Kämpya

Kämpya is spoken is my far-future Antarctican conworld, where runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and made the continent habitable (while rendering most of the rest of the world uninhabitable).

It originated from the area around Ross Island, one of the first large-scale colonies on Antarctica. The founders of the settlement were mostly either Burmese, Australian or Taiwanese, and as such Kämpya is most heavily influenced by the languages of those countries (especially Burmese). However, a later wave of Spanish speaking migrants from South America also had a large impact on the language.

It has since spread to other parts of the continent, aided by the spread of a religion called Laikyâr (although not all Kämpya speakers follow the Laikyâr religion, and not all Laikyâr believers speak Kämpya). Indeed there is a special register of the language that is only used in religious contexts. There are also a number of regional dialects. However, this page describes what could be termed the "standard" dialect.

Brief Description

Kämpya has topic comment syntax with isolating morphology. The syntactic alignment is basically ergative, except that there is a tripartite system on pronouns. However, genitive (alienable) and ergative pronouns are identical. Possessors are marked for alienability [1] using tone, and come before the nouns they modify. Kämpya (at least in the standard dialect) uses postpositions rather than prepositions, and adjectives can come either before or after the nouns they modify if they are restrictive or non-restrictive respectively [2].

In terms of phonology, the most notable thing is a 3-way vowel phonation contrast on stressed syllables (which is not present on unstressed syllables). Kämpya distinguishes words with harsh voice (marked with a tilde e.g. /a̰/), from breathy voice (marked with a pair of dots either above or below the vowel e.g. /a̤/ or /ä/), from glottalisation (marked with a glottal stop after the vowel e.g. /aʔ/.

There are many minimal pairs of words that only contrast stress and phonation e.g. /síˈtâ̰/ - "wing" vs. /ˈsíʔtà/ - "guardian" vs. /ˈsì̤tà/ - "sister", or /áˈlôṵn/ - "that which is alone" vs. /áˈlòṳn/ - "everything / everyone".

In addition to this, there is also a tone contrast, but this is only used for grammatical purposes (e.g. to change between different parts of speech, or to mark alienable / inalienable possession), never for lexical purposes. For example, from the nouns /síˈtâ̰/ - "wing" and /áˈlôṵn/ - "that which is alone", which both have High Tone on the first syllable and Low Tone on the second (with harsh voice), we can derive the non-restrictive adjectives /sìˈtá̰/ - "wing" and /àˈlóṵn/ - "by itself / solitary", which both have Low Tone on the first syllable and High Tone on the second (with harsh voice).

It is usually written using a script based on the Burmese alphabet.

Phonology

Vowels

The vowel system is quite simple, with 5 monophthongs and 4 diphthongs.

Monophthongs

	Front	Central	Back
High	/i/		/u/
Mid	/e/		/o/
Low		/a/

Diphthongs

The following diphthongs are found /ai/, /au/, /ei/ and /ou/.

Consonants

	Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Lateral	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stop	pʰ p b		tʰ t d			kʰ k g
Nasal	m̥ m		n̥ n			ŋ
Fricative		θ ð	sʰ s z	(ɬ)	(ç)		h
Semivowel	(ʍ) w				j
Other Sonorants	ⱱ~ʋ		ɾ	l

1. /b/, /d/ and /g/ are often pronounced as slightly implosive.
2. [ɬ] corresponds to Burmese */l̥/, and English */sl/. It is underlyingly /hl/.
3. [ç] is underlyingly /hj/.
4. [ʍ] is underlyingly /hw/.
5. [ⱱ] and [ʋ] are in free variation.

Phonotactics

In the standard dialect, only syllables of the form (C) (C) V (C) are permitted.

Initial consonant clusters can consist of any non-semivowel consonant followed by /w/ or /j/, except that /ŋj/ syllable onsets are forbidden.

In writing and formal speech, syllables can also begin with /pʰl/, /pl/, /bl/, /kʰl/, /kl/ and /gl/ (i.e. any non-alveolar stop + /l/). But outside formal speech, the /l/ is usually replaced with /j/.

Clusters of /hl/, /hj/ and /hw/ are permitted, but these are pronounced [ɬ], [ç] and [ʍ] respectively.

In unstressed syllables, the coda consonant can only be a stop or a nasal.

In stressed syllables, codas can also be /ⱱ/, /ɾ/ or /h/, as long as the vowel is a monophthong and not a diphthong.

Consonant Neutralisations

Voicing and aspiration distinctions are neutralised in syllable codas, though they are still present underlyingly e.g. /sjúˈðâ̰d/ - "city" is pronounced [sjúˈðâ̰t], but when combined with the genitive clitic /jà/ to form /sjúˈðâ̰djà/ - "of the city (alienable)", it is pronounced [sjúˈðâ̰djà].

In colloquial speech, stops in the codas of unstressed syllables are debuccalised to glottal stops e.g. the city named /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ is often pronounced [ˈkʰóʔnàʔ].

If a nasal coda occurs before /h/, an approximant, or at the end of a word, it is simply pronounced as nasalisation of the preceding vowel e.g. /áˈlòṳn/ - "everyone" is pronounced [áˈlòṳⁿ]. But likewise it is still present underlyingly, as can be seen when combined with the dative clitic /àuŋ/ to form /áˈlòṳnàuŋ/ - "to everyone", which is pronounced [áˈlòṳnàuŋ].

Stress and Phonation

One syllable in each word bears stress. Vowel phonation is phonemic on stressed syllables but not elsewhere. The phonations are harsh /a̰/ [3], breathy /a̤/ or /ä/ [4], and glottalised /aʔ/. Harsh and breathy vowels are both pronounced long, while glottalised vowels are pronounced short, and with glottalisation of the following consonant (or with a glottal stop [ʔ] in the case of word final syllables).

Allophones of /h/

Between two vowels, /h/ is voiced to [ɦ] e.g. /máháˈkáʔp/ - "eternity" is pronounced /máɦáˈkáʔp/

/h/ can occur in the coda of stressed syllables. It's realisation depends on the phonation of the previous vowel, but is always pharyngeal.

If the stressed vowel has breathy phonation, the /h/ manifests itself as a voiced pharyngeal fricative [ħ] e.g. /à̤h/ - "question" is pronounced [à̤ʕ]. Compare /ŋà̤/ - "fish" which is pronounced [ŋà̤].

If the stressed vowel has glottalised phonation, the /h/ manifests itself as a pharyngeal stop [ʡ] e.g. /dáʔh/ - "darkness" is pronounced [dáʡ].

If /h/ occurs after vowels with harsh phonation, it is pronounced as a voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħ] e.g. /éˈmḛ̂hè/ - "to emerge", is pronounced [éˈmḛ̂ħè]

Of course, if a process such a cliticisation (e.g. with the genitive clitic /jà/ or the dative clitic /àuŋ/), means that the /h/ is no longer in coda position, then these processes do not occur e.g.

