Aryan: Difference between revisions

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search
No edit summary
Line 43: Line 43:
-->
-->
==Phonology==
==Phonology==
<!-- ***Phonology*** -->
<!-- What sounds does your language use? -->
<!-- Here are some example sub-/other categories:


Vowel inventory
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
Consonant inventory
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
Syllable structure
|-
Stress
! rowspan="3"| PIE
Intonation
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small>
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*p}}
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref>
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref>
|{{PIE|p}}, pp
| colspan="2" |p
|{{PIE|pt}}
|{{PIE|p}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t}}
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
|{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref>
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|t}}
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/>
|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
|{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ḱ}}
|{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref>
|{{PIE|s}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*k}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*kʷ}}
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|{{PIE|ku}}, kku
|{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref>
|{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref>
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*b}}
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
| {{PIE|b}}
| {{PIE|pt}}
| {{PIE|b}}
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*d}}
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|d}}
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}}
|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵ}}
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}
| rowspan="2"|k
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷ}}
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|ku
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|{{PIE|qu}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*bʰ}}
|{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}}
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|p
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|{{PIE|pt}}
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}}
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰ}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}}
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}}
|t
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref>
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|d}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|k
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʰ}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|ku
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? -->
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*m}}
| colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}}
| {{PIE|in}}
| {{PIE|m}}
| {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[w̃]}}-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
|{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|∅}}
|n
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| --
|{{PIE|m}} [˜]
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*n}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|in}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*l}}
|{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}})
|{{PIE|r}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}}
|{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}}
| {{PIE|il}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*r}}
|{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}}
|{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}}
| {{PIE|ir}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*y}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|∅}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|{{PIE|z}}  {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|?{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|j}}
|{{PIE|y}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*w}}
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}}
|{{PIE|v}}
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|{{PIE|v}}
|{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|{{PIE|w > h / ∅}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}}
|{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|∅}}-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|-
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
 
Notes for table 1:
{{reflist|group=C}}
 
===Consonant clusters===
 
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
 
{{expand section|with=thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law|date=August 2016}}
 
