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| *** '''Bearlandic''' | | *** '''Bearlandic''' |
| |ancestor=Old Bearlandic | | |ancestor=Old Bearlandic |
| |script=''Unnamed alphabet'' | | |script=Berilonian alphabet, western style |
| |agency= | | |agency= |
| |iso1= | | |iso1= |
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| Some non-native or recently coined words break these rules. | | Some non-native or recently coined words break these rules. |
|
| |
|
| ==Morphology== | | ==Verbs== |
| ===Nouns=== | | ===Conjugation=== |
| Nouns don't have cases or genders, only numbers. The plural can be made in three different ways:
| | ====Weak verbs==== |
|
| |
|
| # Adding -s
| | ====Strong verbs==== |
| # Adding -en
| |
| # Adding -er
| |
| | |
| The first class contains by far most nouns. The second class contains almost all nouns that end in -s (except a few with -er plurals). The third class consists of about twenty irregular nouns, and also includes all nouns ending in -er, which have identical singular and plural forms. Note that the third class does ''not'' include nouns ending in -err.
| |
| | |
| ===Adjectives=== | |
| The comparative is formed by adding -err to the end of the adjective, while the superlative ends in -iss. If the adjective ends in a vowel, a -t- is inserted between the stem and the ending.
| |
| | |
| Any adjective can be turned into an adverb by adding -lyk. This is however only needed and done with adjectives that end in -ig.
| |
| | |
| There are a few irregular adjectives, which are listed in the table below.
| |
| | |
| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
| |
| ! Meaning
| |
| ! Positive
| |
| ! Comparative
| |
| ! Superlative
| |
| |-
| |
| ! "good"
| |
| | gut
| |
| | byterr
| |
| | bisst
| |
| |-
| |
| ! "many"
| |
| | fill
| |
| | mirr
| |
| | filless
| |
| |-
| |
| ! "far"
| |
| | ferr
| |
| | ferrtē
| |
| | firrst
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| ===Verbs===
| |
| ====Regular verbs====
| |
| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
| |
| !
| |
| ! "walk"
| |
| ! "shoot"
| |
| ! "improve"
| |
| ! "need"
| |
| ! "leave"
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present
| |
| | lop
| |
| | sgit
| |
| | byterr
| |
| | bihúf
| |
| | ausdwyn, dwyn aus
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past
| |
| | lop-ti
| |
| | sgit-i
| |
| | byterr-ti
| |
| | bihúf-ti
| |
| | ausdwyn-ti, dwyn-ti aus
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Perfect
| |
| | gi-lop-t
| |
| | gi-sgit
| |
| | gi-byterr-t
| |
| | bihúf-t
| |
| | aus-gi-dwyn-t
| |
| |-
| |
| ! ''Byform''<sup>1</sup>
| |
| | lop-ē
| |
| | sgit-ē
| |
| | bytr-ē
| |
| | bihúv-ē
| |
| | ausdwyn-ē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present participle
| |
| | lop-nē
| |
| | sgit-nē
| |
| | bytre-nē
| |
| | bihúf-nē
| |
| | ausdwyn-nē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past participle
| |
| | gi-lop-t-nē
| |
| | gi-sgit-nē
| |
| | gi-byterrt-nē
| |
| | bihúf-t-nē
| |
| | aus-gi-dwyn-t-nē
| |
| |}
| |
| <small>1) The ''byform'' is a verb form that used to be an infinitive, but in modern Bearlandic its use extends to quite a few other things so "infinitive" isn't a very accurate description anymore.</small>
| |
| | |
| As can be seen, there are some minor exceptions in the verb system (and also some major ones, which are described in more detail below). Although the above table mentions all of them, it is useful to explain them more clearly:
| |
| # Verbs ending in -t don't add an extra -t in the past and perfect tenses.
| |
| # Verbs ending in unstressed -Vr drop the V in the ''byform'' and the present participle, inserting a schwa in the latter form.
| |
| # Verbs beginning with unstressed prefixes like bi- don't add gi-.
| |
| # Verbs beginning with stressed prefixes like aus- are separable. The gi- prefix is added between the separable particle and the root.