/à̤h jà/ - "of the question (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈà̤çà] (/hj/ assimilates to [ç]).

/dáʔh jà/ - "of the darkness (alienable)" is pronounced [ˈdáʔçà].

/à̤h àuŋ/ - "to the question" is pronounced [ˈà̤ɦàuⁿ].

/dáʔh àuŋ/ - "to the darkness" is pronounced [ˈdáʔhàuⁿ].

Also, if a coda [ʡ] (i.e. /h/ after a glottalised stressed vowel) is followed by a consonant that can be aspirated (i.e. /p/, /t/, /k/, or /s/), there is a tendency to manifest this as aspiration on the consonant instead e.g.

/ˈbóʔhsòut/ - "bauxite", can be pronounced either [ˈbóʡsòut] or [ˈbósʰòut].

Tone Patterns

There are 4 phonemic tones: High á, Falling â, Low à and Rising ǎ. While it may seem that the pitch of each syllable is random, actually it is not. It changes regularly depending on how the word is being used in a sentence (e.g. restrictive vs. non-restrictive, alienable vs. inalienable possessor etc.), in conjuction with the phonation on the syllable (for stressed syllables) or the location of the syllable relative to the stressed syllable (for unstressed syllables).

In terms of assigning tone, there are three parts of speech:

Class 1 This is the default, catch-all class. It is used for most nouns and verbs.

Class 2 This is used for nouns in postpositional phrases, inalienable possessors, nouns used attributively, restrictive adjectives (modifying a noun), and infinitive verbs.

Class 3 This is used for adverbs and non-restrictive adjectives (modifying a noun).

Stressed Syllables

This table shows how the tone of a stressed syllable (for each of the three phonations) depends on the tone class.

	Harsh Phonation a̰	Breathy Phonation a̤	Glottalised Phonation aʔ
Class 1	(High) Falling Pitch + Harsh Voice	Low Pitch + Breathy Voice	High Pitch + Glottal Stop
Class 2	Low Pitch + Harsh Voice	Low Pitch + Breathy Voice	Low Pitch + Glottal Stop
Class 3	High Pitch + Tense Voice	Rising Pitch + Faucalised Voice	High Pitch + Glottal Stop

Unstressed Syllables

Here the situation is simpler. For unstressed syllables, the tone can only be high or low, and does not depend on the phonation of the stressed syllable.

For Class 1 words, the tone is high before the stressed syllable, and low after it.

For Class 2 words, unstressed syllables always have high tone.

For Class 3 words, unstressed syllables always have low tone.

Examples

Here is a table with examples of how roots change classes depending on what part of speech they belong to:

English Translation	Class 1	Class 2	Class 3
Kämpya	ˈkà̤mpjà	ˈkà̤mpjá	ˈkǎ̤mpjà
wing	síˈtâ̰	síˈtà̰	sìˈtá̰
guardian	ˈsíʔtà	ˈsìʔtá	ˈsíʔtà
sister	ˈsì̤tà	ˈsì̤tá	ˈsǐ̤tà
alone	áˈlôṵn	áˈlòṵn	àˈlóṵn
alone + Genitive clitic /ja/	áˈlôṵnjà	áˈlòṵnjá	àˈlóṵnjà
all	áˈlòṳn	áˈlòṳn	àˈlǒṳn
all + Genitive clitic /ja/	áˈlòṳnjà	áˈlòṳnjá	àˈlǒṳnjà

Pronouns

Pronouns are not marked for singular or plural, but there are two words for "we" depending on whether the listener is included [5]. The pronouns that do not include the listener are also used to only talk about the speaker. Another way of looking at this is that Kämpya makes no distinction between "us not including you" and "me", but uses different forms for "us including you".

There is also a set of interrogative pronouns that can mean "who" or "what" depending on the context (Kämpya conflates the two). By adding postpostions, words meaning "how" and "why" can be formed.

Kämpya has a tripartite case marking system on pronouns [6]. However, the ergative pronouns are identical to the (alienable) genitive pronouns.

In each case, there is a different form of the word depending on whether they are immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel. There is also an "emphatic" form, which is used to emphasise the subject. The emphatic form does not depend on whether the following word starts with a vowel or not. Each form is listed below, with the normal form listed first, the form before a vowel second, and the emphatic form last:

Intransitive Pronouns

	1st Person Exclusive	1st Person Inclusive	2nd Person	Interrogative
Before a consonant	ái	wéi	jéi	bá
Before a vowel	ój-	wéj-	jéw-	báj-
Emphatic	òṵ	wèḭ	jèḭ	bà̰

As you can see above, the emphatic forms all have Low Tone with Harsh Phonation (i.e. belong to Tone Class 2), while all the other forms have High Tone with no phonation (i.e. modal phonation).

Accusative Pronouns

	1st Person Exclusive	1st Person Inclusive	2nd Person	3PS	Reflexive	Interrogative
Before a consonant	mí	lán	ŋí	swí	sé	ké
Before a vowel	mj-	lán-	íŋ-	síw-	és-	ék-
Emphatic	mḭ̀	là̰n	ḭ̀ŋ	swḭ̀	sḛ̀	kḛ̀

The emphatic forms are also used with postpositions e.g. /mḭ̀=m̥á/ - "from me".

Genitive / Ergative Pronouns

Kämpya's genitive pronouns inflect for alienable vs. inalienable possession, however, in the emphatic form, these are not distinguished. The alienable (and emphatic) forms of the genitive pronouns are also used as ergative pronouns (i.e. the subjects of transitive verbs).

There is also a proximate vs. obviative distinction on 3rd person genitive pronouns. The proximate pronouns are used when the possessor was the last noun that was in the absolutive case (i.e. unmarked). The obviative pronouns are used in other cases. To mark a 3rd person subject of a transitive verb, only the obviative form is used, never the proximate.

	1PS Excl.	1PS Incl.	2PS	3PS Prox.	3PS Obv.	Interrogative
Before a consonant (Inalienable)	mái	áu	jó	dé	ðí	zwé
Before a vowel (Inalienable)	máj-	áw-	jólw-	délw-	ðj-	ézw-
Alienable	môṵ	ˈḛ̂wà	jô̰	dḛ̂-	ðjíʔ	N/A
Ergative	môṵ	ˈḛ̂wà	jô̰	N/A	ðjíʔ	hêḭ
Emphatic	mòṵ	ˈḛ̀wá	bwò̤	swḭ̀	sḛ̀	kjḛ̀n

Basic Syntax

Kämpya has topic comment syntax [7], and is also syntactically ergative [8] and secundative [9].

Copula

Kämpya has no verb meaning "to be" [10]. Instead, the two words are simply placed side by side in the sentence. e.g.

/ˈsíʔtà ˈḛ̂nèmì/

guardian enemy

The guardian is / was / will be the enemy.

/jéi ˈsíʔtà/ phonetically [jéiˈsíʔtà]

2PS.INTR guardian

You are / were / will be the guardian(s).