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>C+[j]</small><!--
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*}}
| style="color:gray"|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-->
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sr}}
| style="color:gray"| sr
| r
| str
| style="color:gray"| sr
| rr {{IPA|[r]}}
| (a)r
| š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}}
|
| style="color:gray"| rh
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| fr-, -br-
| style="color:gray"| sr
| str
| str
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tw}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
| θβ
| style="color:gray"| tv
| style="color:gray"| tv
| t
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| ttu, ddu
|
| s-, -ss-
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| p?
| t
| style="color:gray"| þw
| style="color:gray"| thw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰw}}
| style="color:gray"| dhv
| rowspan="2"| ðβ
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2"| d
| ?
| tu, du
|
|
|
| f
| rowspan="2"| d
| style="color:gray"| dw
| style="color:gray"| dw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dw}}
| style="color:gray"| dv
| (e)rk
| tu, du
|
|
|
| b
| style="color:gray"| tw
| style="color:gray"| tw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tl}}
| style="color:gray"|
|
| sl
| kl, sl
|
|
|
|
| tl
|
| kl
| tl
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dl}}
| ll
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dn}}
| nn, ṇṇ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ḱw}}
| style="color:gray"| śv
| sp
| style="color:gray"| sv
| style="color:gray"| šv
| s
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| wh
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰw}}
| style="color:gray"| hv
|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv
| rowspan="2"| z
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵw}}
| style="color:gray"| jv
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sw}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| xuu {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| style="color:gray"| sv
| v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref>
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| colspan="2" |normal dev.
| style="color:gray"| h
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}}
| s
| style="color:gray"| sw
| style="color:gray"| sw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sp}}
| style="color:gray"| sp
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ?
| style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sbʰ}}
| style="color:gray"|
| spʰ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-align=center
!{{PIE|*sd}}
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ
| zd
| zd
| zd
|
| st
|
|
|
|
| d
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| st
| st
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sdʰ}}
| dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh
| zd
| zd
| zd
|
|
|
|
| sth
|
|
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| zd
| d
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*st}}
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" />
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st
| style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sḱ}}
|{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|sk}}
|{{PIE|š}}?
|{{PIE|h}}
|?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sk}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref>
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|?
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*skʷ}}
| style="color:gray"|norm.
| style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}}
|{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref>
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|ss}}?
|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sǵ}}
| jj
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sgʰ}}
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/>
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dt}}
| tt
| st
|
|
|
|
|
|st
| st
|
| s
|
| ss
| ss [s]
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ddʰ}}
| ddʰ
| zd
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| d
| t
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰt}}
| ddʰ
| zd, st
|
| st
|
|
|
|
| st
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*pt}}
| style="color:gray"| pt
| ft
| t?
| style="color:gray"| pt
| rowspan="4"| t || || || |
| style="color:gray"| pt ||
| style="color:gray"| pt
|rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}}
|colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱt}}
| ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}}
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| st
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| |
|rowspan="3"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght {{IPA|[t]}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kt}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"| xt
|rowspan="2"| t?
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"|
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷt}}
| || style="color:gray"| pt ||
| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ps}}
| ps
| || || || || || ||
| style="color:gray"| ps ||
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ts}}
| ts
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱs}}
| kṣ || š || || || sh {{IPA|[ʃ]}} ||
| ||
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs
| rowspan="3"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ks}}
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| xš<ref group=CC name=Ruki/>
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
| || (ks)
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷs}}
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x {{IPA|[ks]}} || ||
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gs}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷs}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰs}}
| kṣ
| ž
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ks
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʰs}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷʰs}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ps
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tḱ}}
| kṣ
| š
|
|
| k
|
|
|
| kt
|
| s
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tk}}
| kṣ
| xš
|
|
|
|
|
|
| kt
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰǵʰ}}
| kṣ
| z
|
| ž
|
|
| tk
| tk/k
| khth
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰgʰ}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
| tk
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰgʷʰ}}
| kṣ
| γž
|
|
|
|
| kts
|
| phth
|
| s
|
|
|
|- align=center|
! PIE
! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]]
! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
 


-->
-->
Line 65: Line 988:
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->

Revision as of 16:34, 25 October 2024


Aryan (Pre-Expansion: *Airáh0, pronounced /ai̯ˈrəʔ/; Post-Expansion: *Āryā́, pronounced /aːˈri̯aː/) is an ab interiori language equivalent to the reconstruction of Indo-European Languages (Proto-Indo-European).

Aryan
*airáh0
Pronunciation[ai̯ˈrəʔ]
Created byVeno
Date8000-6000 BP
SettingCaucasus Mountains
Native speakers- (2024)
Pangaean Code
  • Aryan
Early form
Transitional Dialect
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Introduction

