Lanikel orthography: Difference between revisions

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|
|[[w:open_back_unrounded_vowel|ɑ]] '''ao'''
|[[w:open_back_unrounded_vowel|ɑ]] '''ao'''
|}
=== Gemination ===
Long vowels are written with a macron over the first letter. Geminated single-letter consonants are written by doubling their letter. Geminated digraphic oral clicks and affricates are written by doubling their first letter, and the other geminated digraphic consonants are written by doubling their last letter.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="21" |Geminate Romanization
|-
! rowspan="2" |Occlusive
!Phoneme
!ɱː
!nː
!ɲː
!ŋː
!pː
!tː
!t͡ʃː
!kː
!ʔː
!bː
!d͡zː
!d͡ʒː
!ɡː
!ŋ͡ʇː
!ŋ͡ǃ¡ː
!ŋ͡ǂː
!k͡ʇː
!k͡ǃ¡ː
!k͡ǂː
|-
!Grapheme
|''mm''
|''nn''
|''ññ''
|''ngg''
|''pp''
|''tt''
|''chh''
|''kk''
|''cc''
|''bb''
|''ddz''
|''jj''
|''gg''
|''dnn''
|''qnn''
|''qññ''
|''dd''
|''qql''
|''qq''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Continuant
!Phoneme
!fː
!θː
!sː
!ʃː
!ʎ̝̊ː
!xː
!hː
!vː
!ðː
!zː
!ʒː
!wː
!lː
!jː
!w̃ː
!l̃ː
!j̃ː
!ʀː
! rowspan="2" |
|-
!Grapheme
|''ff''
|''thh''
|''ss''
|''shh''
|''lhh''
|''xx''
|''hh''
|''vv''
|''dhh''
|''zz''
|''zhh''
|''ww''
|''ll''
|''yy''
|''ňww''
|''ňll''
|''ňyy''
|''rrr''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Vowel
!Phoneme
!iː
!ɪː
!ʊː
!uː
!e
!əː
!ʌː
!oː
!aː
!ɑː
! colspan="9" rowspan="2" |
|-
!Grapheme
|''ī''
|''īe''
|''ūo''
|''ū''
|''ē''
|''ēo''
|''ōe''
|''ō''
|''ā''
|''āo''
|}
|}


=== Syllabic Consonants ===
=== Syllabic Consonants ===
Toneless syllabic consonants are written with an overdot. On digraphs, the underdot is written only on the first letter (e.g. /ŋ̩ ʀ̩/ get written ⟨ṇg ṛr⟩). For the syllabic palatal nasal, the ⟨ñ⟩ is replaced with ⟨ny⟩, upon which the underdot can be placed ⟨ṇy⟩. Syllabic /ð̩/ is written with ⟨d⟩ instead of ⟨dh⟩, and so receives the underdot as ⟨ḍ⟩. The toneless syllabic consonant /j̍/ is instead written ⟨ÿ⟩.
Toneless syllabic consonants are written with an overdot. On digraphs, the underdot is written only on the first letter (e.g. /ŋ̩ ʀ̩/ get written ⟨ṇg ṛr⟩). For the syllabic palatal nasal, the ⟨ñ⟩ is replaced with ⟨ny⟩, upon which the underdot can be placed ⟨ṇy⟩. Syllabic /ð̩/ is written with ⟨d⟩ instead of ⟨dh⟩, and so receives the underdot as ⟨ḍ⟩. The toneless syllabic consonant /j̍/ is instead written ⟨ÿ⟩.
Geminated syllabic consonants are marked by doubling the letter with the syllabic or tone diacritic. The syllabic geminate consonant /ʀ̩ː/ is only written with two marked ⟨r⟩s instead of two marked ⟨r⟩s and an unmarked one.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" |
! colspan="2" |
!Labial
!Labial
!Dental
!Dental
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!Dorsal
!Dorsal
|-
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Nasal
! colspan="2" |Nasal
!Short
|ɱ̩ '''ṃ'''
|ɱ̩ '''ṃ'''
|
|
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|ŋ̩ '''ṇg'''
|ŋ̩ '''ṇg'''
|-
|-
!Long
! colspan="2" |Fricative
|ɱ̩ː '''ṃṃ'''
|
|n̩ː '''ṇṇ'''
|ɲ̩ː '''ṇṇy'''
|ŋ̩ː '''ṇṇg'''
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Short
|v̩ '''ṿ'''
|v̩ '''ṿ'''
|ð̩ '''ḍ'''
|ð̩ '''ḍ'''
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|
|
|-
|-
!Long
! rowspan="2" |Approximant
|v̩ː '''ṿṿ'''
!Oral
|ð̩ː '''ḍḍ'''
|z̩ː '''ẓẓ'''
|ʒ̍ː '''ẓẓh'''
|
|-
! rowspan="4" |Approximant
! rowspan="2" |Oral
!Short
|w̩ '''ẉ'''
|w̩ '''ẉ'''
|
|
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|
|
|-
|-
!Long
!Nasal
|w̩ː '''ẉẉ'''
|
|l̩ː '''ḷḷ'''
|j̍ː '''ÿÿ'''
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Nasal
!Short
|w̩̃ '''ňẉ'''
|w̩̃ '''ňẉ'''
|
|
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|
|
|-
|-
!Long
! colspan="2" |Vibrant
|w̩̃ː '''ňẉẉ'''
|
|l̩̃ː '''ňḷḷ'''
|j̩̃ː '''ňÿÿ'''
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Vibrant
!Short
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|ʀ̩ '''ṛr'''
|ʀ̩ '''ṛr'''
|-
!Long
|
|
|
|
|ʀ̩ː '''ṛṛ'''
|}
|}