Pronouns take different forms if they are followed by a vowel e.g.

/jéw ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jéˈwḛ̂nèmì]

2PS.INTR enemy

You are / were / will be the enemy.

They also take special emphatic forms e.g.

/jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì/ phonetically [jèḭ ˈḛ̂nèmì]

2PS.INT.EMP enemy

You are the enemy.

Intransitive Sentences

Intransitive sentences generally have free word order. If the verb is in focus [11], then it will come after the subject. If the subject is in focus, then it will come after the verb. So both of the following are grammatical:

/kʰwèi̤ áˈlôṵn/

dog alone

The dog is / was / will be alone.

as well as

/áˈlôṵn kʰwèi̤/

alone dog

The dog is / was / will be alone.

Constituent Deletion

However, the arguments of intransitive sentences can be freely deleted, so it is perfectly possible to have one word sentences e.g.

/áˈlôṵn/

alone

He / She / It / They is / are / was / were / will be alone.

With Postpositional Phrases

If we include a postpositional phrase in the sentence, it must come immediately before the verb (except for any pronouns) e.g. with the postpositional phrase /ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á/ - "from Hkónat (a place name)", the verb /kúʔn/ - "to set off" and the noun /ˈḛ̂nèmì/ - "enemy", we can say:

/ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á kúʔn ˈḛ̂nèmì/

Hkónat=from depart enemy

The enemy departs from Hkónat.

or

/ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á kúʔn/

enemy Hkónat=from depart

The enemy departs from Hkónat.

With Adverbs

Unlike adverbs of place and other postpositional phrases which precede the verb, adverbs of manner and time follow it (and are placed in Tone Class 3) e.g.

/kúʔn ˈlwéʔpìd tjǎ̤ŋ ˈḛ̂nèmì/

depart fast yesterday enemy

The enemy departed quickly yesterday.

With Pronouns

The same subject pronouns as before are also used for intransitive sentences e.g.

/jéi kúʔn/

2PS depart

You are setting off.

However, the pronoun must immediately precede the verb so */kúʔn jéi/ is ungrammatical. And postpositional phrases cannot intervene between the pronoun and the verb, so */jéi ˈkʰóʔnàt m̥à kúʔn/ is ungrammatical. They must come before the pronoun, so it is only grammatical to say:

/ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á jéi kúʔn/

Hkónat=from 2PS depart

You are setting off from ˈkʰóʔnàt.

Transitive Sentences

In transitive sentences without pronouns, the basic word order is SVO, with the subject marked with the ergative clitic /-zu/ e.g.

/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/

dog=ERG bite lizard

It was the dog that bit the lizard.

However, immediately after a monophthong with breathy or harsh voice (and thus necessarily a stressed vowel), the ergative clitic has the allomorph /-ɾu/ e.g.

/ŋà̤=ɾù káiʔk gáʔɾ/

fish=ERG bite lizard

It was the fish that bit the lizard.

With Postpositional Phrases

The come after the ergative noun, but before the verb (or any pronouns) e.g.

/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù pʰáˈzè̤t=ká káiʔk gáʔɾ/

dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard

It was the dog that bit the lizard in the forest.

Topicalisation

However, Kämpya speakers very often topicalise either the subject or the object. The object is topicalised by moving it in front of the subject (i.e. making the sentence OSV) e.g.

/gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk/

lizard dog=ERG bite

The lizard was bitten by the dog.

The subject of a transitive sentence is topicalised by deleting the ergative marker e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ káiʔk gáʔɾ/

dog bite lizard

The dog bit the lizard.

The difference between this and /kʰwèi̤ ɾù káiʔk gáʔɾ/ (i.e. with the case marker), is that, in the sentence with the case marker, the "new information" being presented to the listener is that it was the dog that did the biting. Without the case marker, it is a sentence describing the dog, and the new information is that it bit the lizard. This is analagous to the difference between "ga" and "wa" in Japanese.

Also note that topicalising both the subject and object is ungrammatical i.e. we cannot say */gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤ káiʔk/ or anything like that.

With Pronouns

The (alienable) genitive pronouns discussed earlier can also be the subject of transitive verbs e.g.

/jô̰ káiʔk gáʔɾ/

2PS.ERG bite lizard

You are biting the lizard.

As before, the object can be fronted as a topic e.g.

/gáʔɾ jô̰ káiʔk/

lizard 2PS.ERG bite

You are biting the lizard.

However, the subject pronoun still come immediately before the verb, so sentences like */jô̰ gáʔɾ káiʔk/ are ungrammatical.

Prepositional phrases must come before the subject pronoun e.g.

/pʰáˈzè̤t=ká jô̰ káiʔk gáʔɾ/

forest=LOC 2PS.ERG bite lizard

You bit the lizard in the forest.

When a verb takes an accusative pronoun as its object, it becomes intransitive i.e. the subject will be unmarked (in the absolutive case) and can come either before or after the verb e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ ŋí=káiʔk/

dog 2PS.ACC=bite

The dog will bite you.

or

/ŋí=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=bite dog

You will be bitten by the dog.

Using the ergative form /kʰwèi̤=zù/ is ungrammatical here.

When both the subject and the object of a verb are pronouns, the subject comes first and is in the intransitive case e.g.

jéi=swí=káiʔk

2PS.INTR=3PS.ACC=bite

You are biting him.

It would be ungrammatical to say */jô̰ swí=káiʔk/.

Reciprocal Voice

This takes a transitive verb and turns it into an intransitive verb meaning "do ... to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb, and putting it as a particle in the object pronoun "slot" e.g. /ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak" -> /dé ˈdè̤sì/ - "to speak to each other".

However coda consonants and the second elements of diphthongs are deleted e.g. /káiʔk/ - "to bite" -> /ká káiʔk/ - "to bite each other".

Also if the onset of the first syllable contains an aspirated consonant, the aspiration is lost in the reduplication e.g. /sʰwè̤/ - "to pull" -> /sé sʰwè̤/ - "to pull each other".

If the onset of the first syllable contains a voiceless nasal, the it becomes voiced in the reduplication e.g. - /m̥â̰n/ "to correct" -> /má m̥â̰n/ - "to correct each other". Likewise, if the onset of the first syllable contains /h/, it is lost in the reduplication e.g. /hwêg/ - "to play" -> /wé hwêg/ - "to play with each other".

Subject Deletion

It is perfectly acceptable to delete the subject of a transitive sentence e.g.

/káiʔk gáʔɾ/

bite lizard

He / She / It / They bit the lizard.

/gáʔɾ káiʔk/

lizard bite

The lizard was bitten.

This carries no ambiguity, because the word for lizard is always in the absolutive case.

Antipassive Voice

To delete the object of a transitive sentence, the antipassive voice is used [12]. This is done with the clitic /θu-/. It goes in the same syntactic "slot" as an object pronoun would e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ θú=káiʔk/

dog ANTIP=bite

The dog bit (someone / something).