Phonology

Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Sanskrit Avestan O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j] [C 1] normal -C- [C 2] [C 1]
*p p; ph [pʰ] [C 3] p; f [C 4] p h;
w [C 5] 		p, pp p pt p ∅ f;
b [β] [C 6] 		f;
v, f[C 2]
*t t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 3] t; θ[C 4] t tʿ [tʰ] t, tt;
z [ts] [C 7] 		t;
c [c] [C 7] 		t s; tt/ss[C 5] t t th [θ] þ [θ];
d [ð]; [C 6] 		th;
d; [C 6]
*ḱ ś [ɕ] s š [ʃ] th [θ];
k[C 8] 		s k, kk k;
ś [ɕ][C 8] 		k c [k] c [k] ch [x] h;
g [ɣ] [C 6] 		h;
∅;[C 2]
y [C 6]
*k k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ] [C 3] 		k; c [tʃ]; [C 7]
x[C 4] 		k;
č [tʃ]; [C 7]
c [ts][C 9] 		k k;
q [c][C 9] 		kʿ [kʰ]
*kʷ k;
s; [C 7]
q [c][C 9] 		ku, kku p;
t; [C 7]
k[C 10] 		qu [kʷ];
c [k] [C 11] 		ƕ [ʍ];
gw, w [C 6]
 wh;
w [C 6]
*b b; bh [C 3] b; β [C 12] b p b pt b b [b] -[β]- p
*d d; dh [C 3] d; δ [C 12] d d;
dh [ð][C 2] 		t ts;
ś [ɕ] [C 7] 		d z [zd] > [z] d d [d] -[ð]- t
*ǵ j [d͡ʑ];
h [ɦ] [C 3] 		z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
g[C 8] 		c [ts] k k;
ś [ɕ][C 8] 		g g g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- k c / k;
ch[C 9]
*g g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 7]
gh; [C 3] h [ɦ] [C 3] 		g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12] 		g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9] 		g g k
*gʷ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9] 		ku b;
d; [C 7]
g[C 10] 		u [w > v];
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] 		b [b] -[β]- q [kʷ] qu
*bʰ bh [bʱ] b; β [C 12] b b;
w[C 2] 		p ph [pʰ] pt f;[C 14]
b 		b [b];
b [β];[C 2]
f [C 15] 		b;
v / f[C 16]
*dʰ dh [dʱ] d; δ [C 12] d t t;
c [c] [C 7] 		th [tʰ] tt/ss f;[C 14]
d;
b [C 17] 		d [d] -[ð]- d;
d [ð];[C 2]
þ [C 15] 		d
*ǵʰ h [ɦ] z ž [ʒ] dh [ð];
d[C 8] 		j [dz];
z[C 2] 		k k;
ś [ɕ] [C 7] 		kh [kʰ] h;
h / g[C 8] 		g [ɡ] -[ɣ]- g;
g [ɣ];[C 2]
g [x] [C 15] 		g;
y / w[C 16]
*gʰ gh [ɡʱ];
h [ɦ] [C 7] 		g; j [dʒ]; [C 7]
γ [C 12] 		g;
ž [ʒ]; [C 7]
dz[C 9] 		g g g;
ǰ [dʒ] [C 7]
*gʷʰ g;
z; [C 7]
gj [ɟ][C 9] 		ku ph [pʰ];
th [tʰ]; [C 7]
kh [kʰ][C 10] 		f;[C 14]
g /
u [w];[C 2]
gu [ɡʷ] [C 13] 		g;
b;[C 14]
w;[C 2]
gw [C 13] 		g;
b;[C 14]
w[C 2]
*s s h [h, x] s sh [ʃ];
gj [ɟ];[C 18]
h[C 2] 		h;
∅[C 2] 		š [s] s;
ṣ [ʂ] 		h;[C 14]
s;[C 19][C 15]/
∅;[C 2]
[¯] [C 20] 		i s;
r[C 2] 		s ʃ -[h]- s;
z [C 6] 		s;
r [C 6]
ṣ [ʂ][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21] x [x][C 21] š [ʃ][C 21]
*m m in m m [m] -[w̃]- m
*-m [C 15] m ˛ [˜] n ∅ n n -- m [˜] n ∅
*n n n;
˛ [˜] [C 15] 		n n;
ñ [ɲ] 		n in n
*l r (dial. l) r l l;
ll [ɫ][C 2] 		l /
ɫ [ɫ
> ɣ] 		l il l
*r r/l[C 22] r r [ɾ];
rr [r][C 2] 		r ir r
*y y [j] j [j] gj [ɟ];
∅ 		∅ y [j] z [zd] > [z] /
h;
∅ [C 2] 		?i i [j];
∅ [C 2] 		∅ j y
*w v [ʋ] v [w] v v [ʋ] v g / w w w > h / ∅ i u [w > v] f -∅- w
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English

Notes for table 1:

