrophes placed between consonant graphemes in a cluster.  


Polyphthongs are mostly written by simply juxtaposing vowel letters together, but in cases with vowels that use digraphs, an overdot is placed on the non-first grapheme(s) of a diphthong to distinguish them (e.g. /ɪ i͡e/ are ⟨ie iė⟩, and /a͡ʌ ɑ͡e a͡o͡e/ are ⟨aȯe aoė *aȯė⟩). Since all two- or three-vowel clusters contrast with a polypthong, a diaerisis is placed on the non-first grapheme(s) of such clusters to distinguish them (e.g.  /ɪ i.e/ are ⟨ie ië⟩, and /a.ʌ ɑ.e a.o.e/ are ⟨aöe aoë aöë⟩).
Polyphthongs are written by simply juxtaposing vowel letters together. Since all two- or three-vowel clusters contrast with a polypthong, a diaerisis is placed on the non-first grapheme(s) of such clusters to distinguish them.
 
When there are two adjacent vowels with an overdot, both overdots are omitted. For example, ⟨aoe⟩ must always be read as /ao̯e̯/, and not rewritten as ⟨aȯė⟩.
 
The following chart provides the correct phonemic readings of all ambiguous digraphs, all ambiguous non-syllabic consonant trigraphs, and two exmaple vowel trigraphs.  
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
! colspan="15" |Multigraph Disambiguation
! colspan="15" |Multigraph Disambiguation
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|''ṇy''
|''ṇy''
|/ɲ̩/
|/ɲ̩/
! rowspan="3" |ie
!ie
|''ie''
|''ie''
|/ɪ/
|/ɪ/
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|''ṇ'y''
|''ṇ'y''
|/n̩j/
|/n̩j/
|''iė''
!
|/ie̯/
|''ië''
|/i.e/
|''īë''
|''īë''
|/iː.e/
|/iː.e/
Line 866: Line 819:
|''ńy''
|''ńy''
|/ɲ̩˥/
|/ɲ̩˥/
|''ië''
!
|/i.e/
|
|
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|-
|-
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|''ń'y''
|''ń'y''
|/n̩˥j/
|/n̩˥j/
! rowspan="3" |uo
!uo
|''uo''
|''uo''
|/ʊ/
|/ʊ/
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|''ṅy''
|''ṅy''
|/ɲ̩˧/
|/ɲ̩˧/
|''uȯ''
!
|/uo̯/
|''uö''
|/u.o/
|''ūö''
|''ūö''
|/uː.o/
|/uː.o/
Line 902: Line 857:
|''ṅ'y''
|''ṅ'y''
|/n̩˧j/
|/n̩˧j/
|''uö''
!
|/u.o/
|
|
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|-
|-
Line 915: Line 871:
|''<nowiki/>'ṇy'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇy'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/ɲ̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
|/ɲ̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
! rowspan="3" |eo
!eo
|''eo''
|''eo''
|/ə/
|/ə/
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|''<nowiki/>'ṇ'y'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇ'y'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/n̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''j/
|/n̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''j/
|''eȯ''
!
|/eo̯/
|''eö''
|/e.o/
|''ēö''
|''ēö''
|/eː.o/
|/eː.o/
Line 939: Line 896:
|''ṇg''
|''ṇg''
|/ŋ̩/
|/ŋ̩/
|''eö''
!
|/e.o/
|
|
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|-
|-
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|''ṇ'g''
|''ṇ'g''
|/n̩ɡ/
|/n̩ɡ/
! rowspan="3" |oe
!oe
|''oe''
|''oe''
|/ʌ/
|/ʌ/
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|''ńg''
|''ńg''
|/ŋ̩˥/
|/ŋ̩˥/
|''oė''
!
|/oe̯/
|''oë''
|/o.e/
|''ōë''
|''ōë''
|/oː.e/
|/oː.e/
Line 975: Line 934:
|''ń'g''
|''ń'g''
|/n̩˥ɡ/
|/n̩˥ɡ/
|''oë''
!
|/o.e/
|
|
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|-
|-
Line 985: Line 945:
|''ṅg''
|''ṅg''
|/ŋ̩˧/
|/ŋ̩˧/
! rowspan="3" |ao
!ao
|''ao''
|''ao''
|/ɑ/
|/ɑ/
Line 996: Line 956:
