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{{Infobox language
''...'' ("The Bushlark", 1958), a free-verse piece by the Rttirrian poet ... ..., who is credited with helping Rttirrian literature and poetry branch out from its long tradition of cynicism and darkness.
|image =
|name = Gaju
|nativename = Gaju
|pronunciation = ['gäɟu]
|region = Southeast Asia
|states = Rtuha, Uya, eastern Tyami, eastern Manamuki
|setting = Rttirria
|speakers =
|fam1 = Rttirrian
|fam2 = South Rttirrian
|fam3 = [[Old Gaju]]
|script = [[w:Latin script|Latin]] (unofficially), Rttirri
}}
'''Gaju''' (English: /'gɑːd͡ʒuː/, Gaju: ['käcu], [[Rttirri]]: [ˈkɑcu]) is a minority language in [[Verse:Rttirria|Rttirria]], spoken by the Gaju people in the eastern part of the country. It is a member of the Rttirrian language family, descended from the Proto-South-Rttirrian langauge that is also the ancestor of modern [[Rttirri]], the nation's official language.


The language has been documented from the [[Old Gaju]] period in the 14th century. While it was used widely across much of eastern Rttirria at that time, its homeland has slowly shrunken over time into the countryside, small towns, and jungles as Rttirri has come to dominate the national landscape. The Gaju community, as well as some ethnically Rttirri Easterners resenting Western cultural influence, has pushed for greater recognition and representation of Gaju and other minority languages. In the 1970s, it became an official language of all of Rttirria; citizens have the right to receive voting ballots, drivers' license exams, court interpreters, and other official documents and proceedings in the Gaju language.
::{|
 
||'''English'''|| ||'''Rttirri'''
Gaju is a nominative-accusative language. Typically of languages in the [[w:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area|Southeast Asian sprachbund]], it is also primarily analytic and isolating in morphology, though it contains some elements of agglutinative and fusional languages. It has a large vowel inventory consisting of 9 vowels, and a moderate-sized consonant inventory of 26 consonants. It is variously written in the [[w:Latin script|Latin]] alphabet, the Rttirri abugida—which is a Brahmic script—the Burmese script, and even [[w:Chinese characters|Chinese characters]].
 
==History==
{{main|Old Gaju}}
Gaju is a member of the South Rttirrian branch of the Rttirrian language family of [[w:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]]; the dialects of Proto-South-Rttirrian that would become Gaju split off from those that would become Rttirri around the 3rd to 5th century CE, probably in southeastern Rttirria.
 
Gaju is considered more linguistically [[w:conservative (linguistics)|innovative]] than Rttirri, having undergone many phonological and grammatical changes from Proto-South-Rttirrian that did not occur in Rttirri. The main such changes are summarized here:
 
* The loss of the retroflex series. */ʈ ɖ ɳ/ merged into /t d n/, while */ɽ/ became [w] and */ɻ/ merged with onset */ʟ/ as [l]. However, the original three vowels */a i u/ had developed allophones after retroflex consonants, and these became independent phonemes: /ɑ e o/. */ɑ/ would later raise and round to /ɔ/.
* Gradual development of a [[w:tone (linguistics)|tone]] system. First, coda */ʟ/ disappeared and left a low tone on the preceding vowel, all vowels took a low tone before stops, and various grammatical particles and affixes took low tones—other syllables took high tones. From there, further phonological elision and grammaticalization of morphemes led to a contour tone system.
* The gradual allowance of a few nasal consonants in coda position: /m n ŋ/.
* The simplification of stop-stop clusters, which in Rttirri would develop into [[w:ejective consonant|ejectives]]. The initial element of the cluster was fricativized, e.g. */tk/ > /sk/, and then an epenthetic /ə/ with a low tone was inserted, e.g. */ski˥/ > /sə˩ki˥/. In some function words and affixes, though, the second stop was lost altogether, e.g. */tk/ > /s/.
* The development of several unusual voiceless consonants. In clusters ending in */m n ɻ ɽ/, the first consonant (which was always voiceless) disappeared, which left /m̥ n̥ ʍ l̥/ as new phonemes.
* The development of the vowels /ɛ ɪ/, which started as allophones of /e/ and /i/ that dissimilated after palatal consonants.
* A chain shift from voiced stops, to voiceless stops, to aspirated stops.
* Much of Proto-South-Rttirrian's agglutinative morphology being lost, in favor of a more analytic system. For example, the subject and object verb prefixes became freestanding pronouns, and the adoption of the third-person singular and third-person plural pronouns (''-ge'' and ''-di'') as new accusative affixes on nouns contributed to the development of a noun case system.
* The reappropriation of the Proto-South-Rttirrian [[w:evidentiality|evidential]] particles as a fused politeness-aspect system.
 