| |
| # The ''byform'' ending voices preceding fricatives, unless they're geminated.
| |
|
| |
|
| ====Irregular verbs==== | | ====Irregular verbs==== |
| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
| |
| !
| |
| ! "be"
| |
| ! "have"
| |
| ! "eat"
| |
| ! "go"
| |
| ! "give"
| |
| ! "become"
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present
| |
| | iss
| |
| | heppt
| |
| | et
| |
| | ga
| |
| | gef
| |
| | vort
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past
| |
| | wast
| |
| | haptē
| |
| | ati
| |
| | gigti
| |
| | giffti
| |
| | virti
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Perfect
| |
| | giassit
| |
| | gihapt
| |
| | giotē
| |
| | gigisst
| |
| | gigifft
| |
| | givirtē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! ''Byform''
| |
| | zyt, zyti
| |
| | hypē
| |
| | ytē
| |
| | gatē
| |
| | gyvē
| |
| | vortē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present participle
| |
| | zytnē
| |
| | hepptnē
| |
| | etnē
| |
| | gatnē
| |
| | gefnē
| |
| | vortnē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past participle
| |
| | -
| |
| | hassnē
| |
| | giotnē
| |
| | -
| |
| | gigifftnē
| |
| | -
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| ====Strong verbs==== | | ===Tenses=== |
| Strong verbs are irregular in that they are a more or less random set of verbs, but as the only difference between regular verbs are the more or less regular vowel changes, they are often not considered really irregular. These vowel changes can be summarised like this:
| | ====Formation==== |
|
| |
|
| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
| | ====Usage==== |
| ! Present
| |
| ! Past
| |
| ! Perfect
| |
| |-
| |
| | a
| |
| | i
| |
| | o
| |
| |-
| |
| | e
| |
| | a
| |
| | short i
| |
| |-
| |
| | i
| |
| | a
| |
| | o
| |
| |-
| |
| | o
| |
| | i
| |
| | i
| |
| |-
| |
| | y
| |
| | i
| |
| | short i
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| The byform of these verbs always has a y. | | ===The passive=== |
|
| |
|
| U, Ú and Ʉ are omitted from this table because strong verbs with those vowels simply don't exist.
| | ===Definite and uncertain=== |
|
| |
|
| As an example, this is the full conjugation of the strong verb ''sgryf'' "to write":
| | ===Verbal prefixes=== |
|
| |
|
| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
| | ==Nouns== |
| ! Present
| | ===Pluralisation=== |
| | sgryf
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past
| |
| | sgrifti
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Perfect
| |
| | gisgrifft
| |
| |-
| |
| ! ''Byform''
| |
| | sgryvē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Present participle
| |
| | sgryfnē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Past participle
| |
| | gisgrifftnē
| |
| |}
| |
|
| |
|
| ====Perfect tenses==== | | ===Nominalising suffixes=== |
| The perfect tenses are made with an auxiliary verb (either ''heppt'' or ''iss'') and a perfect participle, which can be placed either directly after the auxiliary (less common) or at the end of the sentence (more common).
| |
|
| |
|
| {{Gloss
| | ==Adjectives== |
| | phrase = Ig heppt a fiss gizit.
| | ===Formation=== |
| | IPA = /ˈix ˈhɛpːt a ˈfɪsː ɣiˈziːt/
| |
| | morphemes = Ig heppt a fiss gi-zi-t.
| |
| | gloss = 1SG have a fish PERF-see-PERF.
| |
| | translation = I have seen a fish.
| |
| }}
| |
|
| |
|
| ====The passive==== | | ===Inflection=== |
| The passive is made like the perfect tenses, but uses ''vort'' as auxiliary verb, rather than ''heppt'' or ''iss''.
| |
|
| |
|
| {{Gloss
| | ===Comparison=== |
| | phrase = Dē haus vort giklurrt.
| |
| | IPA = /dɛ ˈhaʊ̯s ˈvoːrt ɣiˈklʏrːt/
| |
| | morphemes = Dē haus vort gi-klurr-t.