|''ṅ'g''
|''ṅ'g''
|/n̩˧ɡ/
|/n̩˧ɡ/
|''aȯ''
!
|/ao̯/
|''aö''
|/a.o/
|''āö''
|''āö''
|/aː.o/
|/aː.o/
Line 1,006: Line 967:
|''<nowiki/>'ṇg'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇg'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/ŋ̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
|/ŋ̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
|''aö''
!
|/a.o/
|
|
| colspan="3" |
| colspan="3" |
|-
|-
Line 1,018: Line 980:
|''<nowiki/>'ṇ'g'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇ'g'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/n̩ɡ/
|/n̩ɡ/
! rowspan="8" |ieo (''example'')
!ieo
|''ieo''
|''ieo''
|/ie̯o̯/
|/ie̯o̯/
! colspan="3" rowspan="17" |
! colspan="3" rowspan="12" |
|-
|-
|''s'h''
|''s'h''
Line 1,030: Line 992:
|''ẓh''
|''ẓh''
|/ʒ̍/
|/ʒ̍/
!
|''iėo''
|''iėo''
|/iə̯/
|/iə̯/
Line 1,038: Line 1,001:
|''ẓ'h''
|''ẓ'h''
|/z̩h/
|/z̩h/
!
|''ieȯ''
|''ieȯ''
|/ɪo̯/
|/ɪo̯/
Line 1,050: Line 1,014:
|''źh''
|''źh''
|/ʒ̍˥/
|/ʒ̍˥/
!
|''iëo''
|''iëo''
|/i.ə/
|/i.ə/
Line 1,059: Line 1,024:
|''ź'h''
|''ź'h''
|/z̩˥h/
|/z̩˥h/
!
|''ieö''
|''ieö''
|/ɪ.o/
|/ɪ.o/
Line 1,068: Line 1,034:
|''żh''
|''żh''
|/ʒ̍˧/
|/ʒ̍˧/
!
|''iëö''
|''iëö''
|/i.e.o/
|/i.e.o/
Line 1,079: Line 1,046:
|''ż'h''
|''ż'h''
|/z̩˧h/
|/z̩˧h/
!
|''iëȯ''
|''iëȯ''
|/i.eo̯/
|/i.eo̯/
Line 1,089: Line 1,057:
|''<nowiki/>'ẓh'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ẓh'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/ʒ̍˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
|/ʒ̍˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
!
|''iėö''
|''iėö''
|/ie̯.o/
|/ie̯.o/
Line 1,097: Line 1,066:
|''<nowiki/>'ẓ'h'''''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ẓ'h'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/z̩˩h/
|/z̩˩h/
! rowspan="4" |oua (''example'')
!oua  
|''oua''
|''oua''
|/ou̯a̯/
|/ou̯a̯/
|-
|-
! colspan="6" rowspan="8" |
! colspan="3" rowspan="3" |
! rowspan="2" |ṛr
! colspan="3" rowspan="3" |
|''ṛr''
! colspan="3" rowspan="3" |
|/ʀ̩/
!
|''oüa''
|''oüa''
|/o.ua̯/
|/o.ua̯/
|-
|-
|''ṛ'r''
!
|/ɾ̩ɾ/
|''ouä''
|''ouä''
|/ou̯.a/
|/ou̯.a/
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |ŕr
!
|''ŕr''
|/ʀ̩˥/
|''oüä''
|''oüä''
|/o.u.a/
|/o.u.a/
|-
|''ŕ'r''
|/ɾ̩˥ɾ/
! colspan="3" rowspan="5" |
|-
! rowspan="2" |ṙr
|''ṙr''
|/ʀ̩˧/
|-
|''ṙ'r''
|/ɾ̩˧ɾ/
|-
! rowspan="2" |'ṛr'''<nowiki/>'''
|''<nowiki/>'ṛr'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/ʀ̩˩'''<nowiki/>'''/
|-
|''<nowiki/>'ṛ'r'''''<nowiki/>'''
|/ɾ̩˩ɾ/
|}
|}

Revision as of 23:24, 12 April 2026

Lanikel is a dialect of Iskel which is primarily distinct from the others in its phonology. Therefore, its orthography differs from other dialects for both romanization and native script.

Romanization

Basic Phonemes

Some consonants can be written with either digraphs or a non-ASCII monograph. Syllabic consonants are always written as digraphs, however.

Labial Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Dorsal Glottal
Nasal ɱ m n n ɲ ny, ñ ŋ ng, ŋ
Stop Voiceless p p t t t͡ʃ ch, č k k ʔ q
Voiced b b d͡z dz, ẑ d͡ʒ j ɡ g
Fricative Voiceless f f θ th, þ s s ʃ sh, š ʎ̝̊ lh, ç x x h h
Voiced v v ð d z z ʒ zh, ž
Approximant Oral w w l l j y h̞ ḥ
Nasal w̃ wǹ, ṽ l̃ lǹ, ł j̃ yǹ, ỹ
Vibrant ɾ r ʀ rr, ř
Click Nasal ŋ͡ʇ cn ŋ͡ǃ¡ cǹ ŋ͡ǂ cñ
Tenuis k͡ʇ ct k͡ǃ¡ cl k͡ǂ cy

Vowels with the circumflex diacritics change diacritics based on suprasegmentals, specified later in this article.

