Nēpoki

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Nepokian
Nēpoki
Pronunciation[[Help:IPA|neːpoki]]
Created by–
Native speakers- ()
Indo-European
  • Nepokian
Early form
Proto-Nepokian
Language codes
ISO 639-3npk

Nepokian (natively written as nēpoki) is an Indo-European language. Linguists classify it as an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. Nepokian shares some characteristics with the Anatolian languages, which lead linguists to group them together. But as Nepokian has some unique features not known to any other Indo-European tongue so far, these similarities may be only due to the antiquity of both branches.


Background

External history

Internal history

Phonology

The phonology of Nēpoki is a direct result of sound changes from Proto-Indo-European. Though the sound laws are overwhelmingly regular, the quality of the sound shifts are far away from being typical Indo-European. The phonology of Nepokian is very simple and obviously influenced by surrounding Polynesian tongues. Nepokian has one of the smallest consonant inventories and one of the smallest phoneme inventories. It is phonologically identical to Hawaiian. Though evidentially not directly influenced by it, the Polynesian impact led to the same sound shifts we know from Hawaiian.

Consonants

Consonants
Labial Alveolar Velar Glottal
Nasal m n
Stop p   t    ~    k ʔ
Fricative h
Sonorant w ~ v l ~ ɾ ~ ɹ

There is basic free variation of [t] and [k]. However, since Nepokian has no affricates, no fricative besides /h/, and no other stops besides /p/ and /ʔ/, any non-labial and non-glottal stop, fricative, or affricate, can function as a /k/. In essence, [d], [s], [z], [ts], [dz], [c], [ɟ], [ʃ], [ʒ], [tʃ], [dʒ], [ɡ], [x], [ɣ] can all "work" as an allophone of /k/. Nevertheless, the main allophones noted by the missionaries in the 18th century, and by linguists, are [t] and [k]. Scheidl pointed out some instances of a [ʔ] allophone. Schütz conjectured that a t-dialect existed in the northwestern islands, and a k-dialect in the southeastern islands. Vom Felde documented a sound between 'th' [θ] and 'k' in free variation with 'k' among elders from remote jungle villages. There is some evidence for instances of free variation between [n] and [ŋ].

There is also free variation between [l] (lateral), [ɾ] (tap), and [ɹ] (approximant). Scheidl pointed out some instances of [n] and [ʔ] as allophones. Schütz conjectured that [ɾ] is prevalent in northwestern remote villages.

There is free variation of [w] and [v]. Scheidl stated that there is conditioned variation of [w] and [v], though Schütz meant that there was neither [w] nor [v], but rather "something between the two". This is most likely [ʋ], a labiodental approximant.

Glottal stop

In Nepokian, a phonemic glottal stop historically derives from an earlier consonant.

PIE  Proto-Nepokian  Old Nepokian; New Nepokian;
*ḱ *k *k ‘
*k *k *k ‘
*kʷ *k *k ‘
*ǵ *g *k ‘
*g *g *k ‘
*gʷ *g *k ‘
*ǵʰ *g *k ‘
*gʰ *g *k ‘
*gʷʰ *g *k ‘
*h₁ *x *x ‘
*h₂ *x *x ‘
*h₃ *x *x ‘
*h₄ *x *x ‘
*y *y *x ‘

Vowels

The number of vowels depends on the analysis of the inventory. The minimum figure of 5 is reached by counting only /u/, /i/, /o/, /e/, and /a/ as phonemes. Diphthongs and long vowels are analyzed as being sequences of two vowels. For example, the written form 〈au〉 is phonemically /au/, and the written form 〈ā〉 is phonemically /aa/.

Monophthongs

Monophthongs
Short Long
 Front   Central   Back   Front   Back 
Close i u iː uː
Close-Mid ɛ~e/i
Mid æ/a/ɐ~ə o eː oː
Open aː

Phonotactics

Nepokian syllables may contain one consonant in the onset, or there is no onset. Syllables with no onset contrast with syllables beginning with the glottal stop contrasts with those with glottal stop. Codas and consonant clusters are prohibited in the phonotactics of Nepokian. In foreign words they are split up: ‘ēlekepēle (strawberry) from German Erdbeere.