| |
| | gloss = The house become PERF-paint-PERF.
| |
| | translation = The house is being painted.
| |
| }}
| |
|
| |
|
| The perfect tenses are made as normally, though the participle of ''vort'' may be left out.
| | ==Pronouns== |
| | ===Personal and possessive pronouns=== |
|
| |
|
| {{Gloss
| | ===Relative pronouns=== |
| | phrase = Dē haus iss giklurrt (givirtē).
| |
| | IPA = /dɛ ˈhaʊ̯s ˈɪsː ɣiˈklʏrːt (ɣiˈviːrtɛ)/
| |
| | morphemes = Dē haus iss gi-klurr-t (gi-vort-ē)
| |
| | gloss = The house be.PRES PERF-paint-PERF (PERF-become-PERF)
| |
| | translation = The house has been painted.
| |
| }}
| |
|
| |
|
| ===Pronouns===
| | ===Other pronouns=== |
| ====Personal and possessive pronouns====
| |
| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
| |
| ! Number
| |
| ! Person
| |
| ! Subject
| |
| ! Object/Reflexive
| |
| ! Possessive
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan="5" | Singular
| |
| ! 1st
| |
| | ig
| |
| | mi
| |
| | miess
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 2nd
| |
| | ji
| |
| | ji
| |
| | jiess
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 3rd masculine
| |
| | hi
| |
| | emm, zigg
| |
| | hiess
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 3rd feminine
| |
| | zē
| |
| | zy, zigg
| |
| | zess
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 3rd neuter
| |
| | dē
| |
| | dē, zigg
| |
| | dess
| |
| |-
| |
| ! rowspan="3" | Plural
| |
| ! 1st
| |
| | wi
| |
| | oss
| |
| | oss
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 2nd
| |
| | jis
| |
| | jis
| |
| | jisiss
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 3rd
| |
| | zess
| |
| | hunn, zess, zy
| |
| | hʉn
| |
| |}
| |
| ''Hunn'' may only be used when referring to people, whereas ''zess'' may always be used.
| |
| | |
| ''Zigg'' and ''zy'' are reflexive pronouns for the singular and plural respectively.
| |
| | |
| The gender distinctions in the third person singular refer to the natural gender of the referent. People and animals are referred to by their biological gender, though when it could be either, neuter ''dē'' is used. So ''mann'' "man" is masculine, ''frau'' "woman" is feminine and ''kynt'' "child" is neuter.
| |
| | |
| ====Relative pronouns====
| |
| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
| |
| ! Referent
| |
| ! Without preposition
| |
| ! With preposition
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Person
| |
| | colspan="2" | wē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Thing
| |
| | dē
| |
| | rowspan="3" | dy
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Several things
| |
| | di
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Entire sentence
| |
| | dy
| |
| |}
| |
| Note that there are no specific relative pronouns for places, instead one says ''inn dy'', which literally means "in which".
| |
| | |
| ====Other pronouns====
| |
| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
| |
| !
| |
| ! Which?
| |
| ! This
| |
| ! That
| |
| ! Every/all
| |
| ! Some
| |
| ! None
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Adjective
| |
| | willg
| |
| | ditt, dē<sup>1</sup>
| |
| | di, dē<sup>1</sup>
| |
| | all, any
| |
| | somm
| |
| | gyn
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Person
| |
| | wi?
| |
| | colspan="2" | ''use personal pronoun, see the above section''
| |
| | anymann
| |
| | imant, imants<sup>2</sup>
| |
| | nimant
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Thing
| |
| | wass?
| |
| | ditt, dē<sup>1</sup>
| |
| | di, dē<sup>1</sup>
| |
| | all, alltingiss<sup>3</sup>
| |
| | itiss
| |
| | nikktitiss, nititiss, nitiss<sup>4</sup>
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Place
| |
| | warr?
| |
| | hirr
| |
| | dirr
| |
| | allpig
| |
| | irgiss
| |
| | nytirgiss
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Time
| |
| | wann?
