TolsienO
Introduction
Phonology
Consonants
| Bilabial | Labio-dental | Dental | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | |||||||||||||||
| Plosive | p b | t̚ tʰ t d | k g | ||||||||||||||||
| Fricative | ɸ β | f v | θ ð | s z | ʃ ʒ ɧ̙ʷ | χ ʁ | h | ||||||||||||
| Approximant | j | w | |||||||||||||||||
| Flap | (ɾ) | ||||||||||||||||||
| Lateral approx. | l | ||||||||||||||||||
| Prenasalized occlusive | (ᵑg) |
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i y | u | |||||
| Close-mid | e (ø) | o | |||||
| Open-mid | (ɛ) (œ) ɛ̃ | ɔ ɔ̃ | |||||
| Open | ä | ɑ̃ |
Notes :
It is very likely that some phonemes or graphemes that do not appear explicitly in the associated documentation were nonetheless meant to be included. These would be :
The phoneme /ɛ/, which is not mentioned explicitly but is probably the reason the grapheme <Ê ê> appears in the alphabet.
The phoneme /ø/ or /œ/ is also not mentioned explicitly, and there is no grapheme either, but the presence of a ";" shows that it was probably meant to be included. However, this is only very indirect evidence.
In a similar way, there is reason to believe that the phoneme /ɲ/ is included, and corresponds to the explicitly mentioned grapheme <Ñ ñ> ; meanwhile, the phoneme /ᵑg/ is only evidenced by a ";".
The flap /ɾ/ is indirectly mentioned by its inclusion in the syllable /bɾa/ corresponding to the grapheme <Ƃ ƃ>.
Some IPA symbols used in the original description are most likely to be erroneous :
The phoneme /χ/ is probably what was meant by /ħ/ ;
The notation /ɧ̙ʷ/ is the most recent agreed upon description of a phoneme that probably corresponds to what was described as /h̪/ in the original documentation.
Orthography
Alphabet
Y y /jo/ or /ɔj/
Æ æ /aj/ ; Æ̊ æ̊ /ja/
A a /a/
B b /b/
Q q /ʃ/
D d /d/
E e /e/ ; Ê ê /ɛ/ (E, e ; Ê, ê ;)
G g /g/ ; Ñ ñ /ɲ/ (G, g ; ; Ñ, ñ)
H h /h/
I i /i/
Ƶ ƶ /ð/ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ /ʒ/
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
O o /o/ or /ɔ/ ; Œ œ /o/
P p /p/ ; Ƥ ƥ /ɸ/
R r /ʁ/
C c /s/ ; S s /θ/
T t /t/ ; Ŧ ŧ /t̚/ or /tʰ/ or /t/
U u /y/
V v /v/ ; F f /f/
Ƿ ƿ /wi/
Z z /z/
Ɯ ɯ /ɑ̃/ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ /ɛ̃/ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ /ɔ̃/
W w /u/
X x (or Ħ ħ) /χ/
Ƃ ƃ /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ /β/
Spelling rules
The so-called "link" is a diacritic that is used with either <i> and another vowel, in order to denote the approximant /j/, or <w> (or more rarely, <o>) and another vowel to denote the approximant /w/. A breve accent is also sometimes used in addition to the link, where it would otherwise be ambiguous. Here are a few examples :
i͠e /je/
o͠a /wa/
ê͠w /ɛw/
i͠i /ji/
i͠ĭ /ij/
w͠w /wu/
w͠w̆ /uw/
w͠o ou o͠o /wo/
o͠w̆ ou o͠ŏ /ɔw/
Phonotactics
Morphophonology
Morphology
Nouns
Gender
There are two genders : masculine and feminine. Canonically, a neuter gender also existed, but has been absorbed by the masculine and the feminine. Gender is usually indicated with so-called thematic vowels, in the ending of a noun : the masculine has the thematic vowels -o- and -e-, although the latter is mostly found in adjectives (which agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify) ; the feminine has the thematic vowel -a-.
Number
There are two numbers : singular and plural. The plural of a noun is usally built by adding the suffix -c, pronounced /s/ after a vowel but with no phonetic realization after a consonant.
Adjectives
Adjectives agree in number and gender with the noun they qualify. However, most adjectives also have a plural neuter form with thematic vowel -i- when qualifying several nouns of different genders.
Verbs
There are three verbal groups in TolsienO : group A includes verbs whose stem form ends in a consonant, group B those whose stem ends in a vowel, and group C verbs that are inherited from Latin. Verbs from groups A and B have an infinitive in -ƃ, while the infinitive of verbs from the group C is usually in -ar or -ir. Verbs are conjugated for mood, tense, and person. There are seven persons : first, second and third person, in both the singular and the plural, as well as a second person of politeness. There are four moods : indicative, absolute (gnomic), conditional and subjunctive.