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
!  |
!  |Labial
!  |Alveolar
!  |Palatal
!  |Velar
!  |Glottal
|-
! Nasal
| '''m''' /m/<br>'''hm''' /m̥/
| '''n''' /n/<br>'''hn''' /n̥/
| '''ny''' /ɲ/
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|-
! Plosive
| '''p''' /pʰ/<br>'''b''' /p/
| '''t''' /tʰ/<br>'''d''' /t/
| '''ty''' /cʰ/<br>'''j''' /c/
| '''k''' /kʰ/<br>'''k''' /k/
|
|-
! Fricative
| '''f''' /f/
| '''s''' /s/<br>'''sh''' /ʃ/
| '''sy''' /ç/
| '''kh''' /x/
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! Affricate
|
| '''ts''' /t͡s/<br>'''ch''' /t͡ʃ/
|
|
|
|-
! Approximant
| '''w''' /w/<br>'''hw''' /ʍ/
| '''l''' /l/<br>'''hl''' /l̥~ɬ/
|
|
|
|}
 
In addition, the following consonants are allowed in loanwords: '''hng''' /ŋ̊/, '''hny''' /ɲ̥/, '''y''' /j/, '''hh''' /ʔ/, '''r''' /ɹ~ɻ/.
 
===Vowels===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; border-spacing: 20px;"
|-
! |
! Front
! Central
! Back
|-
! High
| '''i''' /i/
|
| '''u''' /u/
|-
! Near-high
| '''ii''' /ɪ/
|
|
|-
! Mid
| '''e''' /e/
| '''uu''' /ə/
| '''o''' /o/
|-
! Near-low
| '''ee''' /ɛ/
|
| '''aa''' /ɔ/
|-
! Low
|
| '''a''' /ä/
|
|}
 
===Tones===
Gaju distinguishes four tones: high, low, rising, and falling. They are distinguished in the Latin script as follows:
* High: '''a aa e ee i ii o u uu'''
* Low: '''à àà è èè ì ìì ò ù ùù'''
* Rising: '''â ââ ê êê î îî ô û ûû'''
* Falling: '''ǎ ǎǎ ě ěě ǐ ǐǐ ǒ ǔ ǔǔ'''
 
The rising and falling tones are uncommon, being found only in loanwords and in a small number of native words where elision of ''VCV'' sequences has caused high-tone and low-tone syllables with the same vowel to occur adjacently to each other.
 
An example of four words distinguished only by tone:
*'''High:''' ''ga'' ("day"), cognate to Rttirri ''ya''
*'''Low:''' ''gà'' ("room, chamber"), cognate to Rttirri ''yau''
*'''Rising:''' ''gâ'' ("sir"), cognate to Rttirri ''yaya'' ("socialite")
*'''Falling:''' ''gǎ'' ("garbage"), a borrowing from Thai [[Wiktionary:กาก|กาก]] ''gàak''
 
===Phonotactics===
Gaju places very tight restrictions on syllables: maximally, CVN syllables are allowed, where C is any consonant and N is any of the voiced non-palatal nasals: /m/, /n/, or /ŋ/.
 
Loanwords containing syllables ending in a consonant other than one of these, or containing consonant clusters, usually make use of an epenthetic /ə/:
* ''peensììlùù'' [pʰɛn˥.sɪ˩.lə˩] "pencil"
* ''eelùùchùùbùùlùù'' [ɛ˥.lə˩.t͡ʃə˩.pə˩.lə˩] "algebra"
* ''shùùneenùpaì'' [ʃə˩nɛ˥nu˩pʰä˥i˩] "comics" (from Rttirri)
 
==Orthography==
[[File:Rttirri script.png|thumb|left|The Rttirri native script in handwritten form, as it is used for Rttirri.]]
The Rttirri script was codified in the mid-14th century. It was based on the [[w:Pallava alphabet|Pallava script]], which is a Brahmic abugida that is also the ancestor of the Thai, Lao, Burmese, and Khmer scripts.
 
As an [[w:abugida|abugida]], the Rttirri script is written with consonantal letters that are mutated for the different vowels. /i/ is the inherent vowel - for example, the character for /m/ is pronounced /mi/, but when given the diacritic for /u/, it is pronounced /mu/.
 
Although the orthography of Rttirri has become fairly non-phonetic, Gaju has only been consistently written in the Rttirri script since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, so relatively few sound changes have occurred since then.
 