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For polypthongs, tone (not including low tone because it has unusual romanization) and length are always written on the first vowel grapheme, so every vowel with a tone or length diacritic begins its syllable's nucleus. It is therefore unnecessary to use a diaerisis on such vowels.
For polypthongs, tone (not including low tone because it has unusual romanization) and length are always written on the first vowel grapheme, so every vowel with a tone or length diacritic begins its syllable's nucleus. It is therefore unnecessary to use a diaerisis on such vowels.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Labial
! colspan="3" |Dental
! colspan="3" |Alveolar
! colspan="3" |Palatal
|-
!High
!Mid
!Low
!High
!Mid
!Low
!High
!Mid
!Low
!High
!Mid
!Low
|-
! colspan="2" |Nasal
|ɱ̩˥ '''ḿ'''
|ɱ̩˧ '''ṁ'''
|ɱ̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṃ'''
|
|
|
|n̩˥ '''ń'''
|n̩˧ '''ṅ'''
|n̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṇ'''
|ɲ̩˥ '''ńy'''
|ɲ̩˧ '''ṅy'''
|ɲ̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṇy'''
|-
! colspan="2" |Fricative
|v̩˥ '''ŵ'''
|v̩˧ '''ẅ'''
|v̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṿ'''
|ð̩́˥ '''ð'''
|ð̩˧ '''ḋ'''
|ð̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ḍ'''
|z̩˥ '''ź'''
|z̩˧ '''ż'''
|z̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ẓ'''
|ʒ̍˥ '''źh'''
|ʒ̍˧ '''żh'''
|ʒ̍˩ '''<nowiki/>'ẓh'''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Approximant
!Oral
|w̩˥ '''ẃ'''
|w̩˧ '''ẇ'''
|w̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ẉ'''
|
|
|
|l̩˥ '''ĺ'''
|l̩˧ '''ŀ'''
|l̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ḷ'''
|j̍˥ '''ý'''
|j̍˧ '''ẏ'''
|j̍˩ '''<nowiki/>'ÿ'''
|-
!Nasal
|w̩̃˥ '''ňẃ'''
|w̩̃˧ '''ňẇ'''
|w̩̃˩ '''<nowiki/>'ẉ'''
|
|
|
|l̩̃˥ '''ňĺ'''
|l̩̃˧ '''ňŀ'''
|l̩̃˩ '''<nowiki/>'ňḷ'''
|j̩̃˥ '''ňý'''
|j̩̃˧ '''ňẏ'''
|j̩̃˩ '''<nowiki/>'ňÿ'''
|-
! colspan="2" |Vibrant
|
|
|
|
|
|
|ɾ̩ː˥ '''ŕ'''
|ɾ̩ː˧ '''ṙ'''
|ɾ̩ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ṛ'''
|
|
|
|}
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Labial
! colspan="3" |Labial
! colspan="3" |Dental
! colspan="3" |Dental
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!Low
!Low
|-
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Nasal
! colspan="2" |Nasal
!Short
|ɱ̩˥ '''ḿ'''
|ɱ̩˥ '''ḿ'''
|ɱ̩˧ '''ṁ'''
|ɱ̩˧ '''ṁ'''
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|ŋ̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṇg'''
|ŋ̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṇg'''
|-
|-
!Long
! colspan="2" |Fricative
|ɱ̩ː˥ '''ḿḿ'''
|ɱ̩ː˧ '''ṁṁ'''
|ɱ̩ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ṃṃ'''
|
|
|
|n̩ː˥ '''ńń'''
|n̩ː˧ '''ṅṅ'''
|n̩ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ṇṇ'''
|ɲ̩ː˥ '''ńńy'''
|ɲ̩ː˧ '''ṅṅy'''
