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'''Proto-Rttirrian''' is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Rttirrian family of languages spoken primarily across the nation of [[Verse:Rttirria|Rttirria]], as well as other nearby nations in [[w:Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]]. It was probably spoken around 1500–1000 BCE, but there are no written records of its existence. Based on the distribution and diversity of its daughter languages, Proto-Rttirrian's [[w:urheimat|urheimat]] was probably somewhere in present-day northeastern Rttirria or southwestern [[w:Myanmar|Myanmar]]. Its two main branches are South Rttirrian, spoken in Rttirria, and North Rttirrian, spoken elsewhere in Southeast Asia and notable for its [[w:Semitic languages|Semitic]]-like word root system.


Proto-Rttirrian was a moderately [[w:fusional language|fusional]] language somewhat like many [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] languages, which inflected verbs for person, number, [[w:animacy|animacy]], tense, and the [[w:subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] mood. It had two consonants, transcribed ''*l<sub>1</sub>'' and ''*l<sub>2</sub>'', whose pronunciations are disputed; disputes also exist over the function of its "fourth tense" (after past, present, and future) and its word order.
Rttirrian is not known to be related to any other [[w:language family|language family]], but various proposals have been made, especially relations to the [[w:Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] languages and various families in New Guinea and Australia; however, none of these proposals has much academic support. By far, the Rttirrian language with the most speakers is [[Rttirri]], which is spoken by over 46 million people and is the official language of Rttirria. Most of its other daughter languages have only a few thousand or hundred remaining speakers, except for [[Gaju]], with almost a million.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Proto-Rttirrian had a moderate-sized consonant inventory; however, it was much more flexible than its daughter languages with regards to clusters. The following consonants are reconstructed:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
!  |
!  |Labial
!  |Alveolar
!  |Palatal
!  |Velar
!  |Retroflex
!  |Pharyngeal?
|-
|-
! Nasal
!rowspan="2"|
| *'''m''' /m/
!colspan="2"|Labial
| *'''n''' /n/
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palatal
!rowspan="2"|Retroflex
!colspan="2"|Velar
!rowspan="2"|Uvular
|-
!Plain
!Lab.
!Plain
!Lab.
!Plain
!Lab.
!Plain
!Lab.
|-
! Plosive
| '''pʼ''' /pˤ/<br>'''p''' /p/<br>'''b''' /b/
| '''pwʼ''' /pʷˤ/<br>'''pw''' /pʷ/<br>'''bw''' /bʷ/
| '''tt''' /tʼ/<br>'''tʼ''' /tˤ/<br>'''t''' /t/<br>'''d''' /d/
| '''ttw''' /tʷʼ/<br>'''twʼ''' /tʷˤ/<br>'''tw''' /tʷ/<br>'''dw''' /dʷ/
|  
|  
|  
|
| *'''rn''' /ɳ/
|
| '''kk''' /kʼ/<br>'''g''' /g/
| '''kkw''' /kʷʼ/<br>'''gw''' /gʷ/
|  
|  
|-
|-
! Plosive
! Fricative
| *'''p''' /p/<br>*'''b''' /b/
| '''f''' /f/<br>'''v''' /v/<br>'''vʼ''' /vˤ/
| *'''t''' /t/<br>*'''d''' /d/
|
| '''s''' /s/<br>'''z''' /z/
|
| '''sh''' /ʃ/<br>'''zh''' /ʒ/<br>'''zhʼ''' /ʒˤ/
|  
|  
| *'''k''' /k/<br>*'''g''' /g/
|
| *'''rt''' /ʈ/<br>*'''rd''' /ɖ/
| '''kh''' /x/<br>'''gh''' /ɣ/
|
|  
|  
|-
|-
! Fricative
! Affricate
| *'''f''' /ɸ/<br>*'''v''' /β/
|  
| *'''s''' /s/<br>*'''z''' /z/
|
| '''tts''' /t͡sʼ/<br>'''ts''' /t͡s/<br>'''dz''' /d͡z/
| '''ttsw''' /t͡sʷʼ/<br>'''tsw''' /t͡sʷ/<br>'''dzw''' /d͡zʷ/
| '''cch''' /t͡ʃʼ/<br>'''ch''' /t͡ʃ/<br>'''jʼ''' /d͡ʒ/<br>'''j''' /d͡ʒˤ/
| '''cchw''' /t͡ʃʷʼ/<br>'''chw''' /t͡ʃʷ/<br>'''jwʼ''' /d͡ʒʷ/<br>'''jw''' /d͡ʒʷˤ/
