Wendish

Phonology

Orthography

Traditionally Dravenian has been written in a Middle Low Saxon or German based orthography with minor Polish influences. With the beginning of romanticism and panslavism the wish for a Slavic orthography came up with in a group of young Dravenian intelectuals. Since then adherents of a panslavic and most of the times highly etymological spelling fought against adherents of the traditionalspelling. This dispute wasn't settled until the 1980s, when both groups mediated by group of linguists of Lüneburg and Magdeburg University came to a compromise and agreed on the modern spelling of today, which is phonemic rather than etymological and incorporates some traditionally German spelling conventions while mostly being based on the spelling of other Slavic languages. Taking inspiration from Polish, but especially from Lower Sorbian.

Neverhteless the traditional spelling is still used today in books for church service and by folklore groups, usally set in black letters. Even the Dravenian newspaper "Slywensce Pywestei" uses the traditional spelling "Szlywenßtze Pyweßtei" set in black letters as its headline, while the articles with in are written in modern spelling using Antiqua script.

While the modern spelling is used on signs, in the media, in books and is thaught in schools. Dravenian has two orthographies used today. The Slavic spelling, which was developed in the era of romanticism and Pan-Slavism.

{ wikiclass="table" !!modern ! traditional |ą|ą/an/ang/am |- |c|tz |- |dz|dſ/dſ ||õ| |s|s|z |- |y|ü |z|z|ſ/s |- }

Consonants

The Dravenian language has 29 phonemic vowels. Every consonant, except for /j/, which is always soft and the loan phonemes /f/, /š/ and /ʒ/ occurs in a hard unpalatlised and a soft palatalised variant. The soft counterparts of both /k/ and /t/ is /c/. The soft counterpart of /g/ and /d/ is /ɟ/.

Consonants

		Bilabial	Labio-dental	Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar
Nasale	hard	m		n
	soft	mʲ mj				nʲ nj
Plosive	hard	p·b		t·d			k·g
	soft	pʲ·bʲ pj·bj				c·ɟ kj/tj·gj/dj	kʲ·gʲ kij·gij
Affricates	hard			ts·dz c·dz
	soft			tsʲ·dzʲ ć·dź
Sibilants	hard			s·z	ʃ·ʒ sch·dsch
	soft					ɕ·ʑ sj·zj
Fricative	hard	f·v f/v·w					x ch
	soft	vʲ wj				ç chj
Lateral	hard			l
	soft			lʲ lj
Trill	hard			r
	soft			rʲ rj
Approxiamnt						j

Allophony

The palato-alvelar sounds ś,ź,ć and dź are traditionally pronounced as [] but through German influence these tend to become postalveolar and are articulated with labial rounding: [] As result the sounds sch and ś as well as dsch and ź merge, especially in younger people’s speech.

The sound l is pronounced [l] in intial and medial position and as [ł] in final position and before consonants.

As conservative speakers of Low Saxon do, Dravenians trill their r. High German influence result in a articulation as uvular trill .

The palatal bilabial wj is simplified to /j/ in consonant clusters. swjote [sjũte], kwjot [kjot]

Vowels

Dravenian has 13 phonemic vowels including some unusual sounds for a Slavic language like /y/ and /œ/.

Dravenian distinguishes between full unreduced vowels and reduced weak vowels of which there are two. Reduced vowels occur in unstressed syllables after a syllable bearing the word accent.

It has preserved the Slavic nasal vowels, although the Dravenian nasal vowels aren’t a direct continuation of the Proto Slavic ones.

Prosody

Stress

The stress of Dravenian words is distinguished by the distinction of strong and weak syllables. Strong syllables contain a full unreduced vowel. The first syllable of a word is always strong and can't be weak.

Weak syllables are those with a reduced vowel. Two weak syllables can't follow each other. If weak syllables follow each other due to composition or inflection the first weak syllable becomes strong. Medial syllables between two strong syllables always become weak.

The last strong syllable of a word bears the stress. i. e. the stress falls on the last syllable if it is strong and on the penultimate syllable if the vowel of the final syllable is reduced.

As the stress can be predicted it is usally not indicated in writing. But as <a> and <e> can both represent a full and reduced vowels there are some instances of where an acute accent is used to indicate a full and therefore stressed /a/ or /ɛ/ in a final syllable.

eklá internát

Phonotactics

In comparison to other Slavic languages Dravenian simplified many consonant clusters.