|ɲ̩ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ṇṇy'''
|ŋ̩ː˥ '''ńńg'''
|ŋ̩ː˧ '''ṅṅg'''
|ŋ̩ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ṇṇg'''
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Fricative
!Short
|v̩˥ '''ŵ'''
|v̩˥ '''ŵ'''
|v̩˧ '''ẅ'''
|v̩˧ '''ẅ'''
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|
|
|-
|-
!Long
! rowspan="2" |Approximant
|v̩ː˥ '''ŵŵ'''
!Oral
|v̩ː˧ '''ẅẅ'''
|v̩ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ṿṿ'''
|ð̩́ː˥ '''ðð'''
|ð̩ː˧ '''ḋḋ'''
|ð̩ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ḍḍ'''
|z̩ː˥ '''ź'''
|z̩ː˧ '''ż'''
|z̩ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ẓ'''
|ʒ̍ː˥ '''źh'''
|ʒ̍ː˧ '''żh'''
|ʒ̍ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ẓh'''
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="4" |Approximant
! rowspan="2" |Oral
!Short
|w̩˥ '''ẃ'''
|w̩˥ '''ẃ'''
|w̩˧ '''ẇ'''
|w̩˧ '''ẇ'''
Line 464: Line 359:
|
|
|-
|-
!Long
!Nasal
|w̩ː˥ '''ẃẃ'''
|w̩ː˧ '''ẇẇ'''
|w̩ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ẉẉ'''
|
|
|
|l̩ː˥ '''ĺĺ'''
|l̩ː˧ '''ŀŀ'''
|l̩ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ḷḷ'''
|j̍ː˥ '''ýý'''
|j̍ː˧ '''ẏẏ'''
|j̍ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ÿÿ'''
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Nasal
!Short
|w̩̃˥ '''ňẃ'''
|w̩̃˥ '''ňẃ'''
|w̩̃˧ '''ňẇ'''
|w̩̃˧ '''ňẇ'''
Line 499: Line 376:
|
|
|-
|-
!Long
! colspan="2" |Vibrant
|w̩̃ː˥ '''ňẃẃ'''
|w̩̃ː˧ '''ňẇẇ'''
|w̩̃ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ňẉẉ'''
|
|
|
|l̩̃ː˥ '''ňĺĺ'''
|l̩̃ː˧ '''ňŀŀ'''
|l̩̃ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ňḷḷ'''
|j̩̃ː˥ '''ňý'''
|j̩̃ː˧ '''ňẏ'''
|j̩̃ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ňÿÿ'''
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Vibrant
!Short
|
|
|
|
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|ʀ̩˧ '''ṙr'''
|ʀ̩˧ '''ṙr'''
|ʀ̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṛr'''
|ʀ̩˩ '''<nowiki/>'ṛr'''
|}
=== Gemination ===
Long vowels are written with a macron over the first letter. Geminated single-letter consonants are written by doubling their letter. Geminated digraphic oral clicks and affricates are written by doubling their first letter, and the other geminated digraphic consonants are written by doubling their last letter.
Geminated syllabic consonants are marked by doubling the letter with the syllabic or tone diacritic. The syllabic geminate consonant /ʀ̩ː/ is only written with two marked ⟨r⟩s instead of two marked ⟨r⟩s and an unmarked one.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="22" |Geminate Romanization
|-
! rowspan="4" |Consonant
! rowspan="2" |Occlusive
!Phoneme
!ɱː
!nː
!ɲː
!ŋː
!pː
!tː
!t͡ʃː
!kː
!ʔː
!bː
!d͡zː
!d͡ʒː
!ɡː
!ŋ͡ʇː
!ŋ͡ǃ¡ː
!ŋ͡ǂː
!k͡ʇː
!k͡ǃ¡ː
!k͡ǂː
|-
!Grapheme
|''mm''
|''nn''
|''ññ''
|''ngg''
|''pp''
|''tt''
|''chh''
|''kk''
|''cc''
|''bb''
|''ddz''
|''jj''
|''gg''
|''dnn''
|''qnn''
|''qññ''