However, if followed by a vowel, the form of the clitic is /θw-/ e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ θw=áhlôṵn/

dog ANTIP=abandon

The dog abandoned (someone / something).

The deleted object can be re-introduced at the end of the sentence using the dative clitic /-àuŋ/ (note that this does not change the tone class of the noun) e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ θú=káiʔk gáʔɾ=àuŋ/

dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT

The dog bit the lizard.

At first glance, this may seem pointless, as we could have quite easily have said:

/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/

dog=ERG bite lizard

It was the dog that bit the lizard.

However, the difference is that Kämpya has ergative syntax. Whatever argument of the verb is in the absolutive case is the syntactic pivot [13]. In a normal transitive sentence, this is the object of the verb. But, by using the antipassive voice, the subject of the transitive verb becomes the syntactic pivot. If we combine the two sentences above with the verb /pjèi̤/ - "to flee", the meaning becomes very different:

/kʰwèi̤ θú=káiʔk gáʔɾ=àuŋ pjèi̤/

dog ANTIP=bite lizard=DAT flee

The dog bit the lizard and (the dog) ran away.

vs.

/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ pjèi̤/

dog=ERG bite lizard flee

The dog bit the lizard and the lizard ran away.

Note that the dative clitic has the allomorph /jàuŋ/ after a vowel e.g.

/gáʔɾ θú=káiʔk kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/

lizard ANTIP=bite dog=DAT

The lizard bit the dog.

Ditransitive Sentences

For verbs such as "give", "sell", "send" etc. [14], the normal situation is to have the donor marked in the ergative case in the usual position (i.e before the verb and any postpositional phrases), the theme (whatever is being given / sold etc. to someone) directly after it, and marked with the secundative postposition /-ti/, and the recipient in the absolutive case either after the verb or topicalised at the beginning of the sentence e.g.

/ˈsíʔtà=zù áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

guardian=ERG bone=SEC give dog

It was the guardian that gave the bone to the dog.

or

/kʰwèi̤ ˈsíʔtà=zù áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b/

dog guardian=ERG bone=SEC give

The dog was given a bone by the guardian.

The ergative argument can be topicalised in the same way e.g.

/ˈsíʔtà áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

guardian bone=SEC give dog

The guardian gave the bone to the dog.

It is also perfectly possible to put a ditransitive sentence in the antipassive voice e.g.

/ˈsíʔtà áˈjòṳ=tí θú=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/

guardian bone=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT

The guardian gave the bone to the dog.

With Postpositional Phrases

Postpositional phrases usually come after the theme (i.e. whatever takes the secundative case) e.g.

/ˈsíʔtà=zù áˈjòṳ=tí pʰáˈzè̤t=ká gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

guardian=ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog

It was the guardian that gave the bone to the dog in the forest.

Allomorphy

Clitics beginning with /t/ and /p/

Immediately after a monophthong with breathy voice (and thus necessarily a vowel in an open syllable that has stress), an inital /t/ in clitics lenites to /ɾ/. For example, the secundative clitic /ti/ becomes /ɾi/ e.g.

/ˈsíʔtà ŋà̤=ɾí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

guardian fish=SEC give dog

The guardian gave the fish to the dog.

Immediately after a monophthong with harsh voice, /t/ also lenites to /ɾ/. However, it also triggers a phonation shift on the vowel from harsh to glottalised e.g. the noun meaning "animal fat" is /áˈsʰḭ̀/ in Tone Class 2. It normally has harsh voice, but it combines with the secundative clitic to form /áˈsʰìʔ=ɾí/, as in:

/ˈsíʔtà áˈsʰìʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/

guardian fat=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT

The guardian gave the fat to the dog.

In similar situations, /p/ lenites to /ⱱ/. For example, the instrumental postposition /piŋ/ likewise becomes /ⱱiŋ/ e.g. /ˈdè̤sí/ - "words" becomes /ˈdè̤sí=píŋ/ - "using words", but /ŋà̤/ - "fish" becomes /ˈŋà̤=ⱱíŋ/ - "using fish", and words with harsh voice on the final vowel such as /áˈsʰḭ̀/ - "animal fat", become /áˈsʰìʔ=ⱱíŋ/ - "using animal fat".

Clitics beginning with /d/, /z/ and /b/

Immediately after a monophthong with harsh or breathy voice, /d/, /z/ also lenite to /ɾ/ (as we have seen with the ergative clitic /-zu/). /b/ also lenites to /ⱱ/. But they do not trigger any phonation changes on the vowel.

Clitics beginning with /g/

Immediately after a monophthong with harsh or breathy voice, /g/ is lenited to /h/. However this triggers deaspiration in the word it attaches to (in a similar fashion to Grassman's law in Indo-European languages). Aspirated consonants lose their aspiration, /h/ is deleted, and voiceless nasals become voiced e.g. with the postposition /-gei/ - "since the time of"

Gloss	Base Form	Form with /-gei/
child	kʰlè̤	klè̤=héi
snare	n̥ḛ̀	nḛ̀=héi
mother	múˈhḛ̀	múˈḛ̀=héi

Clitics beginning with /k/

The /k/ here lenits to /h/ and triggers deaspiration in exactly the same way as /g/. However, if the monophthong had harsh voice, it changes to be glottalised e.g. from /n̥ḛ̀/ - "snare", if we add the locative clitic /-ka/, the result is /nèʔ=há/ - "at the snare".

With Pronouns

Ergative Pronouns

These can come in their usual position immediately before the verb e.g.

/áˈjòṳ=tí pʰáˈzè̤t=ká jô̰ gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

bone=SEC forest=LOC 2PS.ERG give dog

You gave the bone to the dog in the forest.

Or they can come before the noun in the secundative case e.g.

/jô̰ áˈjòṳ=tí pʰáˈzè̤t=ká gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ERG bone=SEC forest=LOC give dog

You gave the bone to the dog in the forest.

This creates a small amount of amiguity, since /jô̰ áˈjòṳ=tí/ can also be read as "your bone (alienable)". Thus the above sentence could also be read as "your bone (alienable) was given to the dog in the forest".

With Postpositions

The emphatic forms of the accusative pronouns are used with a postposition (e.g. the secundative /tí/). However, some of these pronouns trigger the sandhi rules discussed before (changing the phonation on the vowel to glottalised), and leniting the postposition to. Here is a list of the pronouns when used with the secundative postposition:

1st Person Exclusive - /mìʔ=ɾí/

1st Person Inclusive - /là̰n=tí/

2nd Person - /ḭ̀ŋ=tí/

3rd Person - /swìʔ=ɾí/

Reflexive - /sèʔ=ɾí/

Applicative Voice

To topicalise a noun in a postpositional phrase, Kämpya uses applicative constructions [15]. These are formed by first shifting the noun in the absolutive case to the end of the sentence (and marking it with the dative clitic /-àuŋ/). In turn, the noun that the postposition was attached to goes into the absolutive case, and the postposition is placed after the verb as a clitic e.g. from the sentence:

/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù pʰáˈzè̤t=ká káiʔk gáʔɾ/

dog=ERG forest=LOC bite lizard

It was the dog that bit the lizard in the forest.

we can apply an applicative transformation to get:

/pʰáˈzè̤t ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk=kà gáʔɾ=àuŋ/

forest dog=ERG bite=LOC lizard=DAT

In the forest, the dog bit the lizard.