Morphophonology

2.2 Morphophonemic alternations inherited from Proto-Slavonic

Among the oldest alternations are those of the velar consonants k, g, ch with c, z, s and с, j. They originated from the Proto- Slavonic first and second palatalizations.

The alternations resulting from the first palatalization were greatly reduced in Polabian and were chiefly limited to derivation: rpka (< *rpka) 'hand' versus rpcnek (< *греьткъ) 'towel', bug (< *bogb) 'God' versus biizac (< *botbCb) 'God (DIMIN)', тех (< *техъ) 'sack' versus mesak (< *mešbfo) 'little sack'.

Residual instances of the first palatalization are encountered in inflection. In nominal declension we find it only in the nouns v&t' й (< *(v)oko) 'eye' and vauxii (< *(u)xo) 'ear', compare vieai (< *(v)oči (NOM—ACC DU), vausai (< *( v)uši (NOM-ACC DU)). In conjugation it could be used to oppose the present-tense forms to past tenses or the infinitive: plocfi (< *plačp) 'I cry' versus plokol (< *р1ака1ъ) '(he) cried', plokat (< *plakati) 'to cry', р&кпё (< *ръкпегь) 'falls' versus pčci (< *ръеегъ (AOR) ) 'fell', muzes (< *mozešb 'you can' versus mug (< *mogb (AOR)) 'I POLABIAN 805 could'. For the most part, however, verbal stems tended to be levelled in the entire conjugation: joz rical-me (< *jazъ гес1ъ mu) T told him', nemezalo- jeg noit (< *ne motala jego najiti) '(she) could not find him', taucal-sa (< *Цс1ъ sę) 'it was haunted' (instead of *гек1ъ, * mogla, *ф1ъ sę on the model of rice, muze, tauci-sa (< *rečetb, *moietb, *tfčetb sę). In general, however, both consonantal and vocalic alternations (with the exception of stress alternations and the related alternations between nonreduced and reduced vowels) were considerably limited within the Polabian conjugation. Present-tense forms abandoned consonantal alternations completely: ricą (instead of rekp < *rekp) '(I) say', picą (instead of pekp < *pekptb) '(they) roast'.

The alternations k/c, g/j occurred in the declension of nouns, where they reinforced morphological oppositions: grauk (< *grufo) 'pear tree' versus graucai (< *gruci) 'pear trees', krig (from German Krieg) 'war' versus va krije (< *vb (krig-)-e), ntiga (< *noga) 'foot, leg' versus ntije (< *M>JE(NOM-ACC DU)) 'feet, legs'.

The opposition of hard and soft consonants, which originated from the depalatalization of consonants before front vowels, is the most frequent consonantal alternation in Polabian morphology. It occurred in the declension of nouns where it replaced the opposition of originally front vowels to originally back ones:

The declension of nouns also made use of the alternations k,g,ch and their soft counterparts, which originated through the Polabian palatalisation. This type of alternation is most noticeable in the inflection of adjectives, where it contributes, among other things, to the distinction of genders.

Vocalic alternations

The reduction of vowels brought about the most productive vocalic alternation in Polabian. This alternation was closely related to the alternation of stress and it affected both inflection and derivation as in the endings -o/-a (coso/zena < *čaša 'bowl', *tena 'woman') or in the derivative aibet' to kill' (< * ubiti) versus bait' to beat' (< *biti). It was, however, in conjugation that these alternations played the most essential role, thanks to the enclitic character of the reflexive particle sa (< *sę) and of the monosyllabic pronominal forms. Since the present-tense 8 0 6 WEST SLAVONIC LANGUAGES forms generalized the penultimate stress, the stress had to shift to the desinence when followed by an enclitic, given the Polabian limitation of stress to the penultimate syllable. In this way there arose the alternation of non-reduced and reduced vowels: aide(< *idetb) 'goes', biile(< *bolitb) 'it hurts' versus kok aidi-sa (< *kako idetb sę) 'how are you doing', btili-me (< *bolitb тьпе) 'it hurts me'.