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 42: Line 58:
|  
|  
|-
|-
! Affricate
! Lateral
|
|
| '''l''' /l/<br>'''hl''' /ɬ/<br>'''lj''' /ɮ/<br>'''ljʼ''' /ɮˤ/
|
|
|  
|  
| *'''ch''' /t͡ʃ/
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|
|-
! Rhotic
|
|
|
|
|
|
| '''r''' /ʐ/
|
|  
|  
| '''rr''' /ʀ/
|-
|-
! Approximant
! Nasal
| *'''w''' /w/
| '''m''' /m/
| '''mw''' /mʷ/
|  
|  
| *'''y''' /j/
|  
|  
| *'''rl''' /ɭ/<br>*'''rr''' /ɻ/
|
| *'''l<sub>1</sub>'''<br>*'''l<sub>2</sub>'''
|
|
| '''ng''' /ŋ/<br>'''ngʼ''' /ŋˤ/
| '''ngw''' /ŋʷ/<br>'''ngwʼ''' /ŋʷˤ/
|
|}
|}
* The exact pronunciation of the consonants transcribed as '''l<sub>1</sub>''' and '''l<sub>2</sub>''' is unknown.
:* Among the descendants of Proto-Rttirrian, these two sounds survived only in Proto-South-Rttirrian, where they merged into a single phoneme, */ʟ/. That phoneme corresponds to /l/ and many instances of the low [[w:tone (linguistics)|tone]] in Gaju, and corresponds to /w/ and diphthongal /u/ in Rttirri. In all other descendants of Proto-Rttirrian, '''l<sub>1</sub>''' and '''l<sub>2</sub>''' disappeared as consonants and survive only in their effects on surrounding vowels.
:* Some linguists posit that they were [[w:pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] approximants [ħ] and [ʕ], pointing to the fact that they generally had a backing effect on surrounding vowels in branches other than South Rttirrian. Others note that these backing effects were not uniform, and suggest that only '''l<sub>2</sub>''' was pharyngeal while '''l<sub>1</sub>''' was something like the velarized lateral [ɫ], or a lateral fricative [ɬ~ɮ].
:* Evidence that '''l<sub>1</sub>''' was some type of fricative comes from the fact that the vowel '''a''' was allophonically raised when adjacent to '''f''', '''v''', '''s''', and '''z''', as well as '''l<sub>1</sub>''', but the relevance of this observation is disputed. The realization of the vowel '''u''' was not affected by either consonant, suggesting that they were probably not velar.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Proto-Rttirrian had a simple three-vowel system:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; border-spacing: 20px;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center; border-spacing: 20px;"
|-
|-
Line 72: Line 101:
! Front
! Front
! Central
! Central
! Near-back
! Back
! Back
|-
|-
! High
! High
| *'''i''' /i/
| '''i''' /i/<br>'''ui''' /y/
| '''ie''' /ɨ/
|
|
|
| *'''u''' /u/
|-
|-
! Low
! Near-high
|  
|
| *'''a''' /ä/
|
|  
| '''u''' /ʊ/
|}
|
* The low vowel '''a''' was probably fronted and raised allophonically to something like [æ~e] adjacent to fricatives and '''l<sub>1</sub>'''.
* The high back vowel '''u''' was probably lowered allophonically to something like [ʊ~ɔ] adjacent to velar consonants.
 
==Grammar==
Proto-Rttirrian had a moderate degree of [[w:fusional language|fusional]] inflection.
 
Proto-Rttirrian had an [[w:animacy|animacy]] system, which was lost in all descendants, although some scholars consider [[Gaju]] to have (re)gained a rudimentary [[w:grammatical gender|grammatical gender]] system. In Proto-South-Rttirrian, the animate gender became dominant in the singular number, i.e. the surviving third-person singular inflectional affixes and pronouns are those that descend from the Proto-Rttirrian animate gender. However, in the plural number, the inanimate gender won out. For example, the [[Rttirri]] third-person singular ergative/possessive prefix is ''wa'', derived from the Proto-Rttirrian ''*l<sub>1</sub>a-'' (animate), but the third-person plural prefix is ''rta'', from the Proto-Rttirrian ''*rdam'' (inanimate).
 
===Verbs===
Verbs inflected for the person, number, and animacy of the subject and for tense.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
!rowspan="4" |
! High-mid
!colspan="8" | Person
| '''e''' /e/
|
|
| '''o''' /o/
|-
|-
!colspan="2" | 1st
! Low-mid
!colspan="2" | 2nd
| '''oe''' /œ/
!colspan="4" | 3rd
|
|
|
|-
|-
!rowspan="2" | Sing.
! Low
!rowspan="2" | Pl.
|  
!rowspan="2" | Sing.
|
!rowspan="2" | Pl.
|
!colspan="2" | Sing.
| '''a''' /ɑ/<br>'''ao''' /ɒ/
!colspan="2" | Pl.
|-
! Anim.
! Inan.
! Anim.
! Inan.
|-
!Past
| ''*mu-''
| ''*mum-''
| ''*apaf-''
| ''*am-''
| ''*bu-''
| ''*pa-''
| ''*bum-''
| ''*bam-''
|-
!Present
| ''*na-''
| ''*nam-''
| ''*akf-''
| ''*sam-''
| ''*l<sub>1</sub>a-''
| ''*rda-''
| ''*l<sub>1</sub>im-''
| ''*rdam-''
|-
!Future
| ''*nay-''
| ''*mi-''
| ''*akay-''
| ''*mi-''
| ''*l<sub>1</sub>i-''
| ''*rdi-''
| colspan="2" | ''*mi-''
|-
!Tense #4
| ''*l<sub>2</sub>an-''
| ''*l<sub>2</sub>am-''
| ''*l<sub>2</sub>ak-''
| ''*l<sub>2</sub>am-''
| ''*l<sub>2</sub>i-''
| ''*l<sub>2</sub>ard-''
| colspan="2" | ''*l<sub>2</sub>am-''
|}
|}


* The exact function of the fourth tense is unknown; it may have been a [[w:perfect (grammar)|perfect]] aspect, an [[w:aorist|aorist]], or something else entirely. It evolved into two verbal moods in Proto-South-Rttirrian and took on various tense and aspect functions in other descendants.
===Phonotactics===
* An ''*i-'' was used to begin the stems of transitive verbs. By analogy, this would cause object pronouns to be affixed to the verb in Proto-South-Rttirrian.
Stress falls on the first syllable.


====Auxiliary verbs====
Syllable structure is maximally CVN. There may only be one pharyngealized, ejective, or labialized consonant per root, although more may be added to a single word through compounding and affixation.
Ample auxiliary verbs were used. Some of these would later fuse to the verb to become inflectional moods. Similarly, certain past-tense and future-tense verb prefixes would become auxiliary verbs.


Some of the most common auxiliary verbs are as follows:
==Grammar==
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Rttirri
! English
|-
| ''*tya''
| to hope
|-
| ''*apta''
| to plead
|-
| ''*ikrta''
| to have to
|-
| ''*gamu''
| to do something<br>habitually or generally
|}
 
Auxiliary verbs, grammatically, were simple particles that did not inflect.
 
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>Apaf-bva '''ikrta'''.
:2SG.NOM.PST-leave have_to
:You had to leave.
 
====Subjunctive====
Only one inflectional mood was used: the [[w:subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]. It agreed with the tense of the verb:
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Past
| ''*-mugi''
|-
! Present
| ''*-nagi''
|-
! Future
| ''*-nagyi''
|-
! Tense #4
| ''*-l<sub>2</sub>agyi''
|}
 
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>L<sub>1</sub>a-chi-'''nagi''' day
:2SG.PRES-eat-SUBJ.PRES 3PL.INAN.ACC
:If you were to eat them


===Nouns===
===Nouns===
There was an [[w:accusative case|accusative]] case used, but it was probably vestigial by the time that Proto-Rttirrian's dialects that would become its daughter languages split off: reflexes of the accusative are found only in a small number of nouns, plus all of the pronouns.
The following noun suffixes were used:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Singular
! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Animate
! Inanimate
! Animate
! Inanimate
|-
! Nominative
| ''*-a''
| —
| ''*-maz''
| ''*-ma''
|-
! Accusative
| ''*-ay/*-y''
| ''*-i/*-y''
| ''*-miz''
| ''*-mi''
|}
The following pronouns are reconstructed. Note that many of the nominative pronouns end with ''*-tku''—in Proto-South-Rttirrian, this would be reanalyzed as an affix meaning "self" with a possessive prefix, cf. [[Rttirri]] ''nattu'' ("I", lit. "my self"). This affix is present both as an independent word for "self, identity" and as a general emphatic pronoun suffix in Rttirri and, to a lesser extent, [[Gaju]].
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!rowspan="4" |
!colspan="8" | Person
|-
!colspan="2" | 1st
!colspan="2" | 2nd
!colspan="4" | 3rd
|-
!rowspan="2" | Sing.
!rowspan="2" | Pl.
!rowspan="2" | Sing.
!rowspan="2" | Pl.
!colspan="2" | Sing.
!colspan="2" | Pl.
|-
! Anim.
! Inan.
! Anim.
! Inan.
|-
! Nominative<br>(emphatic)
| ''*natku''
| ''*napku''
| ''*atku''
| ''*satku''
| ''*l<sub>1</sub>atku''
| ''*rdartku''
| ''*l<sub>1</sub>apku''
| ''*rtapku''
|-
! Accusative
| ''*ni''
| ''*may''
| ''*ki''
| ''*ksay''
| ''*gyu''
| ''*di''
| ''*guy''
| ''*day''
|-
! Possessive<br>noun prefix
| ''*na-''
| ''*mi-''
| ''*akf-''
| ''*sa-''
| ''*l<sub>1</sub>a-''
| ''*rdi-''
| ''*il<sub>1</sub>-''
| ''*rda-''
|}


===Syntax===
===Syntax===
The [[w:word order|word order]] of Proto-Rttirrian is unknown. Because its case system was highly atrophied and it possessed only a nominative and an accusative, it is thought likely that a [[w:subject-verb-object|subject-verb-object]] (SVO) or [[w:object-verb-subject|object-verb-subject]] (OVS) word order was used.
==Sound reflexes in selected daughter languages==
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!
!colspan="2"|South Rttirrian
!North Rttirrian
|-
!Proto-<br>Rttirrian
!Rttirri
!Gaju
!Proto-<br>North-<br>Rttirrian
|-
!*m
|colspan="3"|m
|-
!*n
|colspan="3"|n
|-
!*ɳ
|ɳ
|n
|ɳ
|-
!*p
|h
|pʰ
|p
|-
!*b
|colspan="2"|p
|b
|-
!*t
|f
|tʰ
|t
|-
!*d
|ʔ
|t
|d
|-
!*k
|k
|kʰ
|k
|-
!*g
|colspan="2"|k
|g
|-
!*ʈ
|ʂ
|tʰ
|ʈ
|-
!*ɖ
|ʈ
|t
|ɖ
|-
!*ɸ
|ø
|f, m
|ɸ
|-
!*β
|ø
|f, m
|β
|-
!*s
|t
|t͡s
|s
|-
!*z
|ç, ʃ
|s
|z, ʒ
|-
!*t͡ʃ
|colspan="2"|t͡ʃ
|ʃ
|-
!*w
|colspan="2"|u
|β
|-
!*j
|colspan="2"|i
|j
|-
!*ɭ
|ɽ
|l
|ɭ
|-
!*ɻ
|ɻ
|w
|ɻ
|-
!*l<sub>1</sub>
|w, u
|l, [[w:Tone (linguistics)|V˩]]
|x
|-
!*l<sub>2</sub>
|w, u
|l, [[w:Tone (linguistics)|V˩]]
|∅
|-
!*ä
|ɑ
|ä, ɔ, ɛ, e
|ä, ɔ, e
|-
!*i
|i
|i, ɪ, e
|i, e
|-
!*u
|u
|u, o
|u, o, ɔ
|}


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Gaju]]
* [[Rttirri]]
* [[Verse:Rttirria]]


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