As another example, the sentence

/ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á kúʔn/

enemy Hkónat=from depart

The enemy departed from Hkónat.

becomes the following:

/ˈkʰóʔnàt kúʔn=m̥à ˈḛ̂nèmì=jàuŋ/

Hkónat depart=from enemy=DAT

From Hkónat, the enemy departed.

Note here the tone change from /ˈkʰòʔnát/ (in a postpositional phrase and thus Tone Class 2) to /ˈkʰóʔnàt/ (in Tone Class 1 like most nouns). We cannot see this in the previous example because the word for "forest" is /pʰáˈzè̤t/ in both Tone Class 1 and Tone Class 2.

Likewise, in ditransitive sentences, the theme (i.e. whatever is given by the donor to the recipient) can also be topicalised by the same process e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ ˈsíʔtà=zù áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b/

dog guardian=ERG bone=SEC give

The dog was given a bone by the guardian.

becomes

/áˈjòṳ ˈsíʔtà=zù ˈgḭ̂b=tì ˈkʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/

bone guardian=ERG give=SEC dog=DAT

The bone was given to the dog by the guardian.

When a pronoun is the object of the verb to be put into the applicative voice, the subject is put into the dative case instead e.g. when we apply the applicative voice to

/kʰwèi̤ pʰáˈzè̤t=ká ŋí=ˈkáiʔk/

dog forest=LOC 2PS.ACC=bite

The dog bit you in the forest.

we get

/pʰáˈzè̤t ŋí=káiʔk=kà kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/

forest 2PS.ACC=bite=LOC dog=DAT

In the forest, the dog bit you.

Notice that when the postpositions /mḁ/, /ka/ and /ti/ attach to a noun, they have High Tone, since postpositional phrases are in Tone Class 2. However, when they attach to a verb, they have has Low Tone, since verbs are in Tone Class 1.

This is clearly a cliticisation process, since adverbs can come before the particle but after the verb e.g.

/pʰáˈzè̤t ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk ˈtjǎ̤ŋ=kà ˈgáʔɾ=àuŋ/

forest dog=ERG bite yesterday.ADV=LOC lizard=DAT

In the forest, the dog bit the lizard.

Noun Phrases

The basic order in noun phrases is: Demonstrative - Numeral - Restrictive Adjective - Noun - Non Restrictive Adjective

Restrictiveness in Adjectives

When an adjective modifies a noun, Kämpya makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive (descriptive) adjectives [16]. It does this by putting restrictive adjectives in Tone Class 2, and placing them before the noun they modify e.g.

/ˈlwèʔpíd kʰwèi̤/

fast.REST dog

The fast dog(s) (choosing one or more fast dogs out of a group of other dogs).

Descriptive (non-restrictive) adjectives are in Tone Class 3 and follow the noun they modify e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ˈlwéʔpìd/

dog fast.DESC

The fast dog(s).

or

/sôṵ ˈjḛ́làu/

sun yellow.DESC

The yellow sun.

In the last case, it would never make any sense to say /ˈjḛ̀láu sôṵ/, unless for some reason we were disambiguating between multiple suns.

Articles

There are no definite articles, but there is an indefinite article clitic. It occupies the demonstrative syntactic "slot" and has the allomorphs /ti-/ before a consonant and /it-/ before a vowel e.g.

/tí=kʰwèi̤/

INDEF=dog

a dog

/ít=áˈtâṵŋ/

INDEF=feather

a feather

Kämpya nouns are not inflected for singular or plural, but when they take the indefinite article, they are only ever singular, so the above examples could never mean "some dogs" or "some feathers".

It is important to distinguish the indefinite article from the word for one /tìʔ/. The indefinite article is a clitic, which has no stress and is phonologically part of whatever word follows it i.e. it will have plain High Pitch no matter whether it is followed by a noun or (restrictive) adjective. On the other hand, the numeral /tìʔ/ - "one" is phonologically a separate word. In terms of the tonal morphology, it (like all other numerals) belongs to category 2, and is thus pronounced with Low Pitch.

Compare:

/tí=kʰwèi̤/

INDEF=dog

a dog

with

/tìʔ kʰwèi̤/

one dog

one dog

Also, the numeral for one does not "reverse" (i.e. undergo metathesis) when the next syllable begins with a vowel e.g.

/ít=áˈtâṵŋ/

INDEF=feather

a feather

vs.

/tìʔ áˈtâṵŋ/

one feather

one feather

The numeral for "one" (or any other numerals) cannot be used with the indefinite article, so */tí=tìʔ áˈtâṵŋ/ is ungrammatical.

However, (restrictive) adjectives can intervene between the indefinite article and the noun e.g.

/tí=ˈjḛ̀láu áˈtâṵŋ/

INDEF=yellow.REST feather

a yellow feather

Demonstratives

Kämpya has a two-way distance contrast in demonstratives (like English but unlike many other languages). It uses tone to distinguish pronominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "This is a cat") from adnominal demonstratives (e.g. in the sentence "This cat is here"). It also uses tone to make a further distinction in adnominal demonstratives depending on whether they are describing a place, or something else.

Here is a table of the demonstratives:

	Tone	This	That
Pronominal	Harsh Falling	dâ̰	hôṵ
Adnominal (Places)	Modal High	dá	*(h)óu
Adnominal (Other cases)	Harsh Low	dà̰	hòṵ

• /hóu-/ has the allomorph /*hów-/ before a vowel. Before a word containing an aspirated consonant, a voiceless nasal or another /h/, the initial /h/ is dropped e.g. /óu=pʰáˈzè̤t/ - "that forest", not */hóu=pʰáˈzè̤t/.

So for example "this mountain" is /dá ˈmjáuʔnàn/, since a mountain is a place. But "this dog" is /dà̰ kʰwèi̤/, since a dog is not a place.

Possession

Kämpya distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession. In both cases, possessors are marked with the cliticised case marker /ja/, and come before the noun they possess. But inalienable possessors are in Tone Class 2 e.g.

/kʰwèi̤=já áˈjòṳ/

dog=GEN.INALIENABLE bone

The dog's bone (i.e. in it's body).

While alienable possessors are in Tone Class 1 e.g.

/kʰwèi̤=jà áˈjòṳ/

dog=GEN.ALIENABLE bone

The dog's bone (i.e. that it is chewing on / has buried etc.)

Unlike in English, there are no restrictions on possessing a noun modified by a demonstrative or an article. So it is perfectly grammatical to say the following:

/kʰwèi̤=jà dà̰ áˈjòṳ/

dog=GEN.ALIENABLE this bone

This bone of the dog's (literally "the dog's this bone").