In the late 19th century, when Rttirria was a colony of Britain, English linguists designed a Latin transcription system for Rttirri and, with it, other indigenous languages such as Gaju. Some Gaju separatists and nationalists choose to use this Latin script, or other scripts such as Burmese or even [[w:Chinese characters|Chinese characters]], to write their language.
 
==Vocabulary==
Gaju has historically featured very few of the [[w:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] and [[w:Arabic language|Arabic]] loanwords that abound in [[Rttirri]]. However, the Gaju community's close proximity to [[w:Myanmar|Myanmar]] has given their language numerous loanwords from local languages, such as [[w:Burmese language|Burmese]], [[w:Thai language|Thai]], and the [[w:Karen languages|Karen]] languages. It has also taken on some loans from Rttirri.
 
==Grammar==
Gaju morphology is significantly more analytic than that of Rttirri.
 
===Verbs===
The following slots are allowed for affixes on the verb.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Verb Slot
! Allowable Inputs
|-
! Mood
| ''fa-'' (polite imperative)<br>''nang-'' (subjunctive)<br>''kan-'' (conditional)<br>''khaa-'' (imperative)
|-
! Tense
| ''-bu-/-bo-/-du-/-do-/-ju-/-jo-'' (past)<br>''-mi-/-me-/-ni-/-ne-/-nyi-/-nye-'' (future)
|-
! Verb Root
| any verb
|-
! Auxiliary Verb
| ''-(k)àng'' ("to be able to")<br>''-(à)kà'' ("to need to")<br>''-(d)èng'' ("to want to")<br>''-(g)ùng'' ("to force to")<br>and others
|}
 
The particular tense affixes chosen depend on the first syllable: specifically, the initial consonant's place of articulation and the height of the vowel. There are few irregular verbs. This system has been maintained from Proto-South-Rttirrian and is greatly simplified in Rttirri.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal,<br>Velar,<br>Glottal
! Starts with<br>vowel
|-
! /i/, /u/
| ''-bu-<br>-mi-''
| ''-du-<br>-ni-''
| ''-ju-<br>-nyi-''
| rowspan="2" | ''-j-<br>-ny-''
|-
! Any other<br>vowel
| ''-bo-<br>-me-''
| ''-do-<br>-ne-''
| ''-jo-<br>-nye-''
|}
 
Example:
:Ma gìka-ge ma mà '''nye'''-gàkung.
:1PL.NOM parent-ACC PL 1PL.GEN FUT-visit
:We will visit our parents tomorrow.
 
===Nouns===
Nouns can take the following cases:
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Case
! Suffix
|-
| nominative
| (none)
|-
| accusative
| ''-(g)e'' (singular)<br>''-(d)i'' (plural)
|-
| dative
| ''-(ty)â''
|-
| ablative
| ''-(d)a''
|-
| locative
| ''-(l)î''
|-
| comitative
| ''-(aa)daa''
|-
| instrumental
| ''-(w)ǎm''
|-
| vocative
| ''-(a)saa''
|}
 
Cases other than the nominative may be used alongside adpositional particles.
 
:Shilia lashi fû khùùti nam bùki-'''lî''' hwò nùbom bo-fala.
:fox red very quick PERF dog-LOC lazy over PST-jump
:The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog.
 
===Pronouns===
The following pronouns are used. They were not affixed to the verb, but stood in the place of other nouns.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Singular
! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Nominative
! Accusative
! Nominative
! Accusative
|-
! 1st person
| ''na''
| ''ni''
| ''ma''
| ''mi''
|-
! 2nd person
| ''kom''
| ''kim''
| ''tsa''
| ''tsi''
|-
! 3rd person
| ''la''
| ''ge''
| ''daa''
| ''di''
|}
 
Genitive pronouns follow the nouns they modify. The third-person singular plural is a recent innovation, derived from ''fòkom'' ("there").
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! English
! Old Gaju
|-
| my
| ''nà''
|-
| your
| ''kòm''
|-
| his/her/its
| ''fôm''
|-
| our
| ''mà''
|-
| all of your
| ''tsà''
|-
| their
| ''dàà''
|}
 
Gaju essentially has no [[w:grammatical gender|grammatical gender]]. However, speakers may optionally substitute ''hni'' for the third-person singular pronoun ''la'', derived from ''hnini'' ("girl"), to explicitly communicate that someone is female. The accusative form of ''hni'' is ''hni ke'', and the genitive is ''hni fôm''. This usage is generally prescribed against and avoided in formal speech.
 