  1. ^ a b A capital C stands for consonant in this table
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
  4. ^ a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
  5. ^ a b After a vowel.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
  8. ^ a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
  10. ^ a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
  11. ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
  12. ^ a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
  13. ^ a b c After n.
  14. ^ a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
  15. ^ a b c d e f At the end of a word.
  16. ^ a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
  17. ^ After u, r or before r, l.
  18. ^ Before a stressed vowel
  19. ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
  20. ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
  21. ^ a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
  22. ^ rare

Consonant clusters

Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):

Template:Expand section

Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
PIE Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Alb. Arm. Anatol. Toch. Greek Italic Celtic Germanic
Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Hitt. Latin Old Irish Gothic English
normal C+[j]
*sr sr r str sr rr [r] (a)r š(ša)r ʃʃr rh n/a fr-, -br- sr str str
*tw tv θβ tv tv t kʿ [kʰ] ttu, ddu s-, -ss- n/a p? t þw thw
*dʰw dhv ðβ dv dv d ? tu, du f d dw dw
*dw dv (e)rk tu, du b tw tw
*tl sl kl, sl tl kl tl
*dl ll
*dn nn, ṇṇ
*ḱw śv sp sv šv s sk, š n/a qu [kʷ] cu [kʷ] Template:Transl [xʷ] wh
*ǵʰw hv zv žv z
*ǵw jv q [kʷ] qu [kw]
*sw sv xuu [xʷ] sv sv v, d[CC 1] kʿ [kʰ] normal dev. h n/a su [sw] s sw sw
*sp sp sp [CC 2] sp f sp [CC 2]
/ pʿ [pʰ] 		normal dev. sp [CC 2] ? sp f sp [CC 3]
*sbʰ spʰ
*sd d; ḷ[CC 4] > ḍ, ḍḍ zd zd zd st d -t- [d] st st
*sdʰ dh; ḷh[CC 4] > ḍh, ḍḍh zd zd zd sth -t- [d] zd d
*st st; ṣṭ[CC 4] st [CC 2] st sht [ʃt] st [CC 2] normal dev. st [CC 2] s; tt/ss[CC 5] st st [CC 3]
*sḱ ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 5] s? sk š? h ?? č`; c`[CC 5] normal dev. sk; [CC 2]
kh [kʰ];[CC 6]
skh [skʰ] [CC 7] 		sc [sk] sc [sk] sk [CC 3] sh [ʃ]
*sk sk, {śc, ch}[CC 8] sk, sč [CC 2] normal dev. ? sk [CC 2] normal dev.
*skʷ norm. squ [skʷ] sq [CC 3]
*t+t [tst] tt; tth [CC 9] st; sθ?[CC 10] st s s? zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] ss? st ss ss / st
*sǵ jj
*sgʰ jj[CC 8]
*dt tt st st st s ss ss [s]
*ddʰ ddʰ zd d t
*dʰt ddʰ zd, st st st
*pt pt ft t? pt t pt pt cht [xt] ft [CC 3]
*ḱt ṣṭ [ʂʈ] št [ʃt] st št [ʃt] kt ct [kt] ht [CC 3] ght [t] [CC 3]
*kt kt xt t? kt
*kʷt pt ct [kt]
*ps ps ps ps s, ss fs ps
*ts ts
*ḱs kṣ š sh [ʃ] ks x [ks] hs x [ks]
*ks kṣ[CC 4] xš[CC 4] (ks)
*kʷs kʷs ps x [ks]
*gs kṣ
*gʷs kṣ
*ǵʰs kṣ ž ks
*gʰs kṣ
*gʷʰs kṣ ps
*tḱ kṣ š k kt s
*tk kṣ xš kt
*dʰǵʰ kṣ z ž tk tk/k khth
*dʰgʰ kṣ tk
*dʰgʷʰ kṣ γž kts phth s
PIE Skr. Av. O.C.S. Lith. Alb. Arm. Hitt. Toch. Greek Greek+/j/ Latin Old Irish Gothic English


-->

Orthography

Consonants

Vowels

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Morphology

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Other resources


Cite error: <ref> tags exist for a group named "CC", but no corresponding <references group="CC"/> tag was found

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Aryan&oldid=389054"