Front Near-Front Near-Back Back
Close i i ɪ î ʊ û u u
Mid e e ə ê ʌ ô o o
Open a a ɑ â

Syllabic Consonants

Toneless syllabic consonants are written with an overdot. On digraphs, the underdot is written only on the first letter (e.g. /ŋ̩ ʀ̩/ get written ⟨ṇg ṛr⟩). The toneless syllabic consonant /j̍/ is instead written ⟨ẏ⟩.

Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Dorsal
Nasal ɱ̩ ṃ n̩ ṇ ɲ̩ ṇy ŋ̩ ṇg
Fricative v̩ ṿ ð̩ ḍ z̩ ẓ ʒ̍ ẓh
Approximant Oral w̩ ẉ l̩ ḷ j̍ ẏ
Nasal w̩̃ ẉǹ l̩̃ ḷǹ j̩̃ ẏǹ
Vibrant ɾ̩ ṛ ʀ̩ ṛr

Tones

High tone on vowels is marked with an acute accent on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a circumflex, the circumflex is replaced with a grave accent (e.g. /í ɪ́/ are ⟨í ì⟩).

Mid tone on vowels is marked with a breve on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a circumflex, the circumflex is replaced with a tilde (e.g. /ī ɪ̄/ are ⟨ĭ ĩ⟩).

Low tone is marked with an apostrophe before the nucleus.

Because word-initial high tone words are most common, Iskel romanizes them differently to avoid extensive diacritic use: a high tone on a multisyllabic word is not written if there is only one high tone and it's word initial. Multisyllabic words with no tones are written as if they have a word-initial high tone.

For polypthongs, tone (not including low tone because it has unusual romanization) is always written on the first vowel grapheme, so every vowel with a tone diacritic begins its syllable's nucleus. It is therefore unnecessary to use a diaerisis on such vowels.

Front Near-Front Near-Back Back
High Mid Low High Mid Low High Mid Low High Mid Low
Close í í ī ĭ ì 'i ɪ́ ì ɪ̄ ĩ ɪ̀ 'î ʊ́ ù ʊ̄ ũ ʊ̀ 'û ú ú ū ŭ ù 'u
Mid é é ē ĕ è 'e ə́ è ə̄ ẽ ə̀ 'ê ʌ́ ò ʌ̄ õ ʌ̀ 'ô ó ó ō ŏ ò 'o
Open á á ā ă à 'a ɑ́ à ɑ̄ ã ɑ̀ 'â

High tone syllabic consonants /ɱ̩́ ń̩ ɲ̩́ ŋ̩́ ź̩ ʒ̩́ ẃ̩ ĺ̩ j̩́ ɾ̩́ ʀ̩́/ have their underdots replaced with the acute accent ⟨ḿ ń ńy ńg ź źh ẃ ĺ ý ŕ ŕr⟩. High tone /ð̩/ is written with ⟨ð⟩ instead of ⟨d́⟩, and high tone /v̩/ is written with a ⟨ŵ⟩.

Mid tone syllabic consonants are written similar to their toneless forms, but with overdots instead of underdots. The mid tone /v̩̄ j̩̄/, however, are written ⟨ẅ ÿ⟩.

Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Dorsal
High Mid Low High Mid Low High Mid Low High Mid Low High Mid Low
Nasal ɱ̩˥ ḿ ɱ̩˧ ṁ ɱ̩˩ 'ṃ n̩˥ ń n̩˧ ṅ n̩˩ 'ṇ ɲ̩˥ ńy ɲ̩˧ ṅy ɲ̩˩ 'ṇy ŋ̩˥ ńg ŋ̩˧ ṅg ŋ̩˩ 'ṇg
Fricative v̩˥ ŵ v̩˧ ẅ v̩˩ 'ṿ ð̩́˥ ð ð̩˧ ḋ ð̩˩ 'ḍ z̩˥ ź z̩˧ ż z̩˩ 'ẓ ʒ̍˥ źh ʒ̍˧ żh ʒ̍˩ 'ẓh
Approximant Oral w̩˥ ẃ w̩˧ ẇ w̩˩ 'ẉ l̩˥ ĺ l̩˧ ŀ l̩˩ 'ḷ j̍˥ ý j̍˧ ÿ j̍˩ 'ẏ
Nasal w̩̃˥ ẃǹ w̩̃˧ ẇǹ w̩̃˩ 'ẉǹ l̩̃˥ ĺǹ l̩̃˧ ŀǹ l̩̃˩ 'ḷǹ j̩̃˥ ýǹ j̩̃˧ ÿǹ j̩̃˩ 'ẏǹ
Vibrant ɾ̩ː˥ ŕ ɾ̩ː˧ ṙ ɾ̩ː˩ 'ṛ ʀ̩˥ ŕr ʀ̩˧ ṙr ʀ̩˩ 'ṛr