===Derivation===
Words can be derived into other parts of speech with the following suffixes:
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"|
! colspan="4"|From...
|-
! Noun
! Verb
! Adjective<br>or Determiner
! Adverb
|-
! rowspan="4"|To...
! Noun
| -
| ''-bum''
| colspan="2" | ''-dom''
|-
! Verb
| ''-syùùto'' (to do an X-like thing)
| -
| colspan="2" | ''-dosyùù''
|-
! Adjective<br>or Determiner
| ''-we''
| ''-bi''
| -
| ''-bi''
|-
! Adverb
| colspan="3" | ''-dem''
| -
|}
 
===Aspect===
The following particles can be used to express aspect and politeness; the default is imperfective impolite.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!
! Informal
! Formal
|-
! Imperfective
| —
| ''tya''
|-
! Perfective
| ''nam''
| ''nyem''
|-
! Habitual
| ''shu''
| ''tya shu''
|}
 
The following question words are used:
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! English
! Old Gaju
|-
| who/whom
| ''ta''
|-
|-
| what
||As I strode through the forest,|| ||...
| ''ti''
|-
|-
| when
||I found a bushlark sitting on the ground.|| ||...
| ''dìn''
|-
|-
| where
||She cooed to greet me|| ||...
| ''dâng''
|-
|-
| why
||and lifted a limp wing to wave.|| ||...
| ''dìtà''
|-
|-
| how
||"So morose is the cry of the birds of this area,"|| ||...
| ''dûng''
|}
 
===Word order===
Due to Gaju's case system, subject and object are not distinguished by their order as in Old Gaju or in Rttirri, so they (and any other noun phrases) can be placed in any order. However, subject-object-verb (SOV) word order remains the standard for clauses, with object-subject-verb (OSV) being a common alternative.
 
The noun is always the head of the noun phrase, and modifiers are added in the following order:
:Noun + case suffixes / Adjectives / Determiners, or plural particle (''ma'') / Possessive pronouns
 
A common usage of OSV word order is to draw attention to the object, such as to evoke pity:
 
:Là-'''ge''' chang kung fôm nam la bo-bom.
:child-ACC beautiful three 3SG.GEN PERF 3SG.NOM PST-abandon
:He abandoned his three beautiful children.
 
===Conjunctions===
The following conjunctions are used, and can be applied both to noun phrases and to clauses:
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
! Postposition
||I remarked to myself.|| ||...
! English Translation
|-
|-
| ''pu''
||"Nay," she said! "I am happy.|| ||...
| and
|-
|-
| ''she''
||"My stomach cries for berries,|| ||...
| or (inclusive)
|-
|-
| ''shem''
||"but I can answer it with beetles.|| ||...
| or (exclusive)
|-
|-
| ''fa''
||"My lungs cry for exercise,|| ||...
| but
|-
|-
| ''kinya''
||"but I can answer them with a jog.|| ||...
| because
|-
|-
| ''khùùtom''
||"My heart cries for a man or a friend|| ||...
| before
|-
|-
| ''nààku''
||"of my own kind,|| ||...
| after
|-
|-
| ''mamu''
||"anything for some pleasant conversation,|| ||...
| until
|-
|-
| ''wààku''
||"but I can answer it with you.|| ||...
| although
|}
|}
===Relative and independent clauses===
Relative particles are marked with the particle ''ùùtyu'', which can be declined for case.
:Dâng demo ma ùùtyu-'''ge''' na bu-pìpu?
:where dumpling PL that-ACC 1SG.NOM PST-bake exist
:Where are the dumplings that I baked?
Independent clauses are demarcated with the particle ''shu''.
:La nam du-dì '''shu''' la laa-tyâ ùùta-dèng.
:3SG.NOM PERF PST-say that 3SG.NOM home-DAT go-want.
:She said that she wanted to go home.
==See also==
* [[Rttirri]]
* [[Verse:Rttirria]]
<!--
[[Category:A priori]]
[[Category:Analytic languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
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Revision as of 20:27, 15 February 2017

... ("The Bushlark", 1958), a free-verse piece by the Rttirrian poet ... ..., who is credited with helping Rttirrian literature and poetry branch out from its long tradition of cynicism and darkness.

English Rttirri
As I strode through the forest, ...
I found a bushlark sitting on the ground. ...
She cooed to greet me ...
and lifted a limp wing to wave. ...
"So morose is the cry of the birds of this area," ...
I remarked to myself. ...
"Nay," she said! "I am happy. ...
"My stomach cries for berries, ...
"but I can answer it with beetles. ...
"My lungs cry for exercise, ...
"but I can answer them with a jog. ...
"My heart cries for a man or a friend ...
"of my own kind, ...
"anything for some pleasant conversation, ...
"but I can answer it with you. ...
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