Relative Clauses

In the same way as with adjectives, Kämpya places relative clauses before the head noun if they are restrictive, and after the noun if they are non-restrictive e.g.

/gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk kʰwèi̤ pjèi̤/

lizard=ERG bite dog flee

The dog that the lizard had bitten fled.

Or, using a non-restrictive relative clause:

/kʰwèi̤ gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk pjèi̤/

dog lizard=ERG bite flee

The dog, which the lizard had bitten, fled.

However, in Kämpya and unlike in English, the accessibility hierarchy is very important [17]. In every case, the head noun must be the absolutive argument of the verb in the relative clause. If it would not normally be so, then it must be put into the absolutive case by strategies such as antipassivisation on the verb e.g.

/θú=káiʔk gáʔɾ pjèi̤/

ANTIP=bite lizard flee

The lizard that had bitten it fled.

Or in a non-restrictive relative clause:

/gáʔɾ θú=káiʔk pjèi̤/

lizard ANTIP=bite flee

The lizard, which had bitten it, fled.

Or an applicative construction can be used e.g.

/gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk=kà pʰáˈzè̤t nóuʔp/

lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest small

The forest that the lizard bit it in is small.

And in a non-restrictive relative clause:

/pʰáˈzè̤t gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk=kà nóuʔp/

forest lizard=ERG bite=LOC small

The forest, which the lizard bit it in, is small.

Internal Heads

It must be noted that Kämpya restrictive relative clauses are strictly speaking internally headed [18]. We can only see this in antipassives and applicatives where the noun (that used to be in the absolutive case) is re-introduced as a dative argument, it follows the head noun e.g.

/θú=káiʔk gáʔɾ kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ pjèi̤/

ANTIP=bite lizard dog=DAT flee

The lizard that had bitten the dog fled. (not */θú=káiʔk kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ gáʔɾ pjèi̤/)

Or in an applicative construction:

/gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk=kà pʰáˈzè̤t kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ nóuʔp/

lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT small

The forest that the lizard bit the dog in is small. (not */gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk=kà kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ pʰáˈzè̤t nóuʔp/)

Mood/Evidentiality

While Kämpya does not mark tense or aspect, mood / evidentiality is very important (the grammar conflates the two). They are marked with a proclitic, that usually comes immediately before the verb, but can occur in many other positions.

Negative Mood

The basic way to negate something is to place the clitic /na/ immediately before it e.g. from the sentence

/ŋí=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=bite dog.

You were bitten by the dog.

We can say

/ŋí=ná=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=NEG=bite dog

You weren't bitten by the dog.

as well as

/ná=ŋí=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/

NEG=2PS.ACC=bite dog

You weren't bitten by the dog. / It's not you that was bitten by the dog.

and

/ŋí=káiʔk ná=kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=bite NEG=dog

You weren't bitten by the dog. / It wasn't the dog that bit you.

However, when a noun is topicalised, it cannot be attached to /na/. So */ná́=kʰwèi̤ ŋí=káiʔk/ is ungrammatical.

As we can see, /na/ can attach to either nouns or verbs. It can also attach to adjectives e.g.

/ŋí=káiʔk ná=nòuʔp kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=bite NEG=small.REST dog

You weren't bitten by the small dog (i.e. you were bitten by the big one)

And adverbs e.g.

/ŋí=káiʔk nà=néʔk kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=bite NEG=deep.ADV dog

You weren't bitten deeply by the dog.

However, if the word after /na/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.

/ŋí=náw=áˈlôṵn kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=NEG=abandon dog

You weren't abandoned by the dog.

Necessitative Mood

This is used to indicate that something ought to / is required to happen. It is indicated using the proclitic /let/ (from English "let's) e.g.

/ái=lét=kúʔn/

1PS.EXCL=NEC=depart

I / we (not including you) need to depart.

When attached to a 1st person inclusive pronoun, it often functions similarly to English "let's" e.g.

/wéi=lét=kúʔn/

1PS.INCL=NEC=depart

Let's depart / We (including you) need to depart

When attached to a 2nd person pronoun, it often functions like an imperative e.g.

/jéi=lét=kúʔn/

2PS=NEC=depart

Depart / You need to depart

Like other mood particles, /let/ does not need to attach to a verb. It can attach to other parts of speech depending on the focus of the speaker e.g.

/jéi=kúʔn lèt=ˈlwéʔpìd/

2PS=depart NEC=fast

You need to depart quickly (in this case, it is already assumed that the listener is departing, and the speaker wishes to emphasise that it should happen quickly).

Prohibitive Forms

Kämpya has a special pattern to say that something is forbidden. This is to use the necessitative mood, and also change the verb from Tone Class 1 (the normal class for verbs) to Tone Class 2 (for infinitives). It is then followed by the verb /nâ̰/ e.g.

/jéi=lét=áˈlòṵn nâ̰/

2PS.INTR=NEC=alone.INF PROH

Don't be alone.

This pattern can also be used for transitive verbs

/jô̰ lét=kàiʔk nâ̰ kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog

Don't you bite the dog.

It is also perfectly possible to front the argument of /nâ̰/ e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ jô̰ lét=kàiʔk nâ̰/

dog 2PS.ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH

The dog must not be bitten (by you).

Other nouns can be used apart from the 2nd person pronouns e.g.

/ˈsíʔtà=zù lét=kàiʔk nâ̰ kʰwèi̤/

guardian=ERG NEC=bite.INF PROH dog

The guardian must not bite the dog.

Optative Mood

This is used for things that the speaker hopes will happen / have happened. It is formed with the proclitic /wana/ (or /wan/ before a vowel) e.g.

/ái=wáná=kúʔn/

1PS.EXCL.INTR=OPT=depart

I / we (not including you) want to depart.

/ŋí=wáná=kàiʔk kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=OPT=bite dog

I want you to be bitten by a dog.

/ŋí=kàiʔk wáná=kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC bite OPT=dog

I want you to be bitten by a dog (and not another animal).

/ŋí=kàiʔk wáná=nòuʔp kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC bite OPT=small.REST dog

I want you to be bitten by a small dog (and not a big one).

Conditional Mood

This is used for situations which may not necessarily come true / have true, but are dependent on something else. It is marked with the proclitic /kau/ (or /kaw- before a vowel) e.g.

/ái=káu=kúʔn/

1PS.EXCL.INTR=COND=depart

I / we (not including you) would depart (if something else happens).

/ái=kúʔn kò=ˈlwéʔpìd/

1PS.EXCL.INTR depart COND=fast

I/ we (not including you) would depart quickly (but unless some other event happens, it will be slow)

Sentences in the conditional mood can occur after sentences with another mood. In this case, the event described in the conditional mood only happens if the preceding sentence comes true e.g.

/jéi=wáná=kúʔn áj=káw=áˈlôṵn/

2PS.INTR=OPT=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone

I want you to leave so I / we (not including you) can be alone.