| |
| | nu
| |
| | tann
| |
| | alltyt
| |
| | ojjit
| |
| | nojjit, nauter<sup>3</sup>
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Reason
| |
| | werrmē?
| |
| | colspan="2" | darross
| |
| | style="background:#CCCCCC" colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
| |
| |-
| |
| ! Manner
| |
| | hu?
| |
| | colspan="2" | zoss
| |
| |}
| |
| | |
| Notes:
| |
| # ''Ditt'' and ''di'' are normally only used for emphasis. ''Dē'' can be used where English would use "that".
| |
| # ''Imants'' can be used to stress that it's about more than one person. However, it isn't necessary.
| |
| # Archaic.
| |
| # Colloquial.
| |
| | |
| ===Articles===
| |
| There are two articles, the definite article ''dē'' and the indefinite article ''a''.
| |
|
| |
|
| ===Numerals=== | | ===Numerals=== |
| {| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
| |
| ! 1
| |
| | a
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 2
| |
| | to
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 3
| |
| | tri
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 4
| |
| | forr
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 5
| |
| | vy
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 6
| |
| | zett
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 7
| |
| | safē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 8
| |
| | ottjo
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 9
| |
| | nippē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 10
| |
| | tinn
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 11
| |
| | atinn
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 12
| |
| | totinn
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 20
| |
| | totē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 21
| |
| | atotē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 30
| |
| | tritē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 40
| |
| | forrtē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 50
| |
| | vytē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 60
| |
| | zetttē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 70
| |
| | saftē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 80
| |
| | otttē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 90
| |
| | nipptē
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 100
| |
| | horrt
| |
| |-
| |
| ! 1000
| |
| | dass
| |
| |}
| |
| Note: ''otttē'' derives from an earlier ''ottjotē''.
| |
|
| |
| Ordinal numbers are made by adding -stē. If a number ends in -ē, that -ē is dropped, so "first" is "astē" and "seventh" is "safstē". The -ē is however not left out in "zetttēstē", as it otherwise would sound the same as "zettstē".
| |
|
| |
| ==Derivational morphology==
| |
| ===Derivational affixes===
| |
| * '''-ig''' is a general adjectiviser:
| |
| ** ''attoll'' "nobility" -> ''attlig'' "noble"
| |
| ** ''statt'' "city" -> ''stattig'' "urban"
| |
| ** ''durr'' "door" -> ''durrig'' "door-ish"
| |
| * '''-ing''' is used to nominalise verbs:
| |
| ** ''sgryf'' "write" -> ''sgryfing'' "writing"
| |
| ** ''et'' "eat" -> ''eting'' "food"
| |
| * '''-hyt''' is used to nominalise adjectives:
| |
| ** ''bly'' "happy" -> ''blyhyt'' "happiness"
| |
| ** ''kunnig'' "possible" -> ''kunnighyt'' "possibility"
| |
| * '''nit-''' gives the word (which tends to be an adjective or a nominalisation thereof) the opposite meaning:
| |
| ** ''yntig'' "finite" -> ''nityntig'' "infinite"
| |
| * '''-ness''' forms a collective agent noun of a verb. It's quite obvious that it's a pluralised participle, and there is indeed also a past form with the gi-t circumfix:
| |
| ** ''won'' "to live" -> ''wonness'' "population".
| |
| ** ''burr'' "to happen" -> ''giburrtness'' "history"
| |
| * '''-er''' forms the "normal" (i.e. non-collective) agent noun of a verb:
| |
| ** ''pratt'' "to speak" -> ''pratter'' "speaker"
| |
| ** ''jaggt'' "to hunt" -> ''jaggter'' "hunter"
| |
| * '''-ē''' forms the agent noun of an adjective:
| |
| ** ''graut'' "great" -> ''grautē'' "great one"
| |
| ** ''stirgiss'' "strongest" -> ''dē stirgissē'' "the strongest one"
| |
|
| |
|
| ===Compounding===
| | ==Compounding== |
| Compounds can be made freely and are always head-last. There are several types: | | Compounds can be made freely and are always head-last. There are several types: |
| * Noun-noun: | | * Noun-noun: |