|''dd''
|''qql''
|''qq''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Continuant
!Phoneme
!fː
!θː
!sː
!ʃː
!ʎ̝̊ː
!xː
!hː
!vː
!ðː
!zː
!ʒː
!wː
!lː
!jː
!w̃ː
!l̃ː
!j̃ː
!ʀː
! rowspan="2" |
|-
|-
!Long
!Grapheme
|
|''ff''
|
|''thh''
|
|''ss''
|
|''shh''
|
|''lhh''
|
|''xx''
|
|''hh''
|
|''vv''
|
|''dhh''
|
|''zz''
|
|''zhh''
|
|''ww''
|ʀ̩ː˥ '''ŕŕ'''
|''ll''
|ʀ̩ː˧ '''ṙṙ'''
|''yy''
|ʀ̩ː˩'''<nowiki/>''' '''<nowiki/>'ṛṛ'''
|''ňww''
|''ňll''
|''ňyy''
|''rrr''
|-
! rowspan="8" |Syllabic Consonant
! rowspan="2" |Toneless
!Phoneme
!ɱ̩ː
!n̩ː
!ɲ̩ː
!ŋ̩ː
!v̩ː
!ð̩ː
!z̩ː
!ʒ̍ː
!w̩ː
!l̩ː
!j̍ː
!w̩̃ː
!l̩̃ː
!j̩̃ː
!ʀ̩ː
! colspan="4" rowspan="8" |
|-
!Grapheme
|''ṃṃ''
|''ṇṇ''
|''ṇṇy''
|''ṇṇg''
|''ṿṿ''
|''ḍḍ''
|''ẓẓ''
|''ẓẓh''
|''ẉẉ''
|''ḷḷ''
|''ÿÿ''
|''ňẉẉ''
|''ňḷḷ''
|''ňÿÿ''
|''ṛṛ''
|-
! rowspan="2" |High Tone
!Phoneme
!ɱ̩ː˥
!n̩ː˥
!ɲ̩ː˥
!ŋ̩ː˥
!v̩ː˥
!ð̩ː˥
!z̩ː˥
!ʒ̍ː˥
!w̩ː˥
!l̩ː˥
!j̍ː˥
!w̩̃ː˥
!l̩̃ː˥
!j̩̃ː˥
!ʀ̩ː˥
|-
!Grapheme
|''ḿḿ''
|''ńń''
|''ńńy''
|''ńńg''
|''ŵŵ''
|''ðð''
|''źź''
|''źźh''
|''ẃẃ''
|''ĺĺ''
|''ýý''
|''ňẃẃ''
|''ňĺĺ''
|''ňýý''
|''ŕŕ''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Mid Tone
!Phoneme
!ɱ̩ː˧
!n̩ː˧
!ɲ̩ː˧
!ŋ̩ː˧
!v̩ː˧
!ð̩ː˧
!z̩ː˧
!ʒ̍ː˧
!w̩ː˧
!l̩ː˧
!j̍ː˧
!w̩̃ː˧
!l̩̃ː˧
!j̩̃ː˧
!ʀ̩ː˧
|-
!Grapheme
|''ṁṁ''
|''ṅṅ''
|''ṅṅy''
|''ṅṅg''
|''ẅẅ''
|''ḋḋ''
|''żż''
|''żżh''
|''ẇẇ''
|''ŀŀ''
|''ẏẏ''
|''ňẇẇ''
|''ňŀŀ''
|''ňẏẏ''
|''ṙṙ''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Low Tone
!Phoneme
!ɱ̩ː˩
!n̩ː˩
!ɲ̩ː˩
!ŋ̩ː˩
!v̩ː˩
!ð̩ː˩
!z̩ː˩
!ʒ̍ː˩
!w̩ː˩
!l̩ː˩
!j̍ː˩
!w̩̃ː˩
!l̩̃ː˩
!j̩̃ː˩
!ʀ̩ː˩
|-
!Grapheme
|''<nowiki/>'ṃṃ''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇṇ''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇṇy''
|''<nowiki/>'ṇṇg''
|''<nowiki/>'ṿṿ''
|''<nowiki/>'ḍḍ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẓẓ''
|''<nowiki/>'ẓẓh''
|''<nowiki/>'ẉẉ''
|''<nowiki/>'ḷḷ''
|''<nowiki/>'ÿÿ''
|''<nowiki/>'ňẉẉ''
|''<nowiki/>'ňḷḷ''
|''<nowiki/>'ňÿÿ''
|''<nowiki/>'ṛṛ''
|-
! rowspan="8" |Vowel
! rowspan="2" |Toneless
!Phoneme
!iː
!ɪː
!ʊː
!uː
!eː
!əː
!ʌː
!oː
!aː
!ɑː
! colspan="9" rowspan="8" |
|-
!Grapheme
|''ī''
|''īe''
|''ūo''
|''ū''
|''ē''
|''ēo''
|''ōe''
|''ō''
|''ā''
|''āo''
|-
! rowspan="2" |High Tone
!Phoneme
!iː˥
!ɪː˥
!ʊː˥
!uː˥
!eː˥
!əː˥
!ʌː˥
!oː˥
!aː˥
!ɑː˥
|-
!Grapheme
|''î''
|''îe''
|''ûo''
|''û''
|''ê''
|''êo''
|''ôe''
|''ô''
|''â''
|''âo''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Mid Tone
!Phoneme
!iː˧
!ɪː˧
!ʊː˧
!uː˧
!eː˧
!əː˧
!ʌː˧
!oː˧
!aː˧
!ɑː˧
|-
!Grapheme
|''ǐ''
|''ǐe''
|''ǔo''
|''ǔ''
|''ě''
|''ěo''
|''ǒe''
|''ǒ''
|''ǎ''
|''ǎo''
|-
! rowspan="2" |Low Tone
!Phoneme
!iː˩
!ɪː˩
!ʊː˩
!uː˩
!eː˩
!əː˩
!ʌː˩
!oː˩
!aː˩
!ɑː˩
|-
!Grapheme
|''<nowiki/>'ī''
|''<nowiki/>'īe''
|''<nowiki/>'ūo''
|''<nowiki/>'ū''
|''<nowiki/>'ē''
|''<nowiki/>'ēo''
|''<nowiki/>'ōe''
|''<nowiki/>'ō''
|''<nowiki/>'ā''
|''<nowiki/>'āo''
|}
|}
=== Multigraph Disambiguation ===
=== Multigraph Disambiguation ===