Hypothetical Mood

The proclitic /nou/ (/now/ before a vowel) is used for hypothetical and counterfactual situations. It often corresponds to cases where English would use "if" e.g.

/jéi=nóu=kúʔn/

2PS.INTR=HYP=depart

If you depart ...

A clause in the hypothetical mood is very often followed up with a clause in the conditional mood e.g.

/jéi=nóu=kúʔn áj=káw=áˈlôṵn/

2PS.INTR=HYP=depart COND=1PS.EXCL=alone

If you leave, I / we (not including you) will be alone.

Sensory Evidential

If a speaker is reporting something that they have experienced, then no clitic is used e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ áˈlôṵn/

dog alone

The dog is alone (maybe the speaker can see it)

Reportative Evidential

If the speaker is reporting information that someone else told them, the proclitic /hi/ (/hizw/ before a vowel) is used e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ hízw=áˈlôṵn/

dog REP=alone

I've been told that the dog is alone.

/áˈlôṵn hí=kʰwèi̤/

alone REP=dog

I've been told that it is the dog that is alone.

Inferential Evidential

If the speaker is arriving at a judgment based on some kind of direct physical evidence, then the proclitic /ge/ is used (/ges/ before a vowel) e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ gés=áˈlôṵn/

dog INFR=alone

The dog must be alone (maybe the speaker sees only a single set of dog footprints)

Assumptive Mood

This is used when the speaker is making an assertion based on their experience with similar situations, or when (at least in their judgement), the situation is general knowledge. It uses the proclitic /hle/ (/hel/ before a vowel) e.g.

/sôṵ hél=éˈmḛ̂hè/

sun ASS=rise

The sun rises (the speaker is referring to a well known fact).

Compare the above sentence to one without an evidential particle e.g.

/sôṵ éˈmḛ̂hè/

sun rise

The sun has risen (the speaker has seen it).

Interrogative Mood

This is used for polar questions (those expecting a yes/no answer). It is formed with the clitic /dú/ e.g.

/ŋí=dú=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=POLQ=bite dog

Were you bitten by the dog?

as well as

/dú=ŋí=káiʔk kʰwèi̤/

POLQ=2PS.ACC=bite dog

Were you weren't bitten by the dog? / Was it you that was bitten by the dog?

and

/ŋí=káiʔk dú=kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=dog

Were you bitten by the dog? Was it the dog that bit you?

Like with /na/, /du/ can also attach to adjectives e.g.

/ŋí=káiʔk dú=nòuʔp kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=small.REST dog

Were you bitten by the small dog? / Was it the small dog that bit you?? (or were you bitten by the big dog?)

And adverbs e.g.

/ŋí=káiʔk dù=néʔk kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=bite POLQ=deep.ADV dog

Were you bitten deeply by the dog? (or was it a shallow bite?)

However, if the word after /du/ begins with a vowel, an epenthetic /w/ is inserted e.g.

/ŋí=dúw=áˈlôṵn kʰwèi̤/

2PS.ACC=POLQ=abandon dog

You weren't abandoned by the dog.

Wh-Questions

These are formed by using interrogative pronouns. There is no distinction between "who" and "what" e.g.

/báj=ˈḛ̂nèmì/

Q.INTR=enemy

Who / What is the enemy?

or

/ˈkʰòʔnát=m̥á bá=ˈkúʔn/

Hkonat=from Q.INTR=depart

Who / What departed from Hkonat?

/zwé=ˈkáiʔk gáʔɾ/

Q.ERG=bite lizard

Who / What bit the lizard?

/ké=ˈkáiʔk gáʔɾ/

Q.ACC=bite lizard

Who / What did the lizard bite? (because the verb takes a pronoun, the word for lizard does not take the ergative case)

/ˈsíʔtà ˈkèʔ=ɾí θú=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/

guardian Q.ACC=SEC ANTIP=give dog=DAT

Who / What did the guardian give to the dog?

When English would use a word such as "where" or "when", Kämpya instead uses /kḛ̀/ (the accusative emphatic interrogative pronoun) with a postposition e.g.

/ˈḛ̂nèmì ˈkḛ̀=m̥á kúʔn/

enemy Q.ACC=from depart

Where did the enemy depart from?

/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù ˈkḛ̀=wé káiʔk gáʔɾ/

dog=ERG Q.ACC=TEM bite lizard

When did the dog bite the lizard?

/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù ˈkèʔ=ⱱíŋ káiʔk gáʔɾ/

dog=ERG Q.ACC=INS bite lizard

How did the dog bite the lizard?

/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù ˈkèʔ=há káiʔk gáʔɾ/

dog=ERG Q.ACC=LOC bite lizard

Where did the dog bite the lizard?

Asking about Possessors

Kämpya has no word meaning "whose". Instead it is necessary to ask "Who has ...?", combined with a relative clause e.g.

/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/

dog=ERG bite lizard Q.ERG=have

Whose lizard did the dog bite? (literally "Who has the lizard that the dog bit?")

or

/θú=ˈkáiʔk kʰwèi̤ ˈgáʔɾ=àuŋ zwé=ˈhḛ̂b/

ANTIP=bite dog lizard=DAT Q.ERG=have

Whose dog bit the lizard? (literally "Who has the dog that bit the lizard?")

Other Interrogatives that modify noun phrases

To ask questions like "Which lizard did the dog bite?", attach the clitic bá- (or báj- before a vowel) to the noun being asked about e.g.

/ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk bá=ˈgáʔɾ/

dog=ERG bite Q.INTR=lizard

Which lizard did the dog bite?

However, bá- can only attach to a noun in the absolutive case. To ask about the subject of a transitive verb, it is necessary to antipassivise the verb. e.g.

/θú=ˈkáiʔk bá=kʰwèi̤ ˈgáʔɾ=àuŋ/

ANTIP=bite Q.INTR=dog lizard=DAT

Which dog bit the lizard?

Attaching the clitic to a noun in the ergative case is ungrammatical e.g. */bá=ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/. Also the clitic cannot attach to a topicalised noun e.g. */bá=kʰwèi̤ θú=ˈkáiʔk ˈgáʔɾ=àuŋ/.

To ask about the object of a postposition, an applicative construction is needed e.g.

/gáʔɾ=zù káiʔk=kà bá=pʰáˈzè̤t ˈkʰwèi̤=jàuŋ/

lizard=ERG bite=LOC forest dog=DAT which

Which forest did the lizard bite the dog in?

Compounding

How compounds are formed depends on their semantics [19].

Endocentric Compounds

These are head final, with the second element (and any subsequent elements) losing its stress and phonation e.g.

/ˈsíʔtà-kʰwèi/

guardian-dog

a watchdog

If this compounding would result in multiple aspirated consonants in the same word, all except the first lose their aspiration e.g.

