Saxuma /ˈsaʃɨmə/ (Saxuma: [ˈsá.ɕy.ma]), also romanized Sasiouma and historically known as Saras Wima ['sʌ.r̥as wi'ma], is a language isolate spoken by approximately 5000 speakers on the Mediterranean island of Sasaois, and an autonomous zone of the Hellenic Republic. It is notable for its split ergative alignment, flexible word order, and dynamic semantic gender.

Almost all residents of Sasaios speak Greek and English, but there is a strong movement to protect the cultural heritage of the language, with poetry, novels, and music produced in Saxuma, as well as dubbings of many foreign movies and television shows into the language.

The folk history of the language states that it was a constructed language developed by the original inhabitants of Sasaios - members of a cruise ship that crashed on the island and decided to settle there. Most scholars find this history preposterous, but it is still taught in schools on Sasaios and considered official history by the town government.

On a meta-level, this language was created by User:Anisette Biscotti, with the original intention of exploring concepts of gender and sexuality. While it has become something of its own beast, still most translations into the language are texts dealing with gender, desire, and romance.

Phonology

Consonants

Consonant Inventory
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless
Nasals m n ɲ (ŋ)
Plosives p b t d c k g ʔ
Fricatives (ɸ) v⁓β s⁓t͡s z⁓d͡z ç ɕ ʑ⁓d͡ʑ x⁓h
Liquids l (ʎ)
Glides (ʍ) w j
  • /n/ is realized as [ɲ] when adjacent to any palatal consonant, and as [ŋ] when preceding a velar plosive.
  • Voiceless plosives are typically unaspirated, but are usually aspirated word-finally.
  • All plosives are realized as [ʔ] when immediately followed by another plosive or a nasal of the same place of articulation.
  • /ɸ/ appears only in loanwords, and may be instead pronounced as [hʷ]
  • /s/, /z/, and /ʑ/ may be realized as their associated affricates when not preceded by a vowel, but this is not obligatory.
  • /hʷ/ may be realized as [ʍ] and /v/ as [β] intervocalically, but this is not obligatory.
  • /x/ is mostly realized as /h/ when preceding a non-front vowel.
  • The sequences /tj/ and /kj/ are realized as [c], /dj/ and /gj/ as [d͡ʑ], /sj/ as [ɕ], /zj/ as [ʑ], and /xj/ as [ç].
  • When adjacent to any palatal consonant, /l/ may be realized as [ʎ] or [j]
  • Many speakers — especially younger ones — sonorize plosives when followed by a long vowel or diphthong carrying a high tone (see Pitch Accent below). For example, dēka > nēka, tobyá > tomyá, pyunam > byunam.

Vowels

Vowel Inventory
Front Back
High i iː u uː
Mid ɛ~e eː o oː
Low aː a~ɑ
Diphthongs Front-initial Back-initial
ja~i̯a, ju~i̯u, jo~i̯o aj~ai, oj~oi, ɑw~ɑo
  • Both long vowels and diphthongs may be pronounced instead as two vowels in hiatus. This is particularly common in song and when unstressed.
  • Short /e/ is typically pronounced [e] when word-final and [ɛ] elsewhere.
  • Short /a/ is typically pronounced as [a] when stressed or word-final, and [ɑ] elsewhere.
  • /i/ and /u/ are lowered to /e/ and /o/ respectively when followed by /ʔ/

Phonotactics

The maximal syllable structure of Saxuma is (C)V(C). Only voiceless obstruents and nasals are allowed in codas, with the exception of /hw/, which does not.

Adjacent vowels epenthesize a semivowel - /j/ if the former vowel is /e/ or /i/, /w/ if /u/ or /o/. If the former vowel is /a/, then the latter vowel is used to determine the epenthesized semivowel in the same way.

The sequence /nn/ is allowed. One survey of speakers indicated that /mm/, /ss/, /zz/, /ɕɕ/, and /ʑʑ/ are all considered phonotactically licit, but no actual occurrences of any of these are attested, except across word boundaries. Identical plosives in sequence will have the former plosive morph to a glottal stop, e.g. */tt/ > [ʔt].