Indicative Mood
The indicative mood has four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past and future.
| Person | Group A | Group B | Group C |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | -a /a/ | - | -a /a/ |
| 2SG | -ac /as/ | -c /s/ | -ac /as/ |
| 3SG | -at /at/ | -t /t/ | -at /at/ |
| 1PL | -amw /amu/ | -m /t/ | -mwc /mus/ |
| 2PL | -atc /ats/ | -tc /m/ | -tic /tis/ |
| 3PL | -an /an/ | -n /n/ | -na /na/ |
| 2POL | -e /e/ | -e /e/ | -e /e/ |
| Person | Group A | Group B | Group C |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | -ta /ta/ | -t /t/ | -ta /ta/ |
| 2SG | -tac /tas/ | -tc /ts/ | -tac /tas/ |
| 3SG | -tat /tat/ | -ŧ /t̚/ | -tat /tat/ |
| 1PL | -tamw /tamu/ | -tm /tm/ | -tamo /tamo/ |
| 2PL | -tatc /tats/ | -ŧc /t̚s/ | -tati /tati/ |
| 3PL | -tan /tan/ | -tn /tn/ | -tana /tana/ |
| 2POL | -te /te/ | -te /te/ | -te /te/ |
The imperfect past expresses an event or action that has not yet reached completion, and can be used as a background against which to anchor a reference point in time.
| Person | Group A | Group B | Group C |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | -fa /fa/ | -f /f/ | -fa /fa/ |
| 2SG | -fac /fas/ | -fc /fs/ | -fac /fas/ |
| 3SG | -fat /fat/ | -ft /ft/ | -fat /fat/ |
| 1PL | -famw /famu/ | -fmw /fmu/ | -famo /famo/ |
| 2PL | -fatc /fats/ | -ftc /fts/ | -fati /fati/ |
| 3PL | -fan /fan/ | -fn /fn/ | -fana /fana/ |
| 2POL | -fe /fe/ | -fe /fe/ | -fe /fe/ |
The perfect past expresses an event or action that has reached completion.
| Person | Group A | Group B | Group C |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | -ra /ʁa/ | -r /ʁ/ | -ra /ʁa/ |
| 2SG | -rac /ʁas/ | -rc /ʁs/ | -rac /ʁas/ |
| 3SG | -rat /ʁat/ | -rt /ʁt/ | -rat /ʁat/ |
| 1PL | -ramw /ʁamu/ | -rm /ʁm/ | -ramo /ʁamo/ |
| 2PL | -ratc /ʁats/ | -rtc /ʁts/ | -rati /ʁati/ |
| 3PL | -ran /ʁan/ | -rn /ʁn/ | -rana /ʁana/ |
| 2POL | -re /ʁe/ | -re /ʁe/ | -re /ʁe/ |
Absolute (gnomic)
The absolute is used for expressing general truths, or stylistically / poetically as an intensifier, or in a ritualized kind of way in sacred text or legal texts.
| Person | Group A | Group B | Group C |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | -yh /joh/ | -yh /joh/ | -y /jo/ |
| 2SG | -ys /joθ/ | -ys /joθ/ | -yc /jos/ |
| 3SG | -yŧ /jot̚/ | -yŧ /jot̚/ | -yt /jot/ |
| 1PL | -yƥ /joɸ/ | -yƥ /joɸ/ | -yf /jof/ |
| 2PL | -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ | -yƶ̆1 /joʒ/ | -yz /joz/ |
| 3PL | -yƿ /jowi/ | -yƿ /jowi/ | -yn /jon/ |
| 2POL | -yƶ /joð/ | -yƶ /joð/ | -yœ /jo/ (/jo:/ ?) |
1In the original description, the ending appears as -ƶ̆, but given the rest of the paradigm, it is mostly likely a mistake and meant to be -yƶ̆.
Conditional
The conditional is used to express wishes, desires, possibilities, hypotheses, etc.
| Person | Group A | Group B | Group C |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | -o /o/ | -o /o/ | -o /o/ |
| 2SG | -oc /ɔs/ | -oc /ɔs/ | -oc /ɔs/ |
| 3SG | -ot /ɔt/ | -ot /ɔt/ | -ot /ɔt/ |
| 1PL | -omw /omu/ | -omwc /omus/ | -omwc /omus/ |
| 2PL | -otc /ɔts/ | -otic /otis/ | -otic /otis/ |
| 3PL | -on /ɔn/ | -ona /ona/ | -ona /ona/ |
| 2POL | -o͠e /we/ | -o͠e /we/ | -o͠e /we/ |
Subjunctive
| Person | Group A | Group B | Group C |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1SG | -ko /ko/ | -ko /ko/ | -ko /ko/ |
| 2SG | -koc /kɔs/ | -kc /ks/ | -koc /kɔs/ |
| 3SG | -kot /kɔt/ | -kt /kt/ | -kot /kɔt/ |
| 1PL | -komw /komu/ | -km /km/ | -komwc /komus/ |
| 2PL | -kotc /kɔts/ | -ktc /kts/ | -kotic /kotis/ |
| 3PL | -kon /kɔn/ | -kn /kn/ | -kona /kona/ |
| 2POL | -ke /ke/ | -ke /ke/ | -ke /ke/ |