/pʰáˈzè̤t-kwèi/

forest-dog

a wild dog (not */pʰáˈzè̤t-kʰwèi/)

Voiceless nasals, /h/, and clusters containing /h/ also count as "aspirated consonants" e.g. from /káˈkʰâṵd/ - "isthmus" we form the compound

/éˈmḛ̂hè-kà̀kàud/

emerge-isthmus

land that rises from the sea due to isostatic rebound [20]

Exocentric compounds

Here it is the first element of the compound that loses its stress, phonation and aspiration (if any) e.g.

/émé.é-káˈkʰâṵd/

emerge-isthmus

War fought over land that rises from the sea due to isostatic rebound (a very common occurrence)

Verb Subordination

Basic Infinitives

This construction is used when the subject of both verbs is the same.

The infinitives are placed in Tone Class 2. Unlike English, they precede the finite verb e.g. from the sentence:

/ˈḛ̂nèmì kúʔn/

enemy depart

The enemy is departing.

We can add verbs such as /pʰḭ̂nì/ - "to finish", or /ˈwóʔnà/ - "to want",to say things like:

/ˈḛ̂nèmì kùʔn ˈpʰḭ̂nì/

enemy depart.INF finish

The enemy has finished departing.

However, if the finite verb is normally transitive (e.g. /ˈwóʔnà/ - "want"), when it attaches to an infinitive being used intransitively, the whole construction takes the antipassive clitic /θú/ before it:

/ˈḛ̂nèmì θú=kùʔn ˈwóʔnà/

enemy ANTIP=depart.INF want

The enemy wants to depart.

However, if a finite verb such as /ˈwóʔnà/ attaches to to an infinitive being used transitively, then it does not need to take the antipassive e.g.

/kʰwèi̤=zù kàiʔk ˈwóʔnà ˈḛ̂nèmì/

dog=ERG bite.INF want enemy

A dog wants to bite the enemy.

Like with normal verbs, object pronouns also change the transitivity of the sentence e.g.

/kʰwèi̤ ŋí=kàiʔk ˈwóʔnà/

dog 2PS.ACC=bite.INF want

A dog wants to bite you.

Notice how the tones of /kúʔn/ - "to depart" and /káiʔk/ - "to bite" have changed to /kùʔn/, and /kàiʔk/. This is since when they become infinitive they takes Tone Class 2. A similar thing can happen with /pʰḭ̂nì/ - "to finish" e.g.

/ˈḛ̂nèmì θú=kùʔn ˈpʰḭ̰̀ní ˈwóʔnà/

enemy ANTIP.depart.INF finish.INF want

The enemy wants to finish departing.

More Complex Sentences

In this case, the subordinate clause is always placed at the end of the sentence. The superordinate verb takes a pronouns to mark whether the subordinate verb is the accusative, ergative or intransitive argument of the verb:

	Accusative	Ergative	Intransitive
Before a consonant	nó	ŋá	sí
Before a vowel	ón-	áŋ-	íts-
Emphatic	nò̰	ŋà̰	ì̤t

For example, from the sentence:

/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù hí=ˈsâ̰pè áˈlòṳn/

mother=ERG REP=know everyone

I've heard the mother knows everyone.

We can replace the object with a pronoun to get

/múˈhḛ̂ lán=hí=ˈsâ̰pè/

mother 1PS.INCL.ACC=REP=know

I've heard the mother knows us (including you).

If there is a subordinate clause, then the accusative pronoun is replaced with /nó/ e.g.

/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk kʰlè̤/

mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite child

I've heard the mother knows the dog bit the child.

If the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g.

/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk/

mother SBRD.ACC=REP=know dog=ERG bite

I've heard the mother knows the dog bit her.

It would be redundant to say something like ?/múˈhḛ̂ nó=hí=ˈsâ̰pè ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk mùˈhḛ̂/.

Another example where the subordinate clause is the topic of a transitive sentence:

/ŋá=hí=pínjáˈpèi̤ múˈhḛ̂ ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk kʰlè̤/

SBRD.ERG=REP=teach mother dog=ERG bite child

Literally "that the dog bit the child taught the mother, I'm told", but perhaps a better translation would be "I've heard that the mother learned from the dog having bitten the child".

Like before, if the superordinate clause's absolutive argument is also the topic of the subordinate clause, then it does not need to be mentioned twice e.g.

/ŋá=hí=pínjáˈpèi̤ múˈhḛ̂ ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk/

SBRD.ERG=REP=teach mother dog=ERG bite

That the dog bit the mother taught her (the mother), I'm told.

And another example using an intransitive verb (in this case, one that would be an adjective in English):

/sí=hí=ˈlwéʔpìd ˈḛ̂nèmì kúʔn tjǎ̤ŋ/

SBRD.INTR=fast enemy depart yesterday.ADV

I hear that it was fast for the enemy to have departed yesterday (usually they apparently take more time).

And another example using a postposition:

/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí ˈdè̤sì kʰlè̤ ˈkʰwèi̤=zù káiʔk gáʔɾ/

mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child dog=ERG bite lizard

The mother told the child that the dog bit the lizard.

And as before, the absolutive argument of the superordinate clause can be the topic of the subordinate clause e.g.

/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí ˈdè̤sì kʰlè̤ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí lét=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog

The mother told the child that he / she (the child) must give the dog a bone.

/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰlè̤=jàuŋ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí lét=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT INDEF=bone=SEC NEC=give dog

The mother told the child that she (the mother) must give the dog a bone.

Note that the subordinate clause must be marked for evidentiality (always from the speaker's point of view). Compare the above sentence with:

/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰlè̤=jàuŋ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT INDEF=bone=SEC give dog

The mother told the child that she (the mother) gave the dog a bone (the speaker saw the act of giving).

/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰlè̤=jàuŋ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí hí=gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT INDEF=bone=SEC REP=give dog

The mother told the child that she (the mother) must give the dog a bone (the speaker didn't see the act of giving, but heard about it).

Anti-Logophoricity

If the subordinate clause contains a transitive verb, then the 3rd person obviative ergative pronoun ðjíʔ can be used as a kind of "anti-logophoric" pronoun [21] to indicate that subject of the subordinate clause's transitive verb is not the absolutive argument of the main clause.

So if the above 2 sentences take ðjíʔ, then they become:

/múˈhḛ̂=ɾù ˈnòʔ=ɾí ˈdè̤sì kʰlè̤ ðjíʔ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

mother=ERG SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC speak child 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog

The mother told the child that he / she (someone other than the child, either the mother or someone else) gave the dog a bone.

/múˈhḛ̂ ˈnòʔ=ɾí θú=ˈdè̤sì ˈkʰlè̤=jàuŋ ðjíʔ ít=áˈjòṳ=tí gḭ̂b kʰwèi̤/

mother SBRD.ACC.EMP=SEC ANTIP=speak child=DAT 3PS.OBV.ERG INDEF=bone=SEC give dog

The mother told the child that he / she (someone other than the mother, either the child or someone else) would give the dog a bone.