Revision as of 03:42, 11 April 2026

Lanikel is a dialect of Iskel which is primarily distinct from the others in its phonology. Therefore, its orthography differs from other dialects for both romanization and native script.

Romanization

Basic Phonemes

Labial Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Dorsal Glottal
Nasal ɱ m n n ɲ ñ ŋ ng
Stop Voiceless p p t t t͡ʃ ch k k ʔ c
Voiced b b d͡z dz d͡ʒ j ɡ g
Fricative Voiceless f f θ th s s ʃ sh ʎ̝̊ lh x x h h
Voiced v v ð dh z z ʒ zh
Approximant Oral w w l l j y
Nasal w̃ ňw l̃ ňl j̃ ňy
Vibrant ɾ r ʀ rr
Click Nasal ŋ͡ʇ dn ŋ͡ǃ¡ qn ŋ͡ǂ qñ
Tenuis k͡ʇ d k͡ǃ¡ ql k͡ǂ q
Front Near-Front Near-Back Back
Close i i ɪ ie ʊ uo u u
Mid e e ə eo ʌ oe o o
Open a a ɑ ao

Syllabic Consonants

Toneless syllabic consonants are written with an overdot. On digraphs, the underdot is written only on the first letter (e.g. /ŋ̩ ʀ̩/ get written ⟨ṇg ṛr⟩). For the syllabic palatal nasal, the ⟨ñ⟩ is replaced with ⟨ny⟩, upon which the underdot can be placed ⟨ṇy⟩. Syllabic /ð̩/ is written with ⟨d⟩ instead of ⟨dh⟩, and so receives the underdot as ⟨ḍ⟩. The toneless syllabic consonant /j̍/ is instead written ⟨ÿ⟩.

Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Dorsal
Nasal ɱ̩ ṃ n̩ ṇ ɲ̩ ṇy ŋ̩ ṇg
Fricative v̩ ṿ ð̩ ḍ z̩ ẓ ʒ̍ ẓh
Approximant Oral w̩ ẉ l̩ ḷ j̍ ÿ
Nasal w̩̃ ňẉ l̩̃ ňḷ j̩̃ ňÿ
Vibrant ɾ̩ ṛ ʀ̩ ṛr

Tones

High tone is marked with an acute accent on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a macron (denoting length), the macron is replaced with a circumflex (e.g. /í íː/ are ⟨í î⟩). High tone syllabic consonants /ɱ̩́ ń̩ ɲ̩́ ŋ̩́ ź̩ ʒ̩́ ẃ̩ ĺ̩ j̩́ ɾ̩́ ʀ̩́/ have their underdots replaced with the acute accent ⟨ḿ ń ńy ńg ź źh ẃ ĺ ý ŕ ŕr⟩. High tone /ð̩/ is written with ⟨ð⟩ instead of ⟨d́⟩, and high tone /v̩/ is written with a ⟨ŵ⟩.

Because word-initial high tone words are most common, Iskel romanizes them differently to avoid extensive diacritic use: a high tone on a multisyllabic word is not written if there is only one high tone and it's word initial. Multisyllabic words with no tones are written as if they have a word-initial high tone.

Mid tone is marked with a grave accent on vowels without a diacritic. On vowels with a macron (denoting length), the macron is replaced with a caron (e.g. /ī īː/ are ⟨ì ǐ⟩). Mid tone syllabic consonants are written similar to their toneless forms, but with overdots instead of underdots. The mid tone /v̩̄/, however, is written ⟨ẅ⟩.

Low tone is marked with an apostrophe before the nucleus.

For polypthongs, tone (not including low tone because it has unusual romanization) and length are always written on the first vowel grapheme, so every vowel with a tone or length diacritic begins its syllable's nucleus. It is therefore unnecessary to use a diaerisis on such vowels.

Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal
High Mid Low High Mid Low High Mid Low High Mid Low
Nasal ɱ̩˥ ḿ ɱ̩˧ ṁ ɱ̩˩ 'ṃ n̩˥ ń n̩˧ ṅ n̩˩ 'ṇ ɲ̩˥ ńy ɲ̩˧ ṅy ɲ̩˩ 'ṇy
Fricative v̩˥ ŵ v̩˧ ẅ v̩˩ 'ṿ ð̩́˥ ð ð̩˧ ḋ ð̩˩ 'ḍ z̩˥ ź z̩˧ ż z̩˩ 'ẓ ʒ̍˥ źh ʒ̍˧ żh ʒ̍˩ 'ẓh
Approximant Oral w̩˥ ẃ w̩˧ ẇ w̩˩ 'ẉ l̩˥ ĺ l̩˧ ŀ l̩˩ 'ḷ j̍˥ ý j̍˧ ẏ j̍˩ 'ÿ
Nasal w̩̃˥ ňẃ w̩̃˧ ňẇ w̩̃˩ 'ẉ l̩̃˥ ňĺ l̩̃˧ ňŀ l̩̃˩ 'ňḷ j̩̃˥ ňý j̩̃˧ ňẏ j̩̃˩ 'ňÿ
Vibrant ɾ̩ː˥ ŕ ɾ̩ː˧ ṙ ɾ̩ː˩ 'ṛ
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Dorsal
High Mid Low High Mid Low High Mid Low High Mid Low High Mid Low
Nasal ɱ̩˥ ḿ ɱ̩˧ ṁ ɱ̩˩ 'ṃ n̩˥ ń n̩˧ ṅ n̩˩ 'ṇ ɲ̩˥ ńy ɲ̩˧ ṅy ɲ̩˩ 'ṇy ŋ̩˥ ńg ŋ̩˧ ṅg ŋ̩˩ 'ṇg
Fricative v̩˥ ŵ v̩˧ ẅ v̩˩ 'ṿ ð̩́˥ ð ð̩˧ ḋ ð̩˩ 'ḍ z̩˥ ź z̩˧ ż z̩˩ 'ẓ ʒ̍˥ źh ʒ̍˧ żh ʒ̍˩ 'ẓh
Approximant Oral w̩˥ ẃ w̩˧ ẇ w̩˩ 'ẉ l̩˥ ĺ l̩˧ ŀ l̩˩ 'ḷ j̍˥ ý j̍˧ ẏ j̍˩ 'ÿ
Nasal w̩̃˥ ňẃ w̩̃˧ ňẇ w̩̃˩ 'ẉ l̩̃˥ ňĺ l̩̃˧ ňŀ l̩̃˩ 'ňḷ j̩̃˥ ňý j̩̃˧ ňẏ j̩̃˩ 'ňÿ
Vibrant ɾ̩ː˥ ŕ ɾ̩ː˧ ṙ ɾ̩ː˩ 'ṛ ʀ̩˥ ŕr ʀ̩˧ ṙr ʀ̩˩ 'ṛr

Gemination

Long vowels are written with a macron over the first letter. Geminated single-letter consonants are written by doubling their letter. Geminated digraphic oral clicks and affricates are written by doubling their first letter, and the other geminated digraphic consonants are written by doubling their last letter.

Geminated syllabic consonants are marked by doubling the letter with the syllabic or tone diacritic. The syllabic geminate consonant /ʀ̩ː/ is only written with two marked ⟨r⟩s instead of two marked ⟨r⟩s and an unmarked one.