Gemination

Geminated single-letter phonemes are written by doubling their letter. Geminated digraphs are written by doubling their first letter.

Geminated syllabic consonants are marked by doubling the letter with the syllabic or tone diacritic. The syllabic geminate consonant /ʀ̩ː/ is only written with two marked ⟨r⟩s instead of two marked ⟨r⟩s and an unmarked one.

Geminate Romanization
Consonant Occlusive Phoneme ɱː nː ɲː ŋː pː tː t͡ʃː kː ʔː bː d͡zː d͡ʒː ɡː ŋ͡ʇː ŋ͡ǃ¡ː ŋ͡ǂː k͡ʇː k͡ǃ¡ː k͡ǂː
Grapheme mm nn nny nng pp tt cch kk qq bb ddz jj gg ccn ccǹ ccñ cct ccl ccy
mm nn ññ ŋŋ pp tt čč kk qq bb ẑẑ jj gg ccn ccǹ ccñ cct ccl ccy
Continuant Phoneme fː θː sː ʃː ʎ̝̊ː xː hː vː ðː zː ʒː wː lː jː w̃ː l̃ː j̃ː ʀː
Grapheme ff thh ss ssh llh xx hh vv dd zz zzh ww ll yy wwǹ llǹ yyǹ rrr
ff þþ ss šš çç xx hh vv dd zz žž ww ll yy ṽṽ łł ỹỹ řř
Syllabic Consonant Toneless Phoneme ɱ̩ː n̩ː ɲ̩ː ŋ̩ː v̩ː ð̩ː z̩ː ʒ̍ː w̩ː l̩ː j̍ː w̩̃ː l̩̃ː j̩̃ː ʀ̩ː
Grapheme ṃṃ ṇṇ ṇṇy ṇṇg ṿṿ ḍḍ ẓẓ ẓẓh ẉẉ ḷḷ ẏẏ ẉẉǹ ḷḷǹ ẏẏǹ ṛṛ
High Tone Phoneme ɱ̩ː˥ n̩ː˥ ɲ̩ː˥ ŋ̩ː˥ v̩ː˥ ð̩ː˥ z̩ː˥ ʒ̍ː˥ w̩ː˥ l̩ː˥ j̍ː˥ w̩̃ː˥ l̩̃ː˥ j̩̃ː˥ ʀ̩ː˥
Grapheme ḿḿ ńń ńńy ńńg ŵŵ ðð źź źźh ẃẃ ĺĺ ýý ẃẃǹ ĺĺǹ ýýǹ ŕŕ
Mid Tone Phoneme ɱ̩ː˧ n̩ː˧ ɲ̩ː˧ ŋ̩ː˧ v̩ː˧ ð̩ː˧ z̩ː˧ ʒ̍ː˧ w̩ː˧ l̩ː˧ j̍ː˧ w̩̃ː˧ l̩̃ː˧ j̩̃ː˧ ʀ̩ː˧
Grapheme ṁṁ ṅṅ ṅṅy ṅṅg ẅẅ ḋḋ żż żżh ẇẇ ŀŀ ÿÿ ẇẇǹ ŀŀǹ ÿÿǹ ṙṙ
Low Tone Phoneme ɱ̩ː˩ n̩ː˩ ɲ̩ː˩ ŋ̩ː˩ v̩ː˩ ð̩ː˩ z̩ː˩ ʒ̍ː˩ w̩ː˩ l̩ː˩ j̍ː˩ w̩̃ː˩ l̩̃ː˩ j̩̃ː˩ ʀ̩ː˩
Grapheme 'ṃṃ 'ṇṇ 'ṇṇy 'ṇṇg 'ṿṿ 'ḍḍ 'ẓẓ 'ẓẓh 'ẉẉ 'ḷḷ 'ẏẏ 'ẉẉǹ 'ḷḷǹ 'ẏẏǹ 'ṛṛ
Vowel Toneless Phoneme iː ɪː ʊː uː eː əː ʌː oː aː ɑː
Grapheme ii îî ûû uu ee êê ôô oo aa ââ
High Tone Phoneme iː˥ ɪː˥ ʊː˥ uː˥ eː˥ əː˥ ʌː˥ oː˥ aː˥ ɑː˥
Grapheme íí ìì ùù úú éé èè òò óó áá àà
Mid Tone Phoneme iː˧ ɪː˧ ʊː˧ uː˧ eː˧ əː˧ ʌː˧ oː˧ aː˧ ɑː˧
Grapheme ĭĭ ĩĩ ũũ ŭŭ ĕĕ ẽẽ õõ ŏŏ ăă ãã
Low Tone Phoneme iː˩ ɪː˩ ʊː˩ uː˩ eː˩ əː˩ ʌː˩ oː˩ aː˩ ɑː˩
Grapheme 'ii 'îî 'ûû 'uu 'ee 'êê 'ôô 'oo 'aa 'ââ

