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Phonology
Consonants
| Consonants | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilabial | Labio-dental | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal | ||||
| plain | pharyngealized | plain | pharyngealized | ||||||||||
| Nasals | m, mb /mˠ~mʲ/ | n, nd, nˀ, nh /nˠ~ȵ/ | nˤ, nḥ /nˤ/ | ng /ɲ~ŋ/ | |||||||||
| Plosives | voiceless | p /pˠ~pʲ/ | t /tˠ~t͡ɕ/ | ṭ /tˤ~ɗˤ/ | c /c~k/ | q /q/ | ˀ /ʔ/ | ||||||
| voiced | b, bp /bˠ~bʲ/ | d, dt /dˠ~d͡ʑ/ | dṭ /dˤ/ | g, gc /ɟ~g/ | gq /ɢ/ | ||||||||
| Fricatives | voiceless | f, ph /fˠ~fʲ/ | th /θ/ | ṭh /fˤ~θˤ/ | s /sˠ~ɕ/ | š /ʂˠ~ʃ/ | ch /ç~x/ | qh /χ/ | ḥ, fh /ħ/ | h /h~ɦ/ | |||
| voiced | bh /vˠ~vʲ/ | dh /ð/ | z /zˠ~ʑ/ | gh /(j~)ʝ~ɣ/ | r /ʁ~ʀ/ | ˁ /ʕ/ | |||||||
| Approximants | mh, mhf /w~vʲ/ | y /j(~ʝ)/ | |||||||||||
| Lateral app. | l /ɫ~ʎ/ | ||||||||||||
| Lateral fric. | ś /ɬ/ | ||||||||||||
| Lateral aff. | tz /tɬ/ | ||||||||||||
The phoneme /tˤ/ is commonly realized as an implosive, [ɗˤ] word-initially.
In the standard pronunciation (but not in all dialects; notably not in the Ṭašálí dialect) all consonants except /j/, pharyngealized coronals, uvulars, gutturals (pharyngeals and glottals), lateral fricatives and affricates and dental fricatives are strongly palatalized when preceding a front vowel and (especially for coronals) velarized before a back vowel. (Some speakers also velarize and palatalize lateral obstruents /ɬ/ and /tɬ/.) This serves to more clearly distinguish plain consonants from their emphatic counterparts.
| Phoneme | /ɣ/ | /x/ | /g/ | /k/ | /ŋ/ | /ʂ/ | /l/ | /z/ | /s/ | /d/ | /t/ | /n/ | /w/ | /v/ | /f/ | /b/ | /p/ | /m/ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Velarized | [ɣ] | [x] | [g] | [k] | [ŋ] | [ʂˠ] | [ɫ] | [zˠ] | [sˠ] | [dˠ] | [tˠ] | [nˠ] | [w] | [vˠ] | [fˠ] | [bˠ] | [pˠ] | [mˠ] |
| Palatalized | [ʝ(~j)] | [ç] | [ɟ] | [c] | [ɲ] | [ʃ] | [ʎ] | [ʑ] | [ɕ] | [d͡ʑ] | [t͡ɕ] | [ȵ] | [vʲ] | [fʲ] | [bʲ] | [pʲ] | [mʲ] | |
Y and slender gh are merged by many speakers.
Vowels
The vowels written with an acute accent can be analyzed as long vowels or tense vowels; one or more of both pronunciations may be realized simultaneously.
| Front | Near-front | Central | Near-back | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close | í /i(ː)/ | [ɨ] | ú /u(ː)/ | ||
| Near-close | i /ɪ/ | u /ʊ/ | |||
| Close-mid | é /e(ː)/ | [ɘ] | ó /o(ː)/ | ||
| Mid | |||||
| Open-mid | e /ɛ/ | [ɜ] | o /ɔ/ | ||
| Near-open | |||||
| Open | a /ä/ | á /ɒ(ː)/ |
Front vowels /i e ɛ/ are centralized to [ɨ ɘ ɜ] after pharyngealized or uvular consonants.
Vowels are nasalized before /ʕ/, /ħ/ and /ʁ/.
Stress
In native words primary stress can only fall on the ultimate, or less commonly the penultimate syllable.