Geminate Romanization
Consonant Occlusive Phoneme ɱː nː ɲː ŋː pː tː t͡ʃː kː ʔː bː d͡zː d͡ʒː ɡː ŋ͡ʇː ŋ͡ǃ¡ː ŋ͡ǂː k͡ʇː k͡ǃ¡ː k͡ǂː
Grapheme mm nn ññ ngg pp tt chh kk cc bb ddz jj gg dnn qnn qññ dd qql qq
Continuant Phoneme fː θː sː ʃː ʎ̝̊ː xː hː vː ðː zː ʒː wː lː jː w̃ː l̃ː j̃ː ʀː
Grapheme ff thh ss shh lhh xx hh vv dhh zz zhh ww ll yy ňww ňll ňyy rrr
Syllabic Consonant Toneless Phoneme ɱ̩ː n̩ː ɲ̩ː ŋ̩ː v̩ː ð̩ː z̩ː ʒ̍ː w̩ː l̩ː j̍ː w̩̃ː l̩̃ː j̩̃ː ʀ̩ː
Grapheme ṃṃ ṇṇ ṇṇy ṇṇg ṿṿ ḍḍ ẓẓ ẓẓh ẉẉ ḷḷ ÿÿ ňẉẉ ňḷḷ ňÿÿ ṛṛ
High Tone Phoneme ɱ̩ː˥ n̩ː˥ ɲ̩ː˥ ŋ̩ː˥ v̩ː˥ ð̩ː˥ z̩ː˥ ʒ̍ː˥ w̩ː˥ l̩ː˥ j̍ː˥ w̩̃ː˥ l̩̃ː˥ j̩̃ː˥ ʀ̩ː˥
Grapheme ḿḿ ńń ńńy ńńg ŵŵ ðð źź źźh ẃẃ ĺĺ ýý ňẃẃ ňĺĺ ňýý ŕŕ
Mid Tone Phoneme ɱ̩ː˧ n̩ː˧ ɲ̩ː˧ ŋ̩ː˧ v̩ː˧ ð̩ː˧ z̩ː˧ ʒ̍ː˧ w̩ː˧ l̩ː˧ j̍ː˧ w̩̃ː˧ l̩̃ː˧ j̩̃ː˧ ʀ̩ː˧
Grapheme ṁṁ ṅṅ ṅṅy ṅṅg ẅẅ ḋḋ żż żżh ẇẇ ŀŀ ẏẏ ňẇẇ ňŀŀ ňẏẏ ṙṙ
Low Tone Phoneme ɱ̩ː˩ n̩ː˩ ɲ̩ː˩ ŋ̩ː˩ v̩ː˩ ð̩ː˩ z̩ː˩ ʒ̍ː˩ w̩ː˩ l̩ː˩ j̍ː˩ w̩̃ː˩ l̩̃ː˩ j̩̃ː˩ ʀ̩ː˩
Grapheme 'ṃṃ 'ṇṇ 'ṇṇy 'ṇṇg 'ṿṿ 'ḍḍ 'ẓẓ 'ẓẓh 'ẉẉ 'ḷḷ 'ÿÿ 'ňẉẉ 'ňḷḷ 'ňÿÿ 'ṛṛ
Vowel Toneless Phoneme iː ɪː ʊː uː eː əː ʌː oː aː ɑː
Grapheme ī īe ūo ū ē ēo ōe ō ā āo
High Tone Phoneme iː˥ ɪː˥ ʊː˥ uː˥ eː˥ əː˥ ʌː˥ oː˥ aː˥ ɑː˥
Grapheme î îe ûo û ê êo ôe ô â âo
Mid Tone Phoneme iː˧ ɪː˧ ʊː˧ uː˧ eː˧ əː˧ ʌː˧ oː˧ aː˧ ɑː˧
Grapheme ǐ ǐe ǔo ǔ ě ěo ǒe ǒ ǎ ǎo
Low Tone Phoneme iː˩ ɪː˩ ʊː˩ uː˩ eː˩ əː˩ ʌː˩ oː˩ aː˩ ɑː˩
Grapheme 'ī 'īe 'ūo 'ū 'ē 'ēo 'ōe 'ō 'ā 'āo

Multigraph Disambiguation

Many consonant phonemes are expressed with multigraphs that have an equivalent cluster. They are differenciated orthographically with apostrophes placed between consonant graphemes in a cluster.

Polyphthongs are mostly written by simply juxtaposing vowel letters together, but in cases with vowels that use digraphs, an overdot is placed on the non-first grapheme(s) of a diphthong to distinguish them (e.g. /ɪ i͡e/ are ⟨ie iė⟩, and /a͡ʌ ɑ͡e a͡o͡e/ are ⟨aȯe aoė *aȯė⟩). Since all two- or three-vowel clusters contrast with a polypthong, a diaerisis is placed on the non-first grapheme(s) of such clusters to distinguish them (e.g. /ɪ i.e/ are ⟨ie ië⟩, and /a.ʌ ɑ.e a.o.e/ are ⟨aöe aoë aöë⟩).

When there are two adjacent instances of the a cluster separator (i.e. apostrophe for consonants or overdot for vowels), they are both omitted. This results in a rule that when ambiguity arises due to exactly 3 consonant or 3 vowel letters in a row, they are always read as 3 monographs. For example in consonants, ⟨qng⟩ must always be read as ⟨q⟩ /k͡ǂ/, ⟨n⟩ /n/, and then ⟨g⟩ /ɡ/, and not rewritten ⟨q'n'g⟩. However, ⟨chl⟩ must still be read as ⟨ch⟩ /t͡ʃ/ and then ⟨l⟩ /l/, and not ⟨c⟩ /ʔ/, ⟨h⟩ /h/, and then ⟨l⟩ /l/, because the ambiguity of ⟨ch⟩ only arises when it is alone, not due to being in a cluster with a third letter. For example in vowels, ⟨aoe⟩ must always be read as /ao̯e̯/, and not rewritten as ⟨aȯė⟩.