Disambiguation

Many consonant phonemes are expressed with multigraphs that have an equivalent cluster. They are differenciated orthographically with apostrophes placed between consonant graphemes in a cluster.

Polyphthongs are written by simply juxtaposing vowel letters together. Since all two- or three-vowel clusters contrast with a polypthong, a diaerisis is placed on the non-first grapheme(s) of such clusters to distinguish them.

Multigraph Disambiguation
Consonants Syllabic Consonants Vowels
Digraph Trigraph Digraph Short Vowel Multigraph Long Vowel Multigraph
Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes
Base Distinction Base Distinction Base Distinction Base Distinction Base Distinction
dz dz /d͡z/ ddz ddz /d͡zː/ ṇy ṇy /ɲ̩/ ie ie /ɪ/ īe īe /ɪː/
d'z /ðz/ d'dz /ðd͡z/ ṇ'y /n̩j/ ië /i.e/ īë /iː.e/
dd'z /ðːz/ ńy ńy /ɲ̩˥/
lh lh /ʎ̝̊/ llh llh /ʎ̝̊ː/ ń'y /n̩˥j/ uo uo /ʊ/ ūo ūo /ʊː/
l'h /lh/ l'lh /lʎ̝̊/ ṅy ṅy /ɲ̩˧/ uö /u.o/ ūö /uː.o/
ll'h /lːh/ ṅ'y /n̩˧j/
ng ng /ŋ/ nng nng /ŋː/ 'ṇy 'ṇy /ɲ̩˩/ eo eo /ə/ ēo ēo /əː/
n'g /nɡ/ n'ng /nŋ/ 'ṇ'y /n̩˩j/ eö /e.o/ ēö /eː.o/
nn'g /nːɡ/ ṇg ṇg /ŋ̩/
ny ny /ɲ/ nny nny /ɲː/ ṇ'g /n̩ɡ/ oe oe /ʌ/ ōe ōe /ʌː/
n'y /nj/ n'ny /nɲ/ ńg ńg /ŋ̩˥/ oë /o.e/ ōë /oː.e/
nn'y /nːj/ ń'g /n̩˥ɡ/
rrr rrr /ʀː/ ṅg ṅg /ŋ̩˧/ ao ao /ɑ/ āo āo /ɑː/
rr'r /ʀɾ/ ṅ'g /n̩˧ɡ/ aö /a.o/ āö /aː.o/
r'rr /ɾʀ/ 'ṇg 'ṇg /ŋ̩˩/
sh sh /ʃ/ ssh ssh /ʃː/ 'ṇ'g /n̩ɡ/ ieo ieo /ie̯o̯/
s'h /sh/ s'sh /sʃ/ ẓh ẓh /ʒ̍/ iėo /iə̯/
ss'h /sːh/ ẓ'h /z̩h/ ieȯ /ɪo̯/
th th /θ/ tth tth /θː/ źh źh /ʒ̍˥/ iëo /i.ə/
t'h /th/ t'th /tθ/ ź'h /z̩˥h/ ieö /ɪ.o/
tt'h /tːh/ żh żh /ʒ̍˧/ iëö /i.e.o/
zh zh /ʒ/ zzh zzh /ʒː/ ż'h /z̩˧h/ iëȯ /i.eo̯/
z'h /zh/ z'zh /zʒ/ 'ẓh 'ẓh /ʒ̍˩/ iėö /ie̯.o/
zz'h /zːh/ 'ẓ'h /z̩˩h/ oua oua /ou̯a̯/
oüa /o.ua̯/
ouä /ou̯.a/
oüä /o.u.a/
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