Pitch Accent

Stress is contrastive in Saxuma. Historically, different parts of speech were produced from the same stem by varying the stress (with verbs having ultimate stress and nouns and adjectives initial), and stress was reinforced by a system of vowel reduction. For example, kobá [kɔˈba] ("to drink") vs. kóba [ˈko.bʌ] ("beverage"). These kinds of verb-noun pairs still exist in modern Saxuma, such as kalán 'to cry' vs. kálan 'tears', but many of them have been made less direct due to sound changes. For example, while 'to drink' is still kobá, is now .

Additionally, in place of the stress and vowel reduction system, modern Saxuma uses pitch accent. There are three pitch levels, and all syllables are by default mid tone.

  • Almost all monosyllabic words retain their mid tone pitch. For example, kan [ˈkan] ("cold"). This is also true of monosyllabic words with long vowels and diphthongs, such as [ˈboː] ("sheep"). Some monosyllabic content words, such as gay [gay] ("why") are stressless, and bear a low tone.
  • If a short vowel is accented, it bears a high tone, e.g. émin [ɛ́.min] ("lips"). If it is non-initial and preceded by a short vowel, the preceding syllable bears a low tone. For example, xeyáyem [ɕɛ̀ˈjá.jem] ("friction") and zigará [zi.gɑ̀ˈrá] ("protector").
  • If stressed or directly preceding a stressed syllable, long vowels and diphthongs receive contour tones. For stressed vowels, this is a peaking contour of tone MHM, e.g. enâ [ɛ̀ˈna᷈ː] ("passion"). When directly preceding a stressed syllable, the long vowel bears a falling contour ML, e.g. mābá [mâːˈbá] ("various").
    • When long vowels are pronounced as identical vowels in hiatus, each vowel carries its own tone. If stressed, they follow the pattern of HM. If preceding a stressed syllable, then ML. Using the examples above, enâ would be pronounced as [ɛ̀ˈnáˌa] and mābá as [ma.àˈbá].

W Ablaut

The W Ablaut is a morpho-phonological process that appears throughout Saxuma inflections. It performs the following vowel transformations:

  • a → aw if stressed, → o if unstressed
  • i → yu
  • u → ū
  • e → yo
  • o → ō

Orthography

Romanization

Saxuma Romanization
Romanization a b c d dy e f ff g gy h hy i j k ky l ly
IPA a b c d d͡ʑ ɛ ɸ g d͡ʑ x ç i ʑ k c l ʎ
Romanization m n ny o p q r s sy t ty u v w x y z zy
IPA m n ɲ o p ʔ s ɕ t c u v w ɕ j z ʑ
  • Accented short vowels are indicated with an acute accent, unaccented long vowels with a macron, and accented long vowels with a carat.

Script

Morphology

Pronouns

Saxuma Pronouns
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
singular plural singular plural neuter singular feminine singular masculine singular plural
generic inclusive exclusive
Direct me ma mazén mawís zu tex le in dasá
Absolutive mek maká zuká texka nēka lek inka daqá
Genitive omé wimá unú uséx urê olé ohín urá
Construct myo maw tero desu leyu inu dasáw
Dative-Superessive mawme bemá bay batéx bade bawse bagín bacá

Nominal Morphology

Construct Case

Gender

Verb Morphology

There are nine verb classes in modern Saxuma, most of which can be immediately determined by looking at the word itself, though some must be learned.

  • The regular conjugation includes all verbs not outlined below, and all end in short, monophthong vowels. It is divided into strong and weak conjugations, the strong being any that end in -e, -o, or -CCV, and the weak those that end in a single consonant followed by -a, -i, or -u.
  • The -sa conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is <s> or <x>.
  • The -fa conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is <f>.
  • The -ra conjugation includes all verbs that would be a regular weak conjugation, but the consonant before -a, -i, or -u is <r>.
  • The -N conjugation includes all verbs ending in -n or -m.
  • The -S conjugation includes all verbs ending in -s or -x.
  • The -T conjugation includes all verbs ending in -k, -t, or -p, and some ending in long -ē.
  • The -H conjugation includes most, but not all, verbs ending in a long vowel.
  • The -aw conjugation includes all verbs ending in -aw.
  • The -ay conjugation includes all of verbs ending in -ay.

We will detail below how each verb ending inflects to the different conjugation patterns.

The Negative, -NA

-NA, the negative ending, negates the verb it attaches to.

Sigu palah.
The rabbit runs.
Signa palah.
The rabbit does not run.

How to conjugate -NA

The conjugations of -NA for the different classes are as follows:

  • Strong regular verbs append -ná to the end of the word. Weak regular verbs delete the final vowel and append -ná.
    lesó → lesoná
    enjí → enjiná
    sigú → signá
  • -N, -S, and -H conjugation verbs simply append -ná.
    ekán → ekanná
    rum → rumná
    gix → gixná
    sarás → sarasná
    oxâ → oxāná
  • -sa conjugation verbs delete the final vowel and append ná. Note that if the consonant before the final vowel is <x>, then ná will be pronounced as [ɲa].
    myusá → myusná [mjusˈna]
    exí → exná [ɛɕˈɲa]
  • -fa conjugation verbs delete the final -fV, apply W-Ablaut to the remaining stem, and append ná.
    safá → saw-ná → soná
  • -ra conjugation verbs delete the final -rV, and append xná.
    kurú → kuxná
  • -T conjugation verbs remove the final consonant, or change final long ē to short e. Then, they apply W-Ablaut, and finally append ná.
    enák → enaw-ná → enoná
    hē → hyo-ná → hyoná
  • -aw verbs morph the final -aw to -o and append -ná.
    aw → oná
    law → loná
  • -ay verbs morph the final -ay to -e and append -ná
    way → wená

See the summary in the table below:

Negative -NA conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Negative -NA
Regular Strong lesó lesoná
Weak sigú signá
-sa exí exná
-fa safá soná
-ra kurú kuxná
-N ekán ekanná
-S gix gixná
-T enák enoná
-H oxâ oxāná
-aw law loná
-ay way wená

The Causative, -BI

-BI, the causative ending, indicates that the subject of the verb causes the object to perform the verb.

In sigbi palah.
He makes the rabbit run.

How to conjugate -BI

-BI adds the suffix -bí to verbs identically to -NA across all verb classes, with one exception:

  • -T verbs delete the final consonant (or reduce long ē to short e), and then append -cú
enák → enacú
hē → hecú

See the table below for a summary.

Causative -BI conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Causative -BI
Regular Strong lesó lesobí
Weak sigú sigbí
-sa exí exbí
-fa safá sobí
-ra kurú kuxbí
-N ekán ekanbí
-S gix gixbí
-T enák enacú
-H oxâ oxābí
-aw law lobí
-ay way webí

The Inchoative, -WAY

-WAY, the inchoative ending, indicates that an action is beginning to occur, or is just about to begin.

Sigway palah.
The rabbit is starting to run. or The rabbit is about to run.
How to Conjugate -WAY

For verbs ending in a voiceless consonant or a weak vowel preceded by a voiceless consonant, the inchoative ending is -fáy. The ending is also -fáy for all -T and -H class verbs. Otherwise, it is -way. Besides this, -WAY conjugates identically to -NA. See the table below.

Inchoative -WAY conjugation by verb class
Class Example Stem Inchoative -WAY
Regular Strong lesó lesowáy
Weak sigú sigwáy
-sa exí exfáy
-fa safá sofáy
-ra kurú kuxfáy
-N ekán ekanwáy
-S gix gixfáy
-T enák enofáy
-H oxâ oxāfáy
-aw law lowáy
-ay way wewáy

The Prospective, -KUN

The Perfective, -W

The Habitual, -AX

The Attributive, -LA

Summary

Verb conjugations by classs and inflection
Class Example Stem Negative -NA Causative -BI Inchoative -WAY Prospective -KUN Perfective -W Habitual -AX Attributive -LA
Regular Strong lesó lesoná lesobí lesowáy lesokún lesô lesowáx lesolá
Weak sigú signá sigbí sigwáy sigkún sigû sigwáx siglá
-sa exí exná exbí exfáy eqún exyú exyáx yosá
-fa safá soná sobí sofáy soqún safô safáx sosá
-ra kurú kuxná kuxbí kuxfáy kuqún kûsa kuxáx kūsá
-N ekán ekanná ekanbí ekanwáy ekankún ekánla ekanáx ekanlá
-S gix gixná gixbí gixfáy giqún gyúsa gixáx gyusá
-T enák enoná enacú enasfáy enaqún enatáw enatáx enolá
-H oxâ oxāná oxābí oxafáy oxaqún oxáwsa oxaháx oxosá
-aw law loná lobí lowáy lokún lála laláx lalá
-ay way wená webí wewáy wekún wayú wayáx welá

See Also