Multigraph Disambiguation (Short Phonemes)
Consonants Syllabic Consonants Vowels
Digraph Trigraph Digraph Short Vowel Multigraph Long Vowel Multigraph
Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes Grapheme Phonemes
Base Distinction Base Distinction Base Distinction Base Distinction Base Distinction
ch ch /t͡ʃ/ chh chh /t͡ʃː/ ṇy ṇy /ɲ̩/ ie ie /ɪ/ īe īe /ɪː/
c'h /ʔh/ ch'h /t͡ʃh/ ṇ'y /n̩j/ iė /ie̯/ īë /iː.e/
c'hh /ʔhː/ ńy ńy /ɲ̩˥/ ië /i.e/
dh dh /ð/ dhh dhh /ðː/ ń'y /n̩˥j/ uo uo /ʊ/ ūo ūo /ʊː/
d'h /k͡ʇh/ dh'h /ðh/ ṅy ṅy /ɲ̩˧/ uȯ /uo̯/ ūö /uː.o/
d'hh /k͡ʇhː/ ṅ'y /n̩˧j/ uö /u.o/
dn dn /ŋ͡ʇ/ dnn dnn /ŋ͡ʇː/ 'ṇy 'ṇy /ɲ̩˩/ eo eo /ə/ ēo ēo /əː/
d'n /k͡ʇn/ dn'n /ŋ͡ʇh/ 'ṇ'y /n̩˩j/ eȯ /eo̯/ ēö /eː.o/
d'nn /k͡ʇnː/ ṇg ṇg /ŋ̩/ eö /e.o/
dz dz /d͡z/ ddz ddz /d͡zː/ ṇ'g /n̩ɡ/ oe oe /ʌ/ ōe ōe /ʌː/
d'z /k͡ʇz/ d'dz /k͡ʇd͡z/ ńg ńg /ŋ̩˥/ oė /oe̯/ ōë /oː.e/
dd'z /k͡ʇːz/ ń'g /n̩˥ɡ/ oë /o.e/
hl hl /ʎ̝̊/ lhh lhh /ʎ̝̊ː/ ṅg ṅg /ŋ̩˧/ ao ao /ɑ/ āo āo /ɑː/
h'l /hl/ lh'h /ʎ̝̊h/ ṅ'g /n̩˧ɡ/ aȯ /ao̯/ āö /aː.o/
l'hh /lhː/ 'ṇg 'ṇg /ŋ̩˩/ aö /a.o/
ng ng /ŋ/ ngg ng /ŋː/ 'ṇ'g /n̩ɡ/ ieo ieo /ie̯o̯/
n'g /nɡ/ ng'g /ŋɡ/ ẓh ẓh /ʒ̍/ iėo /iə̯/
n'gg /nɡː/ ẓ'h /z̩h/ ieȯ /ɪo̯/
qlh qlh /k͡ǂlh/ źh źh /ʒ̍˥/ iëo /i.ə/
ql'h /k͡ǃ¡h/ ź'h /z̩˥h/ ieö /ɪ.o/
q'lh /k͡ǂʎ̝̊/ żh żh /ʒ̍˧/ iëö /i.e.o/
qng qng /k͡ǂnɡ/ ż'h /z̩˧h/ iëȯ /i.eo̯/
qn'g /ŋ͡ǃ¡ɡ/ 'ẓh 'ẓh /ʒ̍˩/ iėö /ie̯.o/
q'ng /k͡ǂŋ/ 'ẓ'h /z̩˩h/
ql ql /k͡ǃ¡/ qql ql /k͡ǃ¡ː/ ṛr ṛr /ʀ̩/
q'l /k͡ǂl/ q'ql /k͡ǂk͡ǃ¡/ ṛ'r /ɾ̩ɾ/
qq'l /k͡ǂːl/ ŕr ŕr /ʀ̩˥/
qn qn /ŋ͡ǃ¡/ qnn qnn /ŋ͡ǃ¡ː/ ŕ'r /ɾ̩˥ɾ/
q'n /k͡ǂn/ qn'n /ŋ͡ǃ¡n/ ṙr ṙr /ʀ̩˧/
q'nn /k͡ǂnː/ ṙ'r /ɾ̩˧ɾ/
qñ qñ /ŋ͡ǂ/ qññ qññ /ŋ͡ǂː/ 'ṛr 'ṛr /ʀ̩˩/
q'ñ /k͡ǂɲ/ qñ'ñ /ŋ͡ǂɲ/ 'ṛ'r /ɾ̩˩ɾ/
q'ññ /k͡ǂɲː/
rrr rrr /ʀː/
rr'r /ʀɾ/
r'rr /ɾʀ/
sh sh /ʃ/ shh shh /ʃː/
s'h /sh/ sh'h /ʃh/
s'hh /shː/
th th /θ/ thh thh /θː/
t'h /th/ th'h /θh/
t'hh /thː/
zh zh /ʒ/ zhh zhh /ʒː/
z'h /zh/ zh'h /ʒh/
z'hh /zhː/
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