The syllable has a minimum of one vowel, and a maximum of three.

The structure of the Nepokian syllable can be represented as being (C)V(V), where the round brackets around C and second V mean that the syllable-initial consonant is optional and the syllable may have a long vowel or diphthong. Every theoretically possible V and CV syllables occur in Nepokian.

Stress

Nepokian does not have a fixed stress but it is movable. The original stress of Proto-Indo-European is well preserved. Stress is usually unmarked in normal writing but it can be indicated to avoid confusion or to explicitly show it. On short vowels it is marked by placing an acute above the letter (á, é, í, ó, ú), on long vowels it can either be an acute above the macron (ā́, ḗ, ī́, ṓ, ū́) or a circumflex above the letter (â, ê, î, ô, û).

Phonetic changes

The following two tables sum up (most of) the regular changes from Proto-Indo-European to Nepokian.


Orthography

Since the ‘discovery’ of Nepokian by European, mostly German, adventurers and colonialists, a Latin-based alphabet is used for Nepoki. There is some evidence for hieroglyphoid writing in secondary sources. The letter-to-sound ratio of the modern alphabet is virtually 1:1: Aa, Ee, Hh, Ii, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Uu, Ww, ‘. In older literature, either Qq was used for the glottal stop, or it was dropped altogether as there was hardly no awareness that the glottal stop may be a separate phoneme.

Grammar

The grammar of Nepoki is essentially a ‘reflex’ of Proto-Indo-European. It's an inflectional language with declensional and conjugational patterns, sometimes seeming more conservative than Proto-Indo-European itself. Several striking similarities with Anatolian languages have been found. The presence of allative and elative besides the eight ‘classical’ PIE cases even led to the assumption that Nepoki is a ‘para-proto-indo-european’ language and not a descendent of PIE proper. However, Nepokian allative –a has the same origin as Hittite allative –a (< *- eh₂) and Nepokian elative –e seems to go back to PIE *-er. Nepokian might therefore preserve a very old stage of Proto-Indo-European. As Hittite, Nepokian has to genders, animate and unanimate.

Nouns

Nouns belong to one of two genders: animate and unanimate (neuter). Apart from that, nouns are inflected for three numbers: singular, dual and plural; as well as for ten cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, allative and elative. All declensions can be traced back to PIE ones, though some simplifications happened.

First declension

The o-declension comprises PIE *-os- and *-ós- declensions, the latter being the basis of the Nepokian first declension. Animate nouns which are often masculine in other PIE tongues, belong here.

Second declension

This declension, being recently established as a separate one, stems from neuter nouns of PIE o-declension (*-óm). All unanimate nouns ending in o belong here. The singular is identical to the first declension.

Third declension

This declension corresponds to the second declension of most other Indo-European languages.

Fourth declension

The fourth declension goes back to PIE *-is-declension.

Fifth declension

The fifth declension goes back to PIE *-u-declension. Nouns of the u-declension which have a dark colored vowel in their stem change it to e in all oblique cases (all but nominative, vocative and accusative). For instance, the dative singular of kolu (tree) is kelewei.

Sixth declension

The sixth or l-n-declension preserved the peculiarities of PIE r/n-heteroclitic declension. Nouns which have an o in the stem change it to e in oblique cases, that is, all but nominative, vocative and accusative. woka (water) belongs here, but it is highly irregular, as it changes o to e in nominative, vocative and accusative plural (wekō) and has the stem uk- instead of wek- in all other plural cases. This goes back to the proterokinetic oblique stem *udén-. Nepokian is the only contemporary Indo-European tongue which has preserved totally this original declension of *wódr̥.

Pronouns

Literature

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