Other vowel alternations were due to various metaphonies. Some of them occurred in Lechitic or early Polabian, others took place in later periods. To the former belong vowel-zero, е-о, a-p and ar-or alternations (as well as their variants stemming from the reduction of vowels), to the latter e-i, a-i, a-i, o-u, d-a, ai-a, di-a alternations. Owing to the different treatment of the weak jers in Polabian from that of other Slavonic languages, the vowel-zero alternations were practically limited to final/penultimate syllables and occurred mainly in the declension of nouns: d'olpbak (< *golpbъkъ) 'small pigeon' but d'olppt'e (PL) (< *golpbъky)9 pican (< *ресьпь) 'loaf of bread' but picne (PL) (< *ресьпе). The e-o alternation is attested mainly in the inflection of nouns: lotil (< * leto) 'summer, year' versus vd leta (< *vb lete) 'in summer'. We find some examples of the ar-or alternation in derivation: sdmart(< *sbmftb) 'disease of chicks' but dimorte (< *umfrbjb) 'dead', come (< *cfirbjb) 'black' but carnaića (< *čfnica) 'blackberry'. The ą- p alternation is found in some individual forms: plęisft (< *plęśp) '(they) dance' versus pipsat (< *plęsati) 'to dance', dispt (< *desętb) 'ten' versus diśpte (< *desętbjb) 'tenth'.

The vowel alternations due to later developments in Polabian were used in inflection: cesat 'to comb' but cise 'combs', woda

'water' but wo wida 'in water', smöla

'Hell' but va smȯla 'in Hell', pȧs (< *рь5ъ) 'dog' but pasai

'dogs', dipaustaix (< *upustixb) 'I dropped (AOR)' but dipaustdl

(< *upustih>) '(he) has dropped (PRF)'

Morphology

Nouns

Dravenian nouns inflect for case, number and gender. There are three numbers. Besides singular and plural Dravenian preserved the Slavic dual number, which denotes a pair of something. The nouns are inflected for six cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, locative and instrumental. The former Slavic vocative merged with nominative case. The Dravenian language bhas three genders: masculine, neuter and feminine. In accordance with other Slavic languages the accusative of masculine animate nouns is identical to nominative while inanimate masculine nouns have an accusative identical to the genitive. Therefore the the masculine gender can be subdivided into animate and inanimate, resulting in an total number of gender in Dravenian.

Each noun belongs to a declensional class and is inflected according to one of the three following accentual patterns: acrostatic (a), hysterokinetic (b) or amphikinetic (c). The different accentual patterns result in a lot of vocalic alternation with in a paragigm and into two sets of endings: strong endings and weak endings.

o-declension The o-declension contains masculine and neuter nouns, for which it is the most common and productive class. It can be divided into two subclasses: the hard o-declension and the soft jo-declension.

	o		jo
Sg.	m.	n.
Nom.	-Ø		-ó	-e	-i	-e
Akk.	N./G.
Gen.	-o
Dat.	-au
Loc.	-e
Instr.	-oam

a-Declension The a-Declension consists entirely of feminine nouns and is the most common and most productive class for those. Parallely to the o-stemd the a-declension can be subdivided into hard a-stems and soft ja-stems.

i-Declension

u-declension

w-declension

In contrast to other Slavic languages Dravenian preserved the w-declension, also called long ū-declension or v-declension in Slavic philology. It is still productive especially for incorporating feminine Low Saxon and German loan words or loans from other languages, ending in a velar consonant.

All words of the w-declension are feminine and have a stem ending in a velar sound or a dental plosive. They can be recognized by their ending -ai or -oi in the nominative case and their declensional endings with w in the other cases.

Consonantal declension

Adjectives

Verbs

Dravenian verbs inflect for six tenses: present and future as well as fozr past tenses of which two are synthetic (aorist and imperfect) and two periphrastic (perfect I, perfect II).

Infinite verb forms

Adverbs Particles Derivational morphology

Morphosyntax

Although Dravenian preserved much of the Slavic case inflection there usage became through Low Saxon and German influence quite different to other Slavic languages

Accusative

The accusative marks the object of verb. Different to other Slavic languages the Dravenian accusative marks both the direct and indirect object. Making it an oblique case.

The accusative

The genitive

Through Low Saxon influence the genitive lost its possessive and adpositional function, which became expressed by dative similar to German dialects and Low Saxon.

The genitive survives as case for compounds. A specialised function of the genitive in Dravenian is the partitive genitive, which is used in Dravenian much more extensively than in other Slavic